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Buddhism
Part of a series on
Buddhism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Buddhism is a religion indigenous to the Indian
subcontinent that encompasses a variety of traditions,
beliefs and practices largely based on teachings attributed
to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the
Buddha, meaning "the awakened one". The Buddha lived
and taught in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent
sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.
[1]
He is
recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened
teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end
their suffering (dukkha) through the elimination of
ignorance (avidy) by way of understanding and the
seeing of dependent origination (prattyasamutpda) and
the elimination of desire (tah), and thus the attainment
of the cessation of all suffering, known as the sublime state
of nirva.
[2]
Two major branches of Buddhism are generally recognized:
Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana
("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread
following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Cambodia,
Laos, Thailand, Myanmar etc.). Mahayana is found
throughout East Asia (China, Korea, J apan, Vietnam,
Singapore, Taiwan etc.) and includes the traditions of Pure
Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism,
Shingon, and Tiantai (Tendai). In some classifications,
Vajrayanapracticed mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent
parts of China and Russiais recognized as a third branch, while
others classify it as a part of Mahayana.
While Buddhism remains most popular within Asia and India, both
branches are now found throughout the world. Estimates of
Buddhists worldwide vary significantly depending on the way
Standing Buddha. One of the earliest
known representations of the Buddha, 1st
2nd century CE. Greco-Buddhist art,
Gandhara. (Tokyo National Museum)
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism
Outline
Buddhism portal
V T E
Buddhist adherence is defined. Conservative estimates are
between 350 and 750 million.
[3][4][5]
Higher estimates are
between 1.2 and 1.6 billion.
[6][7][8]
It is also recognized as one of
the fastest growing religions in the world.
[9][10][11][12]
Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation,
the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures,
and especially their respective practices.
[13]
The foundations of
Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three J ewels: the Buddha,
the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the community).
Taking "refuge in the triple gem" has traditionally been a
declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path, and in
general distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist.
[14]
Other practices may include following
ethical precepts; support of the monastic community; renouncing conventional living and becoming a
monastic; the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation; cultivation of higher wisdom
and discernment; study of scriptures; devotional practices; ceremonies; and in the Mahayana
tradition, invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Contents [hide]
1 Life of the Buddha
2 Buddhist concepts
2.1 Life and the world
2.1.1 Sasra
2.1.2 Karma
2.1.3 Rebirth
2.2 Suffering's causes and solution
2.2.1 The Four Noble Truths
2.2.2 Noble Eightfold Path
2.2.3 The Four Immeasurables
2.2.4 Middle Way
2.3 Nature of existence
2.3.1 Three Marks of Existence
2.3.2 Dependent arising
2.3.3 Emptiness
2.4 Liberation
2.4.1 Nirvana
2.4.2 Buddhas
2.4.2.1 According to Theravada
2.4.2.2 According to Mahayana
2.4.3 Buddha eras
2.4.4 Bodhisattvas
3 Practice
3.1 Devotion
3.1.1 Yoga
3.1.2 Refuge in the Three J ewels
3.2 Buddhist ethics
3.3 Monastic life
3.4 Meditation
History [show]
Dharma Concepts [show]
Practices [show]
Nirva [show]
Traditions Canons [show]
Asturianu
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Bn-lm-g
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()
Bikol Central
Bislama
Boarisch
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Catal
Cebuano
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Dansk
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Fiji Hindi
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Hawai`i

3.4.1 Samdhi (meditative cultivation): samatha meditation
3.4.1.1 In Theravda
3.4.2 Praj (Wisdom): vipassana meditation
3.4.3 Zen
3.4.4 Vajrayana and Tantra
4 History
4.1 Philosophical roots
4.2 Indian Buddhism
4.2.1 Pre-sectarian Buddhism
4.2.2 Early Buddhist schools
4.2.3 Early Mahayana Buddhism
4.2.4 Late Mahayana Buddhism
4.2.5 Vajrayana (Esoteric Buddhism)
4.3 Development of Buddhism
4.4 Buddhism today
4.5 Late 20th Century Buddhist Movements
5 Demographics
6 Schools and traditions
6.1 Timeline
6.2 Theravada school
6.3 Mahayana traditions
6.4 Vajrayana traditions
7 Buddhist texts
7.1 Pli Tipitaka
7.2 Mahayana sutras
8 Comparative studies
8.1 Is Buddhism a religion?
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Bibliography
12.1 Online
13 External links
Main article: Gautama Buddha
This narrative draws on the Nidnakath biography of the
Theravda sect in Sri Lanka, which is ascribed to
Buddhaghoa in the 5th century CE.
[15]
Earlier
biographies such as the Buddhacarita, the Lokottaravdin
Mahvastu, and the Mahyna / Sarvstivda
Lalitavistara Stra, give different accounts. Scholars are
hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical
facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught
and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently
accept all of the details contained in his
biographies.
[16][17]
According to author Michael Carrithers, while there are
good reasons to doubt the traditional account, "the outline
of the life must be true: birth, maturity, renunciation,
Life of the Buddha
Relic depicting Gautama leaving home.
The Great Departure, c.12nd century.
(Muse Guimet)
Hrvatski
Ido
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Interlingue
IsiZulu
slenska
Italiano
Kernowek
Kiswahili
Kreyl ayisyen
Kurd
Ladino
Latina
Latvieu
Ltzebuergesch
Lietuvi
Ligure
Limburgs
Lojban
Lumbaart
Magyar
Malti
Bahasa Melayu
Mirands
Nederlands
Nedersaksies

Norfuk / Pitkern
Norsk bokml
search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death."
[18]
In
writing her biography of the Buddha, Karen Armstrong
noted, "It is obviously difficult, therefore, to write a
biography of the Buddha that meets modern criteria,
because we have very little information that can be
considered historically sound... [but] we can be reasonably
confident Siddhatta Gotama did indeed exist and that his
disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as
well as they could."
[19][dubious discuss]
The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhrtha Gautama was born in a community that
was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in
the 5th century BCE.
[20]
It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected
chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.
[20]
According to the Theravada Tripitaka scriptures
[which?]
(from Pali,
meaning "three baskets"), Gautama was born in Lumbini in modern-day
Nepal, around the year 563 BCE, and raised in Kapilavastu.
[21][22]
According to this narrative, shortly after the birth of young prince
Gautama, an astrologer named Asita visited the young prince's father
King uddhodanaand prophesied that Siddhartha would either become
a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man,
depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace
walls.
uddhodana was determined to see his son become a king, so he
prevented him from leaving the palace grounds. But at age 29, despite
his father's efforts, Gautama ventured beyond the palace several times.
In a series of encountersknown in Buddhist literature as the four
sightshe learned of the suffering of ordinary people, encountering an
old man, a sick man, a corpse and, finally, an ascetic holy man,
apparently content and at peace with the world. These experiences
prompted Gautama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest.
Gautama first went to study with famous religious teachers
of the day, and mastered the meditative attainments they
taught. But he found that they did not provide a permanent
end to suffering, so he continued his quest. He next
attempted an extreme asceticism, which was a religious
pursuit common among the Shramanas, a religious culture
distinct from the Vedic one. Gautama underwent prolonged
fasting, breath-holding, and exposure to pain. He almost
starved himself to death in the process. He realized that he
had taken this kind of practice to its limit, and had not put
an end to suffering. So in a pivotal moment he accepted
milk and rice from a village girl and changed his approach.
He devoted himself to anapanasati meditation, through
which he discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way (Skt. madhyam-pratipad
[23]
): a path of
moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
[24][25]
Gautama was now determined to complete his spiritual
Ascetic Gautama with his five
companions, who later comprised the first
Sangha. (Painting in Laotian temple)
The Vajrashila, where
Gautama sat under a tree
and became enlightened,
Bodh Gaya, India, 2011
Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, Uttar
Pradesh, India, built by King Ashoka,
where the Buddha gave his first sermon
Norsk nynorsk
Novial
Occitan
Ozbekcha
Papiamentu
Piemontis
Tok Pisin
Plattdtsch
Polski
Portugus
Romn
Runa Simi
Sardu
Scots
Sesotho sa Leboa
Shqip
Sicilianu
Simple English
Slovenina
Slovenina
/ srpski
Srpskohrvatski /
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
/tatara
Trke
Trkmene
/ Uyghurche
Vneto
Vepsn kel
quest. At the age of 35, he famously sat in meditation
under a sacred fig tree known as the Bodhi tree in
the town of Bodh Gaya, India, and vowed not to rise before
achieving enlightenment. After many days, he finally
destroyed the fetters of his mind, thereby liberating himself
from the cycle of suffering and rebirth, and arose as a fully
enlightened being (Skt. samyaksabuddha). Soon
thereafter, he attracted a band of followers and instituted a
monastic order. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he
had discovered, traveling throughout the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent,
[26][27]
and
died at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in Kushinagar, India. The south branch of the original fig tree
available only in Anuradhapura Sri Lanka is known as J aya Sri Maha Bodhi.
Main article: Buddhist terms and concepts
Main article: Sasra (Buddhism)
Within Buddhism, samsara is defined as the continual repetitive
cycle of birth and death that arises from ordinary beings' grasping
and fixating on a self and experiences. Specifically, samsara refers
to the process of cycling through one rebirth after another within
the six realms of existence,
[a]
where each realm can be
understood as physical realm or a psychological state characterized
by a particular type of suffering. Samsara arises out of avidya
(ignorance) and is characterized by dukkha (suffering, anxiety,
dissatisfaction). In the Buddhist view, liberation from samsara is
possible by following the Buddhist path.
[b]
Main article: Karma in Buddhism
In Buddhism, Karma (from Sanskrit: "action, work") is the force that
drives sasrathe cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. Good, skillful deeds (Pli:
"kusala") and bad, unskillful (Pli: "akusala") actions produce "seeds" in the mind that come to
fruition either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.
[28]
The avoidance of unwholesome actions and
the cultivation of positive actions is called la (from Sanskrit: "ethical conduct").
In Buddhism, karma specifically refers to those actions of body, speech or mind that spring from
mental intent ("cetana"),
[29]
and bring about a consequence or fruit, (phala) or result (vipka).
In Theravada Buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one's karma, since it is a
purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe. In Mahayana Buddhism, the
texts of certain Mahayana sutras (such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana
Sutra) claim that the recitation or merely the hearing of their texts can expunge great swathes of
negative karma. Some forms of Buddhism (for example, Vajrayana) regard the recitation of mantras
as a means for cutting off of previous negative karma.
[30]
The J apanese Pure Land teacher Genshin
taught that Amida Buddha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in
sasra.
[4][5]
Buddha statue depicting Parinirvana.
(Mahaparinirvana Temple, Kushinagar,
Uttar Pradesh, India)
Buddhist concepts
Life and the world
Traditional Tibetan Buddhist
Thangka depicting the Wheel of
Life with its six realms
Sasra
Karma
Ting Vit
Vro
Winaray
Yorb
emaitka
Edit links
Main article: Rebirth (Buddhism)
Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a
succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of
sentient life, each running from conception
[31]
to death.
Buddhism rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an
unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in Hinduism and
Christianity. According to Buddhism there ultimately is no
such thing as a self independent from the rest of the
universe (the doctrine of anatta). Buddhists also refer to
themselves as the believers of the anatta doctrine
Nairatmyavadin or Anattavadin. Rebirth in subsequent
existences must be understood as the continuation of a dynamic, ever-changing process of
"dependent arising" ("prattyasamutpda") determined by the laws of cause and effect (karma) rather
than that of one being, transmigrating or incarnating from one existence to the next.
Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms according to Theravadins, or six according to other
schools.
[32][33]
1. Naraka beings: those who live in one of many Narakas (Hells);
2. Preta: sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible to most people; an important
variety is the hungry ghost;
[34]
3. Animals: sharing space with humans, but considered another type of life;
4. Human beings: one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible;
5. Asuras: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods; not recognized by
Theravda (Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm;
[35]
6. Devas including Brahmas: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left
untranslated.
The above are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence.
[36]
Rebirths in some of the higher
heavens, known as the uddhvsa Worlds or Pure Abodes, can be attained only by skilled
Buddhist practitioners known as angmis (non-returners). Rebirths in the arupa-dhatu (formless
realms) can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arpajhnas, the highest object of
meditation.
According to East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, there is an intermediate state (Tibetan "Bardo")
between one life and the next. The orthodox Theravada position rejects this; however there are
passages in the Samyutta Nikaya of the Pali Canon (the collection of texts on which the Theravada
tradition is based), that seem to lend support to the idea that the Buddha taught of an intermediate
stage between one life and the next.
[37][38]
Main article: Four Noble Truths
The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are regarded as central to the teachings of Buddhism, and
are said to provide a conceptual framework for Buddhist thought. These four truths explain the nature
of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction), its causes, and how it can be overcome. The four truths
are:
[c]
1. The truth of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction)
2. The truth of the origin of dukkha
3. The truth of the cessation of dukkha
Rebirth
Gautama's cremation site, Ramabhar
Stupa in Uttar Pradesh, India
Suffering's causes and solution
The Four Noble Truths
4. The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukkha
The first truth explains the nature of dukkha. Dukkha is commonly translated as suffering, anxiety,
dissatisfaction, unease, etc., and it is said to have the following three aspects:
the obvious suffering of physical and mental illness, growing old, and dying;
the anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto things that are constantly changing; and
a subtle dissatisfaction pervading all forms of life, due to the fact that all forms of life are
impermanent and constantly changing.
[d]
The second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known. Within the context of the four noble
truths, the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving (Pali: tanha) conditioned by ignorance
(Pali: avijja). On a deeper level, the root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance (Pali: avijja) of
the true nature of things. The third noble truth is that the complete cessation of dukkha is possible,
and the fourth noble truth identifies a path to this cessation.
[c]
Main articles: Noble Eightfold Path and Buddhist Paths to liberation
The Noble Eightfold Paththe fourth of the Buddha's
Noble Truthsconsists of a set of eight interconnected
factors or conditions, that when developed together, lead to
the cessation of dukkha.
[39]
These eight factors are: Right
View (or Right Understanding), Right Intention (or Right
Thought), Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood,
Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.
Ajahn Sucitto describes the path as "a mandala of
interconnected factors that support and moderate each
other."
[39]
The eight factors of the path are not to be
understood as stages, in which each stage is completed
before moving on to the next. Rather, they are understood
as eight significant dimensions of one's behaviourmental,
spoken, and bodilythat operate in dependence on one
another; taken together, they define a complete path, or
way of living.
[40]
The eight factors of the path are commonly presented within three divisions (or higher trainings) as
shown below:
Division
Eightfold
factor
Sanskrit,
Pali
Description
Wisdom
(Sanskrit: praj,
Pli: pa)
1. Right view
samyag
di,
samm
ditthi
Viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be
2. Right
intention
samyag
sakalpa,
samm
sankappa
Intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness
3. Right
speech
samyag
vc,
samm
vca
Speaking in a truthful and non-hurtful way
Noble Eightfold Path
The Dharmachakra represents the
Noble Eightfold Path.
Ethical conduct
(Sanskrit: la,
Pli: sla)
4. Right
action
samyag
karman,
samm
kammanta
Acting in a non-harmful way
5. Right
livelihood
samyag
jvana,
samm
jva
A non-harmful livelihood
Concentration
(Sanskrit and Pli:
samdhi)
6. Right effort
samyag
vyyma,
samm
vyma
Making an effort to improve
7. Right
mindfulness
samyag
smti,
samm sati
Awareness to see things for what they are with clear
consciousness;
being aware of the present reality within oneself,
without any craving or aversion
8. Right
concentration
samyag
samdhi,
samm
samdhi
Correct meditation or concentration, explained as the
first four jhnas
Main article: Brahmavihara
While he searched for enlightenment, Gautama combined
the yoga practice of his teacher Kalama with what later
became known as "the
immeasurables".
Gautama thus
invented a new kind of human, one without
egotism.
What Thich Nhat Hanh calls
the "Four Immeasurable Minds" of love, compassion, joy,
and equanimity
[42]
are also known as brahmaviharas,
divine abodes, or simply as four immeasurables.
[43]
Pema
Chdrn calls them the "four limitless ones".
[44]
Of the
four, mett or loving-kindness meditation is perhaps the best known.
[43]
The Four Immeasurables
are taught as a form of meditation that cultivates "wholesome attitudes towards all sentient
beings."
[45]
The practitioner prays:
1. May all sentient beings have happiness and its causes,
2. May all sentient beings be free of suffering and its causes,
3. May all sentient beings never be separated from bliss without suffering,
4. May all sentient beings be in equanimity, free of bias, attachment and anger.
[46]
Main article: Middle Way
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way (or Middle Path), which is said
to have been discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment. The Middle Way has
several definitions:
1. The practice of non-extremism: a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-
indulgence and self-mortification;
The Four Immeasurables
Statue of Buddha in Wat Phra Si
Rattana Mahathat, Phitsanulok, Thailand
Middle Way
2. The middle ground between certain metaphysical views (for example, that things ultimately
either do or do not exist);
[47]
3. An explanation of Nirvana (perfect enlightenment), a state wherein it becomes clear that all
dualities apparent in the world are delusory (see Seongcheol);
4. Another term for emptiness, the ultimate nature of all phenomena (in the Mahayana branch), a
lack of inherent existence, which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent
existence and nothingness.
Buddhist scholars have produced a remarkable quantity of
intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts (see, for
example, Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in
Buddhism). Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study,
and some regard it as essential practice.
The concept of liberation (nirva)the goal of the Buddhist path
is closely related to overcoming ignorance (avidy), a
fundamental misunderstanding or mis-perception of the nature of
reality. In awakening to the true nature of the self and all
phenomena one develops dispassion for the objects of clinging,
and is liberated from suffering (dukkha) and the cycle of incessant
rebirths (sasra). To this end, the Buddha recommended viewing
things as characterized by the three marks of existence.
Main article: Three marks of existence
The Three Marks of Existence are impermanence, suffering, and not-self.
Impermanence (Pli: anicca) expresses the Buddhist notion that all compounded or conditioned
phenomena (all things and experiences) are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. Everything we
can experience through our senses is made up of parts, and its existence is dependent on external
conditions. Everything is in constant flux, and so conditions and the thing itself are constantly
changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Since nothing lasts, there is
no inherent or fixed nature to any object or experience. According to the doctrine of impermanence,
life embodies this flux in the aging process, the cycle of rebirth (sasra), and in any experience of
loss. The doctrine asserts that because things are impermanent, attachment to them is futile and
leads to suffering (dukkha).
Suffering (Pli: dukkha; Sanskrit dukha) is also a central concept in Buddhism. The
word roughly corresponds to a number of terms in English including suffering, pain,
unsatisfactoriness, sorrow, affliction, anxiety, dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress, misery, and
frustration. Although the term is often translated as "suffering", its philosophical meaning is more
analogous to "disquietude" as in the condition of being disturbed. As such, "suffering" is too narrow a
translation with "negative emotional connotations"
[48]
that can give the impression that the Buddhist
view is pessimistic, but Buddhism seeks to be neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic. In
English-language Buddhist literature translated from Pli, "dukkha" is often left untranslated, so as to
encompass its full range of meaning.
[49][50][51]
Not-self (Pli: anatta; Sanskrit: antman) is the third mark of existence. Upon careful examination,
one finds that no phenomenon is really "I" or "mine"; these concepts are in fact constructed by the
mind. In the Nikayas anatta is not meant as a metaphysical assertion, but as an approach for gaining
release from suffering. In fact, the Buddha rejected both of the metaphysical assertions "I have a
Self" and "I have no Self" as ontological views that bind one to suffering.
[52]
When asked if the self
Nature of existence
Monks debating at Sera
Monastery, Tibet
Three Marks of Existence
was identical with the body, the Buddha refused to answer. By analyzing the constantly changing
physical and mental constituents (skandhas) of a person or object, the practitioner comes to the
conclusion that neither the respective parts nor the person as a whole comprise a self.
Main article: Prattyasamutpda
The doctrine of prattyasamutpda (Sanskrit; Pali: paticcasamuppda; Tibetan:
rten.cing.'brel.bar.'byung.ba; Chinese: ) is an important part of Buddhist metaphysics. It states
that phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. It is variously
rendered into English as "dependent origination", "conditioned genesis", "dependent co-arising",
"interdependent arising", or "contingency".
The best-known application of the concept of prattyasamutpda is the scheme of Twelve Nidnas
(from Pli "nidna" meaning "cause, foundation, source or origin"), which explain the continuation of
the cycle of suffering and rebirth (sasra) in detail.
[53]
Main article: Twelve Nidnas
The Twelve Nidnas describe a causal connection between the subsequent characteristics or
conditions of cyclic existence, each one giving rise to the next:
1. Avidy: ignorance, specifically spiritual ignorance of the nature of reality;
[54]
2. Saskras: literally formations, explained as referring to karma;
3. Vijna: consciousness, specifically discriminative;
[55]
4. Nmarpa: literally name and form, referring to mind and body;
[56]
5. ayatana: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind-organ;
6. Spara: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation (by a sense object);
7. Vedan: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is
pleasant, unpleasant or neutral;
8. T: literally thirst, but in Buddhism nearly always used to mean craving;
9. Updna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of
rebirth;
10. Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two
meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.);
[57]
11. J ti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception;
[58]
12. J armaraa: (old age and death) and also okaparidevadukhadaurmanasyopysa (sorrow,
lamentation, pain, sadness, and misery).
Sentient beings always suffer throughout sasra, until they free themselves from this suffering by
attaining Nirvana. Then the absence of the first Nidnaignoranceleads to the absence of the
others.
Main article: nyat
Mahayana Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nagarjuna (perhaps c. 150250
CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahayana tradition. Nagarjuna's primary
contribution to Buddhist philosophy was the systematic exposition of the concept of nyat, or
"emptiness", widely attested in the Prajpramit sutras that emerged in his era. The concept of
emptiness brings together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatta and prattyasamutpda
(dependent origination), to refute the metaphysics of Sarvastivada and Sautrantika (extinct non-
Mahayana schools). For Nagarjuna, it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of tman; all
phenomena (dharmas) are without any svabhava (literally "own-nature" or "self-nature"), and thus
without any underlying essence; they are "empty" of being independent; thus the heterodox theories
Dependent arising
Emptiness
of svabhava circulating at the time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of early Buddhism.
Nagarjuna's school of thought is known as the Mdhyamaka. Some of the writings attributed to
Nagarjuna made explicit references to Mahayana texts, but his philosophy was argued within the
parameters set out by the agamas. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a
consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the
Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mdhyamaka system.
[59]
Sarvastivada teachingswhich were criticized by Ngrjunawere reformulated by scholars such as
Vasubandhu and Asanga and were adapted into the Yogacara (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While
the Mdhyamaka school held that asserting the existence or non-existence of any ultimately real
thing was inappropriate, some exponents of Yogacara asserted that the mind and only the mind is
ultimately real (a doctrine known as cittamatra). Not all Yogacarins asserted that mind was truly
existent; Vasubandhu and Asanga in particular did not.
[60]
These two schools of thought, in
opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahayana metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan
tradition.
Besides emptiness, Mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual
insight (prajpramit) and Buddha-nature (tathgatagarbha). There are conflicting interpretations
of the tathgatagarbha in Mahyna thought. The idea may be traced to Abhidharma, and ultimately
to statements of the Buddha in the Nikyas. In Tibetan Buddhism, according to the Sakya school,
tathgatagarbha is the inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one's mind. In Nyingma,
tathgatagarbha also generally refers to inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one's mind.
According to the Gelug school, it is the potential for sentient beings to awaken since they are empty
(i.e. dependently originated). According to the J onang school, it refers to the innate qualities of the
mind that expresses themselves as omniscience etc. when adventitious obscurations are removed.
The "Tathgatagarbha Sutras" are a collection of Mahayana sutras that present a unique model of
Buddha-nature. Even though this collection was generally ignored in India,
[61]
East Asian Buddhism
provides some significance to these texts.
Main article: Nirvana (concept)
Nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali: "Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction"
(of craving and ignorance and therefore suffering and the cycle of
involuntary rebirths (sasra)), "extinguished", "quieted", "calmed";
it is also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West.
The term for anybody who has achieved nirvana, including the
Buddha, is arahant.
Bodhi (Pli and Sanskrit, in devanagari: ) is a term applied to
the experience of Awakening of arahants. Bodhi literally means
"awakening", but it is more commonly translated into English as
"enlightenment". In Early Buddhism, bodhi carried a meaning
synonymous to nirvana, using only some different metaphors to
describe the experience, which implies the extinction of raga
(greed, craving),
[62]
dosa (hate, aversion)
[63]
and moha
(delusion).
[64]
In the later school of Mahayana Buddhism, the
status of nirvana was downgraded in some scriptures, coming to
refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion
was still present in one who attained nirvana, and that one needed to attain bodhi to eradicate
delusion:
Liberation
Nirvana
Mahabodhi temple in
Bodhgaya, India, where Gautama
Buddha attained Nirvana under
the Bodhi Tree (left)
An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from
bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former
(Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely
use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them
and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (passion and
hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores
the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical
with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.
Richard F. Gombrich, How Buddhism Began
[65]
Therefore, according to Mahayana Buddhism, the arahant has attained only nirvana, thus still being
subject to delusion, while the bodhisattva not only achieves nirvana but full liberation from delusion
as well. He thus attains bodhi and becomes a buddha. In Theravada Buddhism, bodhi and nirvana
carry the same meaning as in the early texts, that of being freed from greed, hate and delusion.
The term parinirvana is also encountered in Buddhism, and this generally refers to the complete
nirvana attained by the arahant at the moment of death, when the physical body expires.
Main article: Buddhahood
According to Buddhist traditions a Buddha is a fully awakened being who has completely purified his
mind of the three poisons of desire, aversion and ignorance. A Buddha is no longer bound by
Samsara and has ended the suffering which unawakened people experience in life.
Buddhists do not consider Siddhartha Gautama to have been the only Buddha. The Pali Canon
refers to many previous ones (see List of the 28 Buddhas), while the Mahayana tradition additionally
has many Buddhas of celestial, rather than historical, origin (see Amitabha or Vairocana as examples,
for lists of many thousands Buddha names see Taish Shinsh Daizky numbers 439448). A
common Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist belief is that the next Buddha will be one named
Maitreya (Pali: Metteyya).
In Theravada doctrine, a person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the
true nature of reality; such people are called arahants and occasionally buddhas. After numerous
lifetimes of spiritual striving, they have reached the end of the cycle of rebirth, no longer reincarnating
as human, animal, ghost, or other being. The commentaries to the Pali Canon classify these
awakened beings into three types:
Sammasambuddha, usually just called the Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself and
teaches the path to awakening to others
Paccekabuddha, who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
Savakabuddha, who receive the truth directly or indirectly from a Sammasambuddha
Bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate, and delusion. In
attaining bodhi, the arahant has overcome these obstacles. As a further distinction, the extinction of
only hatred and greed (in the sensory context) with some residue of delusion, is called anagami.
In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as
merely human, but as the earthly projection of a
beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see
Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of thought.
Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha,
Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all
Buddhas
According to Theravada
According to Mahayana
three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.
The Buddha's death is seen as an illusion, he is living on
in other planes of existence, and monks are therefore
permitted to offer "new truths" based on his input.
Mahayana also differs from Theravada in its concept of
nyat (that ultimately nothing has existence), and in its
belief in bodhisattvas (enlightened people who vow to
continue being reborn until all beings can be
enlightened).
[66]
Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on
the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the
enlightenment of all beings.
Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and
hate,
[dubious discuss]
implying that delusion was still
present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicates delusion
entirely.
[65]
Thus, the Arahant attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while
the Buddha attains Bodhi.
[dubious discuss]
The method of self-exertion or "self-power"without reliance on an external force or beingstands
in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, Pure Land, which is characterised by utmost trust in
the salvific "other-power" of Amitabha Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and
perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that
faith in Amitabha Buddha and the chanting of homage to his name liberates one at death into the
Blissful (), Pure Land () of Amitabha Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a
foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all
beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if
only one has faith in the power of that vow or chants his name.
Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is
therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during
which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known Buddha. This Buddha era
will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This
belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of
human existence.
[67][68]
The Gautama Buddha, then, is the Buddha of this era, who taught directly
or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).
In addition, Mahayana Buddhists believe there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes.
[69]
A Theravada commentary says that Buddhas arise one at a time in this world element, and not at all
in others.
[70]
The understandings of this matter reflect widely differing interpretations of basic terms,
such as "world realm", between the various schools of Buddhism.
The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian
Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few are capable of
following the path, so it may be best to rely on the power of the Amitabha Buddha.
The Great Statue of Buddha Amitabha
in Kamakura, J apan
Buddha eras
Main article: Bodhisattva
Bodhisattva means "enlightenment being", and generally refers to one who is on the path to
buddhahood. Traditionally, a bodhisattva is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has
generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient
beings.
[71]
Theravada Buddhism primarily uses the term in relation to Gautama Buddha's previous
existences, but has traditionally acknowledged and respected the bodhisattva path as well.
[72]
According to J an Nattier, the term Mahyna ("Great Vehicle") was originally even an honorary
synonym for Bodhisattvayna, or the "Bodhisattva Vehicle."
[73]
The Aashasrik Prajpramit
Stra, an early and important Mahyna text, contains a simple and brief definition for the term
bodhisattva, and this definition is the following:
[74][75][76]
Because he has enlightenment as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahsattva is so called.
Mahyna Buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva
vows. With these vows, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all beings
by practicing six perfections (Skt. pramit).
[77]
According to the Mahyna teachings, these
perfections are: giving, discipline, forbearance, effort, meditation, and transcendent wisdom.
A famous saying by the 8th-century Indian Buddhist scholar-saint Shantideva, which the Dalai Lama
often cites as his favourite verse, summarizes the Bodhisattva's intention (Bodhicitta) as follows:
For as long as space endures, and for as long as living beings remain, until then may I
too abide to dispel the misery of the world.
Main article: Buddhist devotion
Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.
[78]
Devotional practices include
bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, and chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha
Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main
practice.
Buddhism traditionally incorporates states of meditative absorption
(Pali: jhna; Skt: dhyna).
[79]
The most ancient sustained
expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the
Buddha.
[80]
One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that
meditative absorption must be combined with liberating
cognition.
[81]
The difference between the Buddha's teaching and
the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking. Meditative
states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the
highest meditative state is not liberating. Instead of attaining a
complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must
take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful
awareness.
[82]
Meditation was an aspect of the practice of the yogis in the
centuries preceding the Buddha. The Buddha built upon the yogis'
concern with introspection and developed their meditative
[83]
Bodhisattvas
Practice
Devotion
Yoga
Statue of the Buddha in
meditation position, Haw Phra
Kaew, Vientiane, Laos
techniques, but rejected their theories of liberation. In
Buddhism, mindfulness and clear awareness are to be developed at all times; in pre-Buddhist yogic
practices there is no such injunction. A yogi in the Brahmanical tradition is not to practice while
defecating, for example, while a Buddhist monastic should do so.
[84]
Religious knowledge or "vision" was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the
Buddhist fold. According to the Samaaphala Sutta, this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept
as a result of the perfection of "meditation" coupled with the perfection of "discipline" (Pali sla; Skt.
la). Some of the Buddha's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day, but
the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of "transcendent wisdom" (Pali pa; Skt.
praj) was original.
[85]
The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques.
[86]
They describe
meditative practices and states that existed before the Buddha as well as those first developed within
Buddhism.
[87]
Two Upanishads written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions
of yoga as a means to liberation.
[88]
While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne
argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition, based on strong
parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers
of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts.
[89]
He mentions less likely possibilities as
well.
[90]
Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a
contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evidence for a contemplative
tradition, even as early as the late Rig Vedic period.
[89]
Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels
Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking
refuge in the Three J ewels (Sanskrit: tri-ratna, Pli: ti-ratana)
[91]
as
the foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking
refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned
[92]
in the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early
text (cf. Infant baptism). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth
refuge, in the lama. In Mahayana, the person who chooses the
bodhisattva path makes a vow or pledge, considered the ultimate
expression of compassion. In Mahayana, too, the Three J ewels are
perceived as possessed of an eternal and unchanging essence and
as having an irreversible effect: "The Three J ewels have the quality
of excellence. J ust as real jewels never change their faculty and
goodness, whether praised or reviled, so are the Three J ewels
(Refuges), because they have an eternal and immutable essence.
These Three J ewels bring a fruition that is changeless, for once
one has reached Buddhahood, there is no possibility of falling back
to suffering."
[93]
The Three J ewels are:
The Buddha. This is a title for those who have attained Nirvana.
See also the Tathgata and Gautama Buddha. The Buddha could also be represented as a
concept instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees
reality in its true form. In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha can be viewed as the supreme
Refuge: "Buddha is the Unique Absolute Refuge. Buddha is the Imperishable, Eternal,
Indestructible and Absolute Refuge."
[94]
Refuge in the Three Jewels
Relic depicting footprint of the
Buddha with Dharmachakra and
triratna, 1st century CE,
Gandhra.
The Dharma. The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. It can also,
especially in Mahayana, connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality that is inseparable from the
Buddha. Further, from some Mahayana perspectives, the Dharma embodied in the form of a great
sutra (Buddhic scripture) can replace the need for a personal teacher and can be a direct and
spontaneous gateway into Truth (Dharma). This is especially said to be the case with the Lotus
Sutra. Dr. Hiroshi Kanno writes of this view of the Lotus Sutra: "it is a Dharma-gate of sudden
enlightenment proper to the Great Vehicle; it is a Dharma-gate whereby one awakens
spontaneously, without resorting to a teacher".
[95]
The Sangha. Those who have attained any of the Four stages of enlightenment, or simply the
congregation of monastic practitioners.
According to the scriptures, Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model. The Dharma offers a
refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The
Sangha is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and
providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.
Main article: la
la (Sanskrit) or sla (Pli) is usually translated into English as
"virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action
committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an
intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi , and
panya) and the second pramit. It refers to moral purity of
thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of la are chastity,
calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.
la is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhvana (Meditative cultivation)
or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the
peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internal, but also peace in
the community, which is external. According to the Law of Karma,
keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes that
would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these
precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms
of existence.
la refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are
several levels of sila, which correspond to "basic morality" (five
precepts), "basic morality with asceticism" (eight precepts), "novice
monkhood" (ten precepts) and "monkhood" (Vinaya or Patimokkha).
Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts, which
are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts,
which add basic asceticism.
The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without
worries, and can meditate well:
1. To refrain from taking life (non-violence towards sentient life forms), or ahims;
2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft);
3. To refrain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct;
4. To refrain from lying (speaking truth always);
5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (specifically, drugs and alcohol).
The precepts are not formulated as imperatives, but as training rules that laypeople undertake
voluntarily to facilitate practice.
[96]
In Buddhist thought, the cultivation of dana and ethical conduct
Buddhist ethics
Statue of Gautama Buddha,
1st century CE, Gandhara.
(Muse Guimet)
themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower heavens is likely,
even if there is no further Buddhist practice. There is nothing improper or un-Buddhist about limiting
one's aims to this level of attainment.
[97]
In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a
precept of celibacy. The three additional precepts are:
6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (eat only from sunrise to noon);
7. To refrain from dancing and playing music, wearing jewelry and cosmetics, attending shows
and other performances;
8. To refrain from using high or luxurious seats and bedding.
The complete list of ten precepts may be observed by laypeople for short periods. For the complete
list, the seventh precept is partitioned into two, and a tenth added:
6. To refrain from taking food at an unseasonable time, that is after the mid-day meal;
7. To refrain from dancing, music, singing and unseemly shows;
8. To refrain from the use of garlands, perfumes, ointments, and from things that tend to beautify
and adorn (the person);
9. To refrain from (using) high and luxurious seats (and beds);
10. To refrain from accepting gold and silver;
[98]
Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It
includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules for monks in
the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the
vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differs slightly
according to different schools, and different schools or
subschools set different standards for the degree of
adherence to Vinaya. Novice-monks use the ten precepts,
which are the basic precepts for monastics.
Regarding the monastic rules, the Buddha constantly
reminds his hearers that it is the spirit that counts. On the
other hand, the rules themselves are designed to assure a
satisfying life, and provide a perfect springboard for the higher attainments. Monastics are instructed
by the Buddha to live as "islands unto themselves". In this sense, living life as the vinaya prescribes
it is, as one scholar puts it: "more than merely a means to an end: it is very nearly the end in
itself."
[99]
In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana
Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for
example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged (see
vegetarianism in Buddhism). In J apan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and
allows clergy to marry.
Main article: Buddhist meditation
Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two
themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself
and other phenomena.
[100]
According to Theravada
Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation,
samatha meditation (Sanskrit: amatha) and vipassan
meditation (Sanskrit: vipayan). In Chinese Buddhism,
Monastic life
Buddhist monks performing a ceremony
in Hangzhou, China
Meditation
these exist (translated chih kuan), but Chn (Zen)
meditation is more popular.
[101]
According to Peter Harvey,
whenever Buddhism has been healthy, not only monks,
nuns, and married lamas, but also more committed lay
people have practiced meditation.
[102]
According to
Routledge's Encyclopedia of Buddhism, in contrast,
throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay people has been
unusual.
[103]
The evidence of the early texts suggests that at the time of the Buddha, many male
and female lay practitioners did practice meditation, some even to the point of proficiency in all eight
jhnas (see the next section regarding these).
[104]
Main articles: Samdhi (Buddhism) and Dhyna in Buddhism
In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamdhi is "right concentration". The primary
means of cultivating samdhi is meditation. Upon development of samdhi, one's mind becomes
purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.
Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhna, Sanskrit dhyna),
his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassan) into the ultimate nature of reality,
eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental
concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.
Samatha meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body,
mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhna) There
are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or
walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath (anapanasati),
because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana'.
In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassan
meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to insight
knowledge (jna; Pli a) and understanding (praj Pli pa), and thus can lead to nirva
(Pli nibbna). When one is in jhana, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only understanding
(praj or vipassana) eradicates the defilements completely. J hanas are also states that Arahants
abide in order to rest.
Main article: Jhna in Theravada
In Theravda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as craving, which
carries with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as
greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed deeply rooted afflictions of the mind that create
suffering and stress. To be free from suffering and stress, these defilements must be permanently
uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding of the true nature
of those defilements by using jhna, a technique of the Noble Eightfold Path. It then leads the
meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and Nibbana. Nibbana is the ultimate goal
of Theravadins.
Buddhist monks praying in Thailand
Samdhi (meditative cultivation): samatha meditation
In Theravda
Main articles: Praj and Vipassana
Praj (Sanskrit) or pa (Pli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent
origination, The Four Noble Truths and the three marks of existence. Praj is the wisdom that is
able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal means of attaining
nirva, through its revelation of the true nature of all things as dukkha (unsatisfactoriness), anicca
(impermanence) and anatta (not-self). Praj is also listed as the sixth of the six pramits of the
Mahayana.
Initially, praj is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks),
reading, studying, and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Once the
conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the
truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Notably, one could in theory attain Nirvana at any
point of practice, whether deep in meditation, listening to a sermon, conducting the business of one's
daily life, or any other activity.
Main article: Zen
Zen Buddhism (), pronounced Chn in Chinese, seon in Korean or zen in J apanese (derived from
the Sanskrit term dhyna, meaning "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in
China, Korea and J apan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.
[105]
Zen places less
emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual
breakthroughs to truth.
Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai () and St (), the former
greatly favouring the use in meditation on the koan (, a meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device
for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on
shikantaza or "just sitting".
[106]
Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate
the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha
himself.
[107]
According to Zen master Kosho Uchiyama, when thoughts and fixation on the little "I"
are transcended, an Awakening to a universal, non-dual Self occurs: "When we let go of thoughts
and wake up to the reality of life that is working beyond them, we discover the Self that is living
universal non-dual life (before the separation into two) that pervades all living creatures and all
existence."
[108]
Thinking and thought must therefore not be allowed to confine and bind one.
[109]
Though based upon Mahayana, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that practice
Vajrayana or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayna, Tantrayna, Tantric Buddhism, or
esoteric Buddhism). It accepts all the basic concepts of Mahyna, but also includes a vast array of
spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Tantric Buddhism is largely
concerned with ritual and meditative practices.
[110]
One component of the Vajrayna is harnessing
psycho-physical energy through ritual, visualization, physical exercises, and meditation as a means of
developing the mind. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve
Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In the Tibetan tradition, these practices
can include sexual yoga, though only for some very advanced practitioners.
[111]
Main article: History of Buddhism
Praj (Wisdom): vipassana meditation
Zen
Vajrayana and Tantra
History
Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious
thought of ancient India during the second half of the first
millennium BCE.
[112]
That was a period of social and
religious turmoil, as there was significant discontent with
the sacrifices and rituals of Vedic Brahmanism.
[113]
It was
challenged by numerous new ascetic religious and
philosophical groups and teachings that broke with the
Brahmanic tradition and rejected the authority of the Vedas
and the Brahmans.
[114][115]
These groups, whose
members were known as shramanas, were a continuation
of a non-Vedic strand of Indian thought distinct from Indo-
Aryan Brahmanism.
[116][117]
Scholars have reasons to
believe that ideas such as samsara, karma (in the sense of
the influence of morality on rebirth), and moksha originated in the shramanas, and were later
adopted by Brahmin orthodoxy.
[118][119][120][121][122][123]
This view is supported by a study of the region where
these notions originated. Buddhism arose in Greater
Magadha, which stretched from Sravasti, the capital of
Kosala in the north-west, to Rajagrha in the south east.
This land, to the east of aryavarta, the land of the Aryas,
was recognised as non-Vedic.
[124]
Other Vedic texts
reveal a dislike of the people of Magadha, in all probability
because the Magadhas at this time were not
Brahmanised.
[125]
It was not until the 2nd or 3rd centuries
BCE that the eastward spread of Brahmanism into Greater
Magadha became significant. Ideas that developed in
Greater Magadha prior to this were not subject to Vedic
influence. These include rebirth and karmic retribution that
appear in a number of movements in Greater Magadha,
including Buddhism. These movements inherited notions of
rebirth and karmic retribution from an earlier culture.
[126]
At the same time, these movements were influenced by,
and in some respects continued, philosophical thought
within the Vedic tradition as reflected e.g. in the
Upanishads.
[127]
These movements included, besides
Buddhism, various skeptics (such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta),
atomists (such as Pakudha Kaccayana), materialists (such
as Ajita Kesakambali), antinomians (such as Purana
Kassapa); the most important ones in the 5th century BCE
were the Ajivikas, who emphasized the rule of fate, the
Lokayata (materialists), the Ajnanas (agnostics) and the
J ains, who stressed that the soul must be freed from
matter.
[128]
Many of these new movements shared the same
conceptual vocabulary - atman ("Self"), buddha ("awakened
one"), dhamma ("rule" or "law"), karma ("action"), nirvana ("extinguishing"), samsara ("eternal
recurrence") and yoga ("spiritual practice").
[113]
The shramanas rejected the Veda, and the authority
of the brahmans, who claimed they possessed revealed truths not knowable by any ordinary human
Philosophical roots
The Buddhist "Carpenter's Cave" at
Ellora in Maharashtra, India
A ruined Buddhist temple on
Gurubhakthula Konda (konda meaning "hill"
in Telugu) in Ramatheertham village in
Vizianagaram, a district of Andhra
Pradesh, India
Rock-cut Lord Buddha statue at
Bojjanakonda near Anakapalle in the
Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh,
India
means. Moreover, they declared that the entire Brahmanical system was fraudulent: a conspiracy of
the brahmans to enrich themselves by charging exorbitant fees to perform bogus rites and give
useless advice.
[129]
A particular criticism of the Buddha was Vedic animal sacrifice.
[85]
The Buddha declared that priests
reciting the Vedas were like the blind leading the blind.
[130]
According to him, those priests who had
memorized the Vedas really knew nothing.
[131]
He also mocked the Vedic "hymn of the cosmic
man".
[132]
However, the Buddha was not anti-Vedic, and declared that the Veda in its true form was
declared by "Kashyapa" to certain rishis, who by severe penances had acquired the power to see by
divine eyes.
[133]
He names the Vedic rishis, and declared that the original Veda of the
rishis
[134][135]
was altered by a few Brahmins who introduced animal sacrifices. The Buddha says
that it was on this alteration of the true Veda that he refused to pay respect to the Vedas of his
time.
[136]
He declared that the primary goal of Upanishadic thought, the Atman, was in fact non-
existent,
[137]
and, having explained that Brahminical attempts to achieve liberation at death were
futile, proposed his new idea of liberation in life.
[138][139]
However, he did not denounce the union
with Brahman,
[140]
or the idea of the self uniting with the Self.
[141]
At the same time, the traditional
Brahminical religion itself gradually underwent profound changes, transforming it into what is
recognized as early Hinduism.
[113][114][142]
In particular, the brahmans thus developed
"philosophical systems of their own, meeting the new ideas with adaptations of their doctrines".
[143]
Main article: History of Buddhism in India
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into five periods:
[144]
Early Buddhism (occasionally
called Pre-sectarian Buddhism), Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarian Buddhism: The period of the Early
Buddhist schools, Early Mahayana Buddhism, Later Mahayana Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism
(also called Vajrayana Buddhism).
Main article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Pre-sectarian Buddhism is the earliest phase of Buddhism, recognized by nearly all scholars. Its
main scriptures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikayas or Agamas. Certain basic
teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that
Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to the Three marks of existence, the Five
Aggregates, Dependent origination, Karma and Rebirth, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold
Path, and Nirvana.
[145]
Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.
[146][147]
Main articles: Early Buddhist schools, Buddhist councils, and Theravada
According to the scriptures, soon after the parinirva
(from Sanskrit: "highest extinguishment") of Gautama
Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any
ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done
orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to
collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors
occurred in oral transmission. In the first council, nanda,
a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was
called upon to recite the discourses (stras, Pli suttas) of
the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the
abhidhamma. Upli, another disciple, recited the monastic
rules (vinaya). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of
Indian Buddhism
Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Early Buddhist schools
Painting depicting Buddhaghosa
offering his Visuddhimagga to monks in
Mahavihara, the center of Theravada
the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely
fictitious.
[148]
According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council the Sangha began to break into
separate factions.
[149]
The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred.
According to the Dipavamsa of the Pli tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council,
the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN, the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in
the time of Asoka and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.
The root schism was between the Sthaviras and the Mahsghikas. The fortunate survival of
accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two
quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravda says that the losing party in
the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts
the Mahasanghikas' own vinaya, which shows them as on the same, winning side. The
Mahsghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the vinaya and may also have
challenged what they perceived were excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for arhatship. Both
parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.
[150]
The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravda school. Originally, these
schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem
to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not
earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.
[151]
Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Sagha started to accumulate an Abhidharma, a
detailed scholastic reworking of doctrinal material appearing in the Suttas, according to schematic
classifications. These Abhidharma texts do not contain systematic philosophical treatises, but
summaries or numerical lists. Scholars generally date these texts to around the 3rd century BCE, 100
to 200 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore the seven Abhidharma works are generally
claimed not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of disciples and great
scholars.
[152]
Every school had its own version of the Adhidharma, with different theories and
different texts. The different Adhidharmas of the various schools did not agree with each other.
Scholars disagree on whether the Mahasanghika school had an Abhidhamma Pitaka or not.
[152][153]
Main article: Mahyna
The origins of Mahyna, which formed between 100 BCE
and 100 AD,
[154]
are still not completely understood.
[155]
The earliest views of Mahyna Buddhism in the West
assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition
with the so-called "Hnayna" schools. The split was on
the order of the European Protestant Reformation, which
divided Christians into Catholic and Protestant.
[154]
Due to
the veneration of buddhas and bodhisattvas, Mahyna
was often interpreted as a more devotional, lay-inspired
form of Buddhism, with supposed origins in stpa
veneration.
[156]
The old views of Mahyna as a lay-
inspired sect are now largely considered misguided and
wrong.
[157]
There is no evidence that Mahyna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism,
but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas.
[158]
Initially it
was known as Bodhisattvayna (the "Vehicle of the Bodhisattvas").
[154]
Paul Williams has also noted
that the Mahyna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage
Buddhism in Sri Lanka
Early Mahayana Buddhism
A Buddhist triad depicting, left to right,
a Kushan, the future buddha Maitreya,
Gautama Buddha, the bodhisattva
Avalokitevara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd
3rd century. Muse Guimet
from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each bhiku or bhiku adhering to the
Mahyna formally belonged to an early school. This continues today with the Dharmaguptaka
ordination lineage in East Asia, and the Mlasarvstivda ordination lineage in Tibetan Buddhism.
Therefore Mahyna was never a separate rival sect of the early schools.
[159]
From Chinese monks
visiting India, we now know that both Mahyna and non-Mahyna monks in India often lived in
the same monasteries side by side.
[160]
The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th
century CE, distinguishes Mahyna from Hnayna as
follows:
[161]
Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they
have in common the prohibitions of the five
offences, and also the practice of the Four Noble
Truths. Those who venerate the bodhisattvas and
read the Mahyna stras are called the
Mahynists, while those who do not perform these
are called the Hnaynists.
Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of
Mahyna comes from early Chinese translations of
Mahyna texts. These Mahyna teachings were first
propagated into China by Lokakema, the first translator of Mahyna stras into Chinese during the
2nd century CE.
[162]
Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahyna stras to
include the very first versions of the Prajpramit series, along with texts concerning Akobhya
Buddha, which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.
[163][164][165]
During the period of Late Mahayana Buddhism, four major types of thought developed:
Madhyamaka, Yogacara, Tathagatagarbha, and Buddhist Logic as the last and most recent.
[166]
In
India, the two main philosophical schools of the Mahayana were the Madhyamaka and the later
Yogacara.
[167]
According to Dan Lusthaus, Madhyamaka and Yogacara have a great deal in
common, and the commonality stems from early Buddhism.
[168]
There were no great Indian teachers
associated with tathagatagarbha thought.
[169]
Main article: Vajrayana
Scholarly research concerning Esoteric Buddhism is still in its early stages and has a number of
problems that make research difficult:
[170]
1. Vajrayana Buddhism was influenced by Hinduism, and therefore research must include
explore Hinduism as well.
2. The scriptures of Vajrayana have not yet been put in any kind of order.
3. Ritual must be examined as well, not just doctrine.
Main article: Timeline of Buddhism
Buddhism may
have spread only
slowly in India
until the time of
the Mauryan
Buddhas of Bamiyan: Vairocana before
and after destruction by the Taliban in 2001
Late Mahayana Buddhism
Vajrayana (Esoteric Buddhism)
Development of Buddhism
emperor Ashoka,
who was a public
supporter of the
religion. The
support of Aoka
and his
descendants led to the construction of more stpas
(Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread
Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and
even into neighboring landsparticularly to the Iranian-
speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond
the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri
Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite
directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the
second case, to the emergence of Theravda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal
lands of Southeast Asia.
This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the edicts of
Aoka, emissaries were sent to various countries west of India to spread Buddhism (Dharma),
particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and even farther to Hellenistic
kingdoms of the Mediterranean. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these
emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries.
[171]
The gradual spread of Buddhism into adjacent areas meant that it came into contact with new
ethnical groups. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian
and Greek civilization, to changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religionsthemselves influenced by
Buddhism. Striking examples of this syncretistic development can be seen in the emergence of
Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and in the development of the
Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhra. A Greek king, Menander, has even been immortalized in the
Buddhist canon.
The Theravada school spread south from India in the 3rd century BCE, to Sri Lanka and Thailand
and Burma and later also Indonesia. The Dharmagupta school spread (also in 3rd century BCE)
north to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria (Afghanistan).
The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the
late 2nd or the 1st century CE, though the literary sources are all open to question.
[172][173]
The first
documented translation efforts by foreign Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE,
probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the
Tarim Basin.
[174]
In the 2nd century CE, Mahayana Sutras spread to China, and then to Korea and J apan, and were
translated into Chinese. During the Indian period of Esoteric Buddhism (from the 8th century
onwards), Buddhism spread from India to Tibet and Mongolia.
Main article: Timeline of Buddhism:Common Era
By the late Middle Ages, Buddhism had become virtually extinct in
India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its
Buddhist proselytism at the time of
emperor Ashoka (260218 BCE).
Coin depicting Indo-Greek king
Menander, who, according to Buddhist
tradition records in the Milinda Panha,
converted to the Buddhist faith and became
an arhat in the 2nd century BCE . (British
Museum)
Buddhism today
influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength
worldwide.
[175][176]
Estimates of the number of Buddhist followers
by scholars range from 550 million to 1.691 billion. Most scholars
classify similar numbers of people under a category they call
"Chinese folk" or "traditional" religion, an amalgam of various
traditions that includes Buddhism.
Formal membership varies between communities, but basic lay
adherence is often defined in terms of a traditional formula in which
the practitioner takes refuge in The Three J ewels: the Buddha, the
Dharma (the teachings of the Buddha), and the Sangha (the
Buddhist community).
Estimates are uncertain for several reasons:
difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
syncretism among the Eastern religions. Buddhism is practiced
by adherents alongside many other religious traditions-
including Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto, traditional
religions, shamanism, and animism- throughout East
and Southeast Asia.
[177][178][179][180][181][182][183]
difficulties in estimating the number of Buddhists who
do not have congregational memberships and often do
not participate in public ceremonies;
[184]
official policies on religion in several historically
Buddhist countries that make accurate assessments of
religious adherence more difficult; most notably China,
Vietnam and North Korea.
[185][186][187]
In many
current and former Communist governments in Asia,
government policies may discourage adherents from reporting their religious identity, or may
encourage official counts to underestimate religious adherence.
China and India are now starting to fund Buddhist shrines in various Asian countries as they compete
for influence in the region.
[188]
A number of modern movements or tendencies in Buddhism emerged during the second half of the
20th Century, including the Dalit Buddhist movement
[189][190]
(also sometimes called 'neo-
Buddhism'), Engaged Buddhism, and the further development of various Western Buddhist traditions.
Main article: Buddhism by country
According to one analysis, Buddhism is the fourth-largest
religion in the world, after Christianity, Islam and
Hinduism.
[199]
The monks' order (Sangha), which began
during the lifetime of the Buddha, is among the oldest
organizations on earth. Buddhism was the first world
religion
[200][201][202]
and was the world's largest religion
in the first half of the 20th century in 1951 Buddhism
was the world's largest religion with 520 million adherents.
By comparison, the second largest was Christianity with
Czech Buddhists
Map showing regions where Buddhism
is a major religion
Late 20th Century Buddhist Movements
Demographics
Percentage of cultural/nominal
adherents of combined Buddhism with its
related religions (according to the highest
500 million adherents.
[203]
Theravada Buddhism, using Sanskrit and Pli as its
scriptural languages, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Sri Lanka,
and Burma. The Dalit Buddhist movement in India (inspired by B. R. Ambedkar) also practices
Theravada. Approximately 124 million adherents.
[204]
East Asian forms of Mahayana Buddhism that use Chinese scriptures are dominant in most of
China, J apan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Vietnam as well as such communities within
Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West. Vietnam and Singapore are major concentrations of
Mahayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia. Approximately 500 million to one billion.
[205]
Tibetan Buddhism is found in Bhutan, Nepal, Mongolia, areas of India (it's the majority religion in
Ladakh; significant population in Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim), China
(particularly in Tibet and Inner Mongolia), and Russia (Kalmyk Autonomous Republic).
Approximately 20 million adherents.
[204]
Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated with one of these three traditions.
At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the
world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West
Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East it is regarded as familiar and
traditional. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries,
it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. Modern influences increasingly lead
to new forms of Buddhism that significantly depart from traditional beliefs and practices.
Overall there is an overwhelming diversity of recent forms of Buddhism.
[206]
Main articles: Schools of Buddhism and Buddhahood
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either
Theravada or Mahayana.
[207]
This classification is also
used by some scholars
[208][page needed]
and is the one
ordinarily used in the English language.
[209]
An alternative
scheme used by some scholars
[210]
divides Buddhism into
the following three traditions or geographical or cultural
areas: Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan
Buddhism.
Some scholars
[211]
use other schemes. Buddhists
themselves have a variety of other schemes. Hinayana
(literally "lesser vehicle") is used by Mahayana followers to name the family of early philosophical
schools and traditions from which contemporary Theravada emerged, but as this term is rooted in the
Mahayana viewpoint and can be considered derogatory, a variety of other terms are increasingly
used instead, including rvakayna, Nikaya Buddhism, early Buddhist schools, sectarian Buddhism,
conservative Buddhism, mainstream Buddhism and non-Mahayana Buddhism.
Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as
central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be
drawn between them. For example, according to one Buddhist ecumenical organization,
[212]
several
concepts common to both major Buddhist branches:
Both accept the Buddha as their teacher.
Both accept the Middle way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold
Path and the Three marks of existence.
Both accept that members of the laity and of the sangha can pursue the path toward
estimates).
[191][192][193][194][195][196][197][198
Schools and traditions
Young monks in Cambodia
enlightenment (bodhi).
Both consider buddhahood the highest attainment.
This is a rough timeline of the development of the different schools/traditions:
Timeline: Development and propagation of Buddhist traditions (ca. 450 BCE ca. 1300 CE)

450
BCE
[213]
250 BCE 100 CE 500 CE 700 CE 800 CE
1200
CE
[214]

India
Early
Sangha

Early Buddhist schools
Mahayana Vajrayana

Sri Lanka &
Southeast Asia

Theravada
Buddhism

Central Asia
Greco-Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism
Silk Road Buddhism

East Asia
Chn, Tiantai, Pure Land, Zen,
Nichiren
Shingon

450 BCE 250 BCE 100 CE 500 CE 700 CE 800 CE 1200 CE
Legend: = Theravada tradition = Mahayana traditions = Vajrayana traditions
Main article: Theravada
Theravada ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It
is relatively conservative, and generally closest to early Buddhism.
[215]
This school is derived from
the Vibhajjavda grouping that emerged amongst the older Sthavira group at the time of the Third
Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its
branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.
The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pli Canon and its
commentaries. After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were
finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada usually
reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of
its canon into writing.
[citation needed]
The Sutta collections and Vinaya texts of the Pli Canon (and
the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka), are generally considered by modern
scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of
Buddhism.
Theravda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as
small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in Europe
and America.
Theravadin Buddhists think that personal effort is required to realize rebirth. Meditation is done by
forest monks for the most part, while village monks teach and serve their lay communities.
Laypersons can perform good actions, producing merit that can be traded to the gods who may
reward it with material benefits.
[216]
Timeline
Theravada school
Mahayana traditions
Main article: Mahayana
Mahayana Buddhism flourished in India from the 5th century CE
onwards, during the dynasty of the Guptas. Mahyna centres of
learning were established, the most important one being the
Nland University in north-eastern India.
Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the Mahayana Sutras.
Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of
the Buddha himself, and faith in and veneration of those texts are
stated in some sutras (e.g. the Lotus Sutra and the
Mahaparinirvana Sutra) to lay the foundations for the later
attainment of Buddhahood itself.
Native Mahayana Buddhism is
practiced today in China, J apan,
Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia
and most of Vietnam (also
commonly referred to as "Eastern
Buddhism"). The Buddhism
practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan
regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but is discussed
below under the heading of Vajrayana (also commonly referred to
as "Northern Buddhism". There are a variety of strands in Eastern
Buddhism, of which "the Pure Land school of Mahayana is the most
widely practised today.".
[217]
In most of this area however, they are
fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. In J apan in particular,
they form separate denominations with the five major ones being:
Nichiren, peculiar to J apan; Pure Land; Shingon, a form of
Vajrayana; Tendai, and Zen. In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong
to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other
traditions.
[218]
Main article: Vajrayana
The Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism spread to China,
Mongolia, and Tibet. In Tibet, Vajrayana has always been a
main component of Tibetan Buddhism, while in China it
formed a separate sect. However, Vajrayana Buddhism
became extinct in China but survived in elements of
J apan's Shingon and Tendai sects.
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayna and its
tantric practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed
that the historical kyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as
these are esoteric teachings, they were passed on orally
first and only written down long after the Buddha's other
teachings. Nland University became a center for the
development of Vajrayna theory and continued as the
source of leading-edge Vajrayna practices up through the
11th century. These practices, scriptures and theories were
transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia.
China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th
Chinese and Central Asian
monks. Bezeklik, Eastern Tarim
Basin, China, 9th10th century.
(National Institute of Informatics
and the Ty Bunko)
J apanese Mahayana
Buddhist monk with alms bowl
Vajrayana traditions
century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of
what is considered Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayna) stems
from the late (9th12th century) Nland tradition.
In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, Fairfield University
professor Ronald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the
changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of the Gupta dynasty, in an increasingly
fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk
movement led by siddhas became more prominent. After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to
get integrated into the monastic establishment.
[219][page needed]
Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already existed for
centuries.
[220]
In addition to the Mahyna scriptures, Vajrayna Buddhists recognise a large body
of Buddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in Chinese and J apanese collections of
Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.
Main article: Buddhist texts
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different
schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the
various texts. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious
objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic
approach. Buddhist scriptures are mainly written in Pli, Tibetan,
Mongolian, and Chinese. Some texts still exist in Sanskrit and
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.
Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is
universally referred to by all traditions. However, some scholars
have referred to the Vinaya Pitaka and the first four Nikayas of the
Sutta Pitaka as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.
[221]
This could be considered misleading, as Mahyna considers
these merely a preliminary, and not a core, teaching. The Tibetan
Buddhists have not even translated most of the gamas (though
theoretically they recognize them) and they play no part in the
religious life of either clergy or laity in China and J apan.
[222]
Other scholars say there is no
universally accepted common core.
[223]
The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been
seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to
the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.
The followers of Theravda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pli Canon as definitive and
authoritative, while the followers of Mahyna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on
the Mahyna stras and their own vinaya. The Pli sutras, along with other, closely related
scriptures, are known to the other schools as the gamas.
Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can
encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study
texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be
studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying
scripture.
Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen, along with
other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the Tao Te Ching, into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the
1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of
Buddhist principles in "The Buddha and His Dhamma" . Other such efforts have persisted to
Bodhnath Stupa, Kathmandu, Nepal
Buddhist texts
Buddhist monk Geshe
Konchog Wangdu reads
Mahayana sutras from an old
woodblock copy of the Tibetan
Kanjur.
Pli Canon
Vinaya Pitaka
Suttavibhanga Khandhaka Parivara
Sutta Pitaka
Digha Nikaya Majjhima Nikaya
Samyutta Nikaya Anguttara Nikaya
Khuddaka Nikaya
Abhidhamma Pitaka
Dhammasangani Vibhanga
Dhatukatha and Puggalapannatti
Kathavatthu Yamaka Patthana
V T E
present day, but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist traditions.
Main article: Pli Canon
The Pli Tipitaka, which means "three baskets", refers to
the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka, and the
Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Vinaya Pitaka contains
disciplinary rules for the Buddhist monks and nuns, as
well as explanations of why and how these rules were
instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
The Sutta Pitaka contains discourses ascribed to
Gautama Buddha. The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains
material often described as systematic expositions of the
Gautama Buddha's teachings.
The Pli Tipitaka is the only early Tipitaka (Sanskrit:
Tripiaka) to survive intact in its original language, but a
number of early schools had their own recensions of the
Tipitaka featuring much of the same material. We have
portions of the Tipitakas of the Srvstivda, Dharmaguptaka, Sammitya, Mahsaghika,
Kyapya, and Mahsaka schools, most of which survive in Chinese translation only. According to
some sources, some early schools of Buddhism had five or seven pitakas.
[224]
According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a
monk named Mahkyapa (Pli: Mahkassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the
Buddha's teachings. Upli recited the vinaya. nanda, the Buddha's personal attendant, was called
upon to recite the dhamma. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was
initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in the last century BCE. Both
the stras and the vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including
discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts,
stories of the Gautama Buddha's previous lives, and various other subjects.
Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically "Theravadin", but is instead the collection of
teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to
Peter Harvey, it contains material at odds with later Theravadin orthodoxy. He states: "The
Theravadins, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to
have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period."
[225]
Main article: Mahayana sutras
The Mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of Buddhist
scriptures that the Mahayana Buddhist tradition holds are
original teachings of the Buddha. Some adherents of
Mahayana accept both the early teachings (including in
this the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which was criticized by
Nagarjuna and is in fact opposed to early Buddhist
thought
[226]
) and the Mahayana sutras as authentic
teachings of Gautama Buddha, and claim they were
designed for different types of persons and different levels
of spiritual understanding.
The Mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the Buddha's
deeper, more advanced doctrines, reserved for those who
Pli Tipitaka
Mahayana sutras
The Tripi aka Koreana in South Korea,
an edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon
carved and preserved in over 81,000 wood
follow the bodhisattva path. That path is explained as
being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings
from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahyna (lit., the Great Vehicle).
According to Mahayana tradition, the Mahayana sutras were transmitted in secret, came from other
Buddhas or Bodhisattvas, or were preserved in non-human worlds because human beings at the
time could not understand them:
[227]
Some of our sources maintain the authenticity of certain other texts not found in the
canons of these schools (the early schools). These texts are those held genuine by the
later school, not one of the eighteen, which arrogated to itself the title of Mahayana,
'Great Vehicle'. According to the Mahayana historians these texts were admittedly
unknown to the early schools of Buddhists. However, they had all been promulgated by
the Buddha. [The Buddha's] followers on earth, the sravakas ('pupils'), had not been
sufficiently advanced to understand them, and hence were not given them to
remember, but they were taught to various supernatural beings and then preserved in
such places as the Dragon World.
Approximately six hundred Mahayana sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan
translations. In addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some sutras regarded by scholars as of
Chinese rather than Indian origin.
Generally, scholars conclude that the Mahayana scriptures were composed from the 1st century CE
onwards: "Large numbers of Mahayana sutras were being composed in the period between the
beginning of the common era and the fifth century",
[228]
five centuries after the historical Gautama
Buddha. Some of these had their roots in other scriptures composed in the 1st century BCE. It was
not until after the 5th century CE that the Mahayana sutras started to influence the behavior of
mainstream Buddhists in India: "But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the same period,
very differentin fact seemingly olderideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual
behavior, and old and established Hinnayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized
and supported."
[228]
These texts were apparently not universally accepted among Indian Buddhists
when they appeared; the pejorative label hinayana was applied by Mahayana supporters to those
who rejected the Mahayana sutras.
Only the Theravada school does not include the Mahayana scriptures in its canon. As the modern
Theravada school is descended from a branch of Buddhism that diverged and established itself in Sri
Lanka prior to the emergence of the Mahayana texts, debate exists as to whether the Theravada
were historically included in the hinayana designation; in the modern era, this label is seen as
derogatory, and is generally avoided.
Scholar Isabelle Onians asserts that although "the Mahyna ... very occasionally referred
contemptuously to earlier Buddhism as the Hinayna, the Inferior Way," "the preponderance of this
name in the secondary literature is far out of proportion to occurrences in the Indian texts." She
notes that the term rvakayna was "the more politically correct and much more usual" term used
by Mahynists.
[229]
J onathan Silk has argued that the term "Hinayana" was used to refer to
whomever one wanted to criticize on any given occasion, and did not refer to any definite grouping of
Buddhists.
[230]
Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects. For
example, Buddhism's emphasis on the Middle way not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but
has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various differing beliefs, customs and
institutions in countries where it has resided throughout its history. Also, its moral and spiritual
printing blocks.
Comparative studies
parallels with other systems of thoughtfor example, with various tenets of Christianityhave been
subjects of close study. In addition, the Buddhist concept of dependent origination has been
compared to modern scientific thought, as well as Western metaphysics.
There are differences of opinion on the question of whether or not Buddhism should be considered a
religion. Many sources commonly refer to Buddhism as a religion. For example:
Peter Harvey states: "The English term 'Buddhism' correctly indicates that the religion is
characterized by devotion to 'the Buddha', 'Buddhas', or 'buddhahood'."
[231]
J oseph Goldstein states: "Although there are many difference among the various religions of the
world, and among the various schools of Buddhism itself, there is also a great deal in
common..."
[232]
Other sources note that the answer to this question depends upon how religion is defined. For
example:
Surya Das states: "For Buddhism is less a theology or religion than a promise that certain
meditative practices and mind trainings can effectively show us how to awaken our Buddha-nature
and liberate us from suffering and confusion."
[233]
B. Alan Wallace states: "When we in the West first engage with Buddhism, it is almost inevitable
that we bring out one of our familiar stereotypes and apply it to Buddhism, calling it simply a
'religion.'... But Buddhism has never been simply a religion as we define it in the West. From the
very beginning it has also had philosophical elements, as well as empirical and rational elements
that may invite the term 'science.'"
[234]
Rupert Gethin states: "I am not concerned here to pronounce on a question that is sometimes
asked of Buddhism: is it a religion? Obviously it depends on how one defines a religion. What is
certain, however, is that Buddhism does not involve belief in a creator God who has control over
human destiny, nor does it seek to define itself by reference to a creed; as Edward Conze has
pointed out, it took over 2,000 years and a couple of Western converts to Buddhism to provide it
with a creed. On the other hand, Buddhism views activities that would be generally understood as
religioussuch as devotional practices and ritualsas a legitimate, useful, and even essential
part of the practice and training that leads to the cessation of suffering.
[235]
Gethin points out that
some key differences between Buddhism and conventionally considered Western religions are
that Buddhism does not assert a belief in a creator god, nor does it define itself by a particular
creed. On the other hand, Gethin notes, Buddhist practice often includes devotional practices and
ritual, which are typically associated with religious belief.
[235]
Damien Keown states: "Problems [...] confront us as soon as we try to define what Buddhism is.
Is it a religion? A philosophy? A way of life? A code of ethics? It is not easy to classify Buddhism
as any of these things, and it challenges us to rethink some of these categories. What, for
example, do we mean by religion? Most people would say that religion has something to do with
belief in God. [...] If belief in God in this sense is the essence of religion, then Buddhism cannot
be a religion. [...] Some have suggested that a new category that of the non-theistic religion
is needed to encompass Buddhism. Another possibility is that our original definition is simply too
narrow.
[236]
The Dalai Lama states: "From one viewpoint, Buddhism is a religion, from another viewpoint
Buddhism is a science of mind and not a religion. Buddhism can be a bridge between these two
sides. Therefore, with this conviction I try to have closer ties with scientists, mainly in the fields of
cosmology, psychology, neurobiology and physics. In these fields there are insights to share, and
to a certain extent we can work together."
[237]
Ilkka Pyysiinen states: "There are thus great difficulties involved in conceptualizing religion as
belief in god(s), superhuman agents, etc., although we intuitively think that some such beings,
Is Buddhism a religion?
Book: Buddhism
Buddhism portal
nevertheless, are essential in religion. As is well-known, Buddhism is the favorite example of
scholars who have argued that we should find some other way of defining religion than the one
based on the idea of belief in gods or superhuman beings." and "Buddhism does not have to be
the problematic touchstone for a global concept of religion."
[238]
Martin Southwold states: "It is argued that Buddhism, though non-theistic, resembles other
religions in depending on mystical notions; it is shown how this contributes to understanding the
social functions of religions."
[239]
Walpola Rahula states: "The question has often been asked: Is Buddhism a religion or a
philosophy? It does not matter what you call it. Buddhism remains what it is whatever label you
may put on it. The label is immaterial. Even the label 'Buddhism' which we give to the teaching of
the Buddha is of little importance. The name one gives it is inessential. What's in a name? That
which we call a rose, By any other name would smell as sweet. In the same way Truth needs no
label: it is neither Buddhist, Christian, Hindu nor Moslem. It is not the monopoly of anybody.
Sectarian labels are a hindrance to the independent understanding of Truth, and they produce
harmful prejudices in men's minds."
[240]
Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche states: "If you are interested in 'meeting the Buddha' and following
his example, then you should realize that the path the Buddha taught is primarily a study of your
own mind and a system for training your mind. This path is spiritual, not religious. Its goal is self-
knowledge, not salvation; freedom, not heaven. And it is deeply personal."
[241]
Outline of Buddhism
Buddhism by country
Chinese folk religion
Criticism of Buddhism
Dharma Drum Retreat Center
Easily confused Buddhist representations
Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand
Index of Buddhism-related articles
Indian religions
List of books related to Buddhism
List of Buddhist temples
Nonviolence
a. ^ Earlier Buddhist texts refer to five realms
rather than six realms; when described as five
realms, the god realm and demi-god realm
constitute a single realm.
b. ^ See the article Sasra (Buddhism) for
further details and citations.
c. ^
a

b
See the article Four Noble Truths for

further details and citations. In particular, the
section "The four truths" within that article
provides a footnote showing variety of
translations of these four statements.
d. ^ See the article Dukkha for further details and
citations.
1. ^ "Buddhism". (2009). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved November 26, 2009, from Encyclopdia
Britannica Online Library Edition.
2. ^ Gethin (1998), Foundations, pp. 2728, pp. 7374
3. ^ Major Religions Ranked by Size ; U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report
2004. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/ Accessed 20 September 2008; Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha
Rising", National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88109; CIA - The World Factbook
See also
Notes
References
4. ^
a

b
Lopez, Story of Buddhism. p. 239
5. ^
a

b
Lopez, Buddhism. p. 248
6. ^ "Buddhists in the World - The Dhamma - thedhamma.com - Vipassana Foundation" .
thedhamma.com. 2009-07-07. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
7. ^ "Buddhists in the World - The Dhamma Encyclopedia" . Dhammawiki.com. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
8. ^ ""How Buddhism Came to the West" by Maia Duerr | The Buddha" . PBS. 2010-03-17. Retrieved
2013-06-18.
9. ^ "Buddhism May Regain Its Status as the Worlds Largest Religion" . PROUT Globe. Retrieved 2013-
06-18.
10. ^ Beckford, Martin. "Buddhism is fastest-growing religion in English jails over past decade" .
Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
11. ^ "Buddhism fastest growing religion in West" . Asian Tribune. 2008-04-07. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
12. ^ "Stateline Western Australia" . Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
13. ^ Robinson et al., Buddhist Religions, page xx; Philosophy East and West, vol 54, ps 269f; Williams,
Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1st ed., 1989, pp. 275f (2nd ed., 2008, p. 266)
14. ^ Padmasambhava, J amgon Kongtrul, Erik Pema Kunsang (2004). Light of Wisdom . Rangjung Yeshe
Publications. ISBN 978-962-7341-37-6. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
15. ^ Swearer, Donald. Becoming the Buddha. 2004. p. 177
16. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism Vol. 1, p. 352
17. ^ Lopez (1995). Buddhism in Practice. Princeton University Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-691-04442-2.
18. ^ Carrithers, Michael. "The Buddha", in the Oxford University paperback Founders of Faith, 1986, p. 10.
19. ^ Armstrong, Karen (September 28, 2004). Buddha. Penguin Press. p. xii. ISBN 0-14-303436-7.
20. ^
a

b
Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern
Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 49.
21. ^ UNESCO, Lumbini is the birthplace of the Lord Buddha , Gethin Foundations, p. 19, which states
that in the mid-3rd century BCE the Emperor Ashoka determined that Lumbini was Gautama's birthplace
and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the kyas
(kyamuni), was born."
22. ^ For instance, Gethin Foundations, p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future
Buddha was born Siddhrtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftaina rjan
in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the IndianNepalese border." However, Professor
Gombrich (Theravda Buddhism, p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, The Life of
the Buddha, ascribe the name Siattha/fitta to later sources.
23. ^ Kohn, Michael (1991). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Shambhala. p. 143. ISBN 0-
87773-520-4.
24. ^ "The Middle Way of the Buddha" . Buddhamind.info. Retrieved 2011-10-24.
25. ^ "Buddhism - The Middle Path" . Buddhanet.net. Retrieved 2011-10-24.
26. ^ Keown, Dictionary of Buddhism, p. 267
27. ^ Skilton, Concise, p. 25
28. ^ Journal of Buddhist Ethics: "Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness" (PDF), T. P. Kasulis, Ohio
State University
29. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 40
30. ^ Dr. Richard K. Payne (ed.), Tantric Buddhism in East Asia, Wisdom Publications, Boston, 2006, p. 74
31. ^ Keown, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 107
33. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume Two), p. 711
35. ^ Andr Bareau, Les Sectes bouddhiques du Petit Vhicule, cole Franaise d'Extrme-Orient, Saigon,
1955, pp. 212223: the top of p. 212 says: "Here are the theses of the Theravadins of the Mahavihara";
then begins a numbered list of doctrines over the following pages, including on p. 223: "There are only
five destinies ... the kalakanjika asuras have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same
lifespan as the petas, with whom ... they marry. As for the Vepacittiparisa, they have the same colour,
same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the gods, with whom they marry."(Translated from the
French)
36. ^ The 31 Planes of Existence (PDF), Ven. Suvanno Mahathera
37. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1, p. 377
38. ^ The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Bhikkhu Bodhi,
Translator. Wisdom Publications.
39. ^
a

b
Ajahn Sucitto 2010, p. 87-88.
40. ^ Gethin 1998, p. 82.
41. ^
a

b
Armstrong, p. 77.
42. ^ Nhat Hahn, Thich, p. 36.
43. ^
a

b
Roth, Beth. "Family Dharma: A Bedtime Ritual" . Tricycle (Tricycle Foundation). Retrieved
J anuary 11, 2011.
44. ^ Chodron, Pema (2002). The Places that Scare You: A Guide to Fearlessness in Difficult Times .
Shambhala via Amazon Look Inside. p. 37. ISBN 1-57062-921-8.
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"Unit Six: Loving-Kindness" . Buddha Dharma Education Association & Buddhanet. Retrieved J anuary
10, 2011.
46. ^ "A View on Buddhism: The Four Immeasurables" . Rudy Harderwijk (viewonbuddhism.org).
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47. ^ Kohn, Shambhala, pp. 131, 143
48. ^ J effrey Po, "Is Buddhism a Pessimistic Way of Life?"
49. ^ Rahula, Walpola (1959). "Chapter 2". What the Buddha Taught. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
50. ^ Prebish, Charles (1993). Historical Dictionary of Buddhism. The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-2698-
4.
51. ^ Keown, Damien (2003). Dictionary of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860560-9.
52. ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Not-Self Strategy , See Point 3 The Canon quote Thanissaro Bhikkhu
draws attention to is the Sabbasava Sutta .
53. ^ This twelve nidana scheme can be found, for instance, in multiple discourses in chapter 12 of the
Samyutta NikayaNidana Vagga (e.g., see SN 12.2, Thanissaro, 1997a) . Other "applications" of what
might be termed "mundane dependent origination" include the nine-nidana scheme of Digha Nikaya 15
(e.g., Thanissaro, 1997b) and the ten-nidana scheme of Samyutta Nikaya 12.65 (e.g., Thanissaro,
1997c). So-called "transcendental dependent origination" (also involving twelve nidanas) is described
in Samyutta Nikaya 12.23 (e.g., see Bodhi, 1995). In addition, Digha Nikaya 15 describes an eleven-
nidana scheme (starting with "feeling") that leads to interpersonal suffering ("the taking up of sticks and
knives; conflicts, quarrels, and disputes; accusations, divisive speech, and lies").
54. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 56
59. ^ Christian Lindtner, Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing 1997, p. 324.
60. ^ Dan Lusthaus, "What is and isn't Yogacara"
61. ^ Williams, Paul. Buddhist Thought. Routledge 2000, page 161.
62. ^ raga, Pali-English Dictionary , The Pali Text Society
63. ^ dosa, Pali-English Dictionary , The Pali Text Society
64. ^ moha, Pali-English Dictionary , The Pali Text Society
65. ^
a

b
Richard F. Gombrich, How Buddhism Began, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67
66. ^ Hawkins, pp. 40, 46.
67. ^ "''Access to Insight'', a Theravada Buddhist website, discusses Buddha Eras" . Accesstoinsight.org.
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68. ^ "Gautama Buddha discusses the Maitreya Buddha in the Tipitaka" . Accesstoinsight.org. 2010-06-
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57
70. ^ Dispeller of Delusion. Vol. II. Pali Text Society, p. 184
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1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
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73. ^ Nattier, J an (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 174
74. ^ Mall, Linnart. Studies in the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita and Other Essays. Motilal Banarsidass.
2005. pp. 53-54.
75. ^ Hirakawa, Akira. A History of Indian Buddhism: from kyamuni to Early Mahyna. Motilal
Banarsidass. 2007. p. 297.
76. ^ Conze, Edward. The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary. Grey Fox
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77. ^ The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, pages 4-12, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed.,
1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
78. ^ Harvey, p. 170
79. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) by Heinrich Dumoulin, J ames W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter
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80. ^ Barbara Stoler Miller, Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a
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84. ^ Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, p. 72.
85. ^
a

b
"Dharmacarini Manishini" . Western Buddhist Review.
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88. ^ Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard
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a

b
Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 51.
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95. ^ Hiroshi Kanno, Huisi's Perspective on the Lotus Sutra as Seen Through the Meaning of the Course of
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96. ^ Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., Buddhism. Continuum, 2001, page 187.
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100. ^ B. Alan Wallace, Contemplative Science. Columbia University Press, 2007, p. 81.
101. ^ Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, p. 396
102. ^ Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 144.
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104. ^ Sarah Shaw, Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pli Canon. Routledge, 2006, page
13. Shaw also notes that discourses on meditation are addressed to "bhikkhave", but that in this context
the terms is more generic than simply (male) "monks" and refers to all practitioners, and that this is
confirmed by Buddhaghosa.
105. ^ According to Charles S. Prebish (in his Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, Sri Satguru Publications,
Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in J apan, they all emphasize Zen as
a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the potential for direct realization, that
the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being ...".
106. ^ Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that sitting in meditation itself (i.e. zazen) is an
expression of Buddha nature." The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and
perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes (Zen
Masterclass, Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 1213): "... practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the
awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered over by
layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts. According to this view, Enlightenment is not
something that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through
the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations."
107. ^ (Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition, Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002,
passim) Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu states: "Linji indicates our
true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'. It is independent of words
or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just
our direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu, op. cit., p. 46).
108. ^ Kosho Uchiyama, Opening the Hand of Thought: Approach to Zen, Penguin Books, New York, 1993,
p. 98
109. ^ Harvey, Introduction, pp. 165f
110. ^ Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1st ed., 1989, p. 185
111. ^ Routledge Encyclopedia of Buddhism, p. 781 .
112. ^ Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford University Press, 2008, p. xv
113. ^
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Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Buddhism: The foundations of Buddhism: The cultural context.
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114. ^
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Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Hinduism: History of Hinduism: The Vedic period (2nd millennium
- 7th century BCE); Challenges to Brahmanism (6th - 2nd century BCE); Early Hinduism (2nd century
BCE - 4th century CE). Retrieved 19-07-2009.
115. ^ Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.32
116. ^ Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-
208-0815-0 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that J ainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to
vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed
to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."
117. ^ S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. J oshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East
and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going
back to prehistoric times."
118. ^ "This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-vedics like
Ajivikism, J ainism and Buddhism. The Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of re-birth after coming in
contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India. Certainly J ainism and non-vedics [..] accepted the
doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith." Masih, page 37.
119. ^ Karel Werner, The Longhaired Sage in The Yogi and the Mystic. Karel Werner, ed., Curzon Press,
1989, page 34. "Rahurkar speaks of them as belonging to two distinct 'cultural strands' ... Wayman also
found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension in ancient India and calls them the
traditions of 'truth and silence.' He traces them particularly in the older Upanishads, in early Buddhism,
and in some later literature."
120. ^ Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press : UK ISBN 0-521-
43878-0 - "The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly
circulating amongst sramanas, and J ainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas
about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the
mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions." Page 86.
121. ^ Padmanabh S. J aini 2001 "Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies" Motilal Banarsidass Publ 576 pages
ISBN 81-208-1776-1: "Yajnavalkya's reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the
assembly of J anaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the
assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the
fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable
that it was derived from them." Page 51.
122. ^ Govind Chandra Pande, (1994) Life and Thought of Sankaracarya, Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81-208-
1104-6 : Early Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried
to incorporate these ideals of Karma, Samsara and Moksa into the vedic thought implying a
disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the mendicancy as an ideal. Page 135.
123. ^ "The sudden appearance of this theory [of karma] in a full-fledged form is likely due, as already pointed
out, to an impact of the wandering muni-and-shramana-cult, coming down from the pre-Vedic non-
Aryan time." Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,
1998, page 76.
124. ^ Satapatha Brahmana 13.8.1.5
125. ^ Oldenburg, Hermann, The Doctrine of the Upanishads and Early Buddhism, 1915, reprinted 1991 by
Shridhar B. Shrotri, Delhi, Motilalal Banardass
126. ^ Greater Magadha, Studies the Culture of Early India, Bronkhorst, J ohannes, Brill Academic Publishers
Inc, 2007, Series: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 2 South Asia Series, ISBN 978-90-04-11519-4
127. ^ Warder, A.K. 2000. Indian Buddhism. P.30-32
129. ^ Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. P.33
130. ^ Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, pages 9-10.
131. ^ "The brahmin by caste alone, the teacher of the Veda, is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator'
(ajhyaka). Brahmins who have memorized the three Vedas (tevijja) really know nothing: it is the
process of achieving Enlightenment what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of
that nightwhich constitutes the true 'three knowledges.'" R.F. Gombrich in Paul Williams, ed.,
"Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies." Taylor and Francis 2006, page 120.
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 85.
133. ^ P. 177 The sacred books of the Buddhists compared with history and modern science By Robert
Spence Hardy
134. ^ Vinaya Pitaka of the Mahavagga (I.245) in P. 494 The Pali -English dictionary By Thomas William Rhys
Davids, William Stede
135. ^ "Atthako, Vmako, Vmadevo, Vessmitto, Yamataggi, Angiraso, Bhradvjo, Vsettho, Kassapo,
and Bhagu" in P. 245 The Vinaya piaka: one of the principle Buddhist holy scriptures ..., Volume 1
edited by Hermann Oldenberg
136. ^ The Vinaya Pitaka's section Anguttara Nikaya: Panchaka Nipata in P. 44 The legends and theories of
the Buddhists, compared with history and science By Robert Spence Hardy
137. ^ Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings
Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, pages 38-39
138. ^ Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pages 41-42. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University
Press, 1986.
139. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 21.
140. ^ "Even so have I, monks, seen an ancient way, an ancient road followed by the wholly awakened ones
of olden time....Along that have I done, and the matters that I have come to know fully as I was going
along it, I have told to the monks, nuns, men and women lay-followers, even monks, this Brahma-faring
brahmacharya that is prosperous and flourishing, widespread and widely known become popular in
short, well made manifest for gods and men." (P. 57 Buddhist Art & Antiquities of Himachal Pradesh,
Upto 8th Century A.D. By Omacanda H)
141. ^ . 59 What the Buddha taught by Walpola Rhula
142. ^ Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Vedic religion. Retrieved 19-07-2009.
144. ^ A History of Indian Buddhism Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 7
145. ^ Mitchell, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 34 & table of contents
146. ^ Skorupski, Buddhist Forum, vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, p. 5; Journal of the
International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol 21 (1998), part 1, pp. 4, 11
147. ^ see also the book Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press, by Dr Gregory
Schopen
148. ^ Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist
149. ^ Journal of the Pli Text Society, volume XVI, p. 105)
150. ^ J anice J . Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. Mahsghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist
sectarianism in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237272
152. ^
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155. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass: p. 260
156. ^ Akira, Hirakawa (1993), A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana: p. 271
157. ^ "One of the most frequent assertions about the Mahayana ... is that it was a lay-influenced, or even
lay-inspired and dominated, movement that arose in response to the increasingly closed, cold, and
scholastic character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to be wrong on all counts."
Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
158. ^ Nattier, J an (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 193-
194
159. ^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 4-5
160. ^ Williams, Paul (2000) Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition: p. 97
161. ^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahyna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 5
162. ^ "The most important evidence in fact the only evidence for situating the emergence of the
Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from
China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic
collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zrcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an
Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." Macmillan Encyclopedia of
Buddhism (2004): p. 492
Motilal Banarsidass: p. 263, 268
164. ^ "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" Warder, A.K. (3rd
edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335.
Motilal Banarsidass: p. 253
Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 8,9
167. ^ Peter Harvey, "An Introduction to Buddhism." Cambridge University Press, 1993, page 95.
168. ^ Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology. Routledge, 2002, pages 236-237.
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were no great Indian teachers associated with this strand of thought."
Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 9
171. ^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, Routledge, 2nd ed, 2006, page 135
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203. ^ The Common Denominator in Religious Values by Merrill E. Bush. Educational Leadership Vol 11
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207. ^ Keown, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1996, page 12
208. ^ Smith, Buddhism; J uergensmeyer, Oxford Handbook.
209. ^ "Tibetan Buddhism" . American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin
Company. 2004. Retrieved 2007-07-07.
210. ^ (Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 12, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1)
"The Theravda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern'
Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, J apan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred
to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern'
Buddhism."; Robinson & J ohnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The
Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The
Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia",
"Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area", "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West; Penguin
handbook of Living Religions, 1984, page 279; Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, ebook, J ournal
of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006
211. ^ See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, 1987,
volume 2, pages 440ff
212. ^ A Comparative Study of the Schools , Tan Swee Eng
213. ^ Cousins, L.S. (1996); Buswell (2003), Vol. I, p. 82; and, Keown & Prebish (2004), p. 107. See also,
Gombrich (1988/2002), p. 32: [T]he best we can say is that [the Buddha] was probably Enlightened
between 550 and 450, more likely later rather than earlier."
214. ^ Williams (2000, pp. 6-7) writes: "As a matter of fact Buddhism in mainland India itself had all but
ceased to exist by the thirteenth century CE, although by that time it had spread to Tibet, China, J apan,
and Southeast Asia." Embree et al. (1958/1988), "Chronology," p. xxix: "c. 1000-1200: Buddhism
disappears as [an] organized religious force in India." See also, Robinson & J ohnson (1970/1982), pp.
100-1, 108 Fig. 1; and, Harvey (1990/2007), pp. 139-40.
215. ^ Gethin, Foundations, page 1
216. ^ Hawkins, p. 88.
217. ^ Clarke & Beyer, The World's Religions, Routledge, 2009, page 86
218. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume One), pages 430, 435
219. ^ Davidson, Ronald M. (2003). Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement.
New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12619-0.
220. ^ Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, page 89
221. ^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)
222. ^ Eliot, Japanese Buddhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 16
223. ^ Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford University Press, 2008, page xiv
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229. ^ Isabelle Onians, "Tantric Buddhist Apologetics, or Antinomianism as a Norm," D.Phil. dissertation,
Oxford, Trinity Term 2001 pg 72
230. ^ J onathan A Silk. What, if anything, is Mahayana Buddhism? Numen 49:4 (2002):335-405. Article
reprinted in Williams, Buddhism, Vol III, Routledge, 2005
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232. ^ Goldstein 2011, p. 27.
233. ^ Lama Surya Das 1997, p. 16.
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