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Magnetic fabric: methods and applications an introduction

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2004 Geological Society of
Magnetic fabric: methods and appl i cat i ons- an introduction
F. MARTI N- HERNANDEZ 1, C. M. LONEBURG 2, C. AUBOURG 3 &
M. J ACKS ON 4
1paleomagnetic Laboratory 'Fort Hoofddijk', Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University,
3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlands
2Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of New Orleans, 2000 Lake Shore Drive,
New Orleans, LA 70148, USA
3Laboratoire de Tectonique, UMR 7072, UniversitO de Cergy-Pontoise, 95031,
Cergy Cedes, France
4Institute for Rock Magnetism, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis MN 55455, USA
Fifty years have now passed since Graham
(1954) published his seminal paper advocating
the use of anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility
(AMS) as a rapid and sensitive petrofabric tool.
During these five decades, Graham' s ' under-
exploited' method has become standard, and
AMS and related techniques are now routinely
applied to characterizing fabrics in a wide variety
of geological materials (e.g. the GEOREF data-
base lists over 500 journal publications with
' magnetic anisotropy' as keywords).
Magnetic anisotropy works as a petrofabric
tool because individual grains of most minerals
are magnetically anisotropic, i.e. easier to mag-
netize in certain orientations, which are governed
primarily by crystallography and/or grain shape.
Magnetic anisotropy at the bulk rock scale
results from the preferred crystallographic orien-
tation (PCO) and/or preferred dimensional
orientation (PDO) of anisotropic mineral
grains. AMS can also result from magnetostatic
interactions among closely spaced, strongly mag-
netic grains that are heterogeneously distributed
in a matrix of more weakly magnetic minerals. In
either case, magnetic anisotropy is directly
related to some aspects of rock fabric, and thus
it provides a quick, simple and effective charac-
terization tool, even though the relationship
between magnetic fabric and petrofabric is
quite complex in detail.
The present collection of papers originated, in
part, at a special session on magnetic fabrics at
the Joint Assembly of the EGS-AGU-EUG
(April 2003) in Nice, which highlighted recent
methodological advances, theoretical and experi-
mental studies, and characterization of flow and
deformation fabrics in rocks and sediments. A
similar session at the AGU Fall Meeting
(December 2003) in San Francisco underscored
the continuing breadth of interest in magnetic
fabric research, and suggested that the time was
ripe for a comprehensive critical assessment of
the field on this golden anniversary of Graham' s
influential publication. It is our goal in this
volume to present a view of the current state of
the art in magnetic fabric analysis, from the
physical foundations to the geological applica-
tions, and to illustrate as well some of the
important limitations, unresolved problems and
directions for future research.
The first observations of AMS in natural
samples were presented before 1954 (e.g. Ising
1943). The early works focused on establishing
correlations between the AMS principal direc-
tions and the structural features in sediments
(Rees 1961, 1965; Graham 1966), igneous and
metamorphic rocks (Stacey 1960; Stacey et al.
1960; Khan 1962; Stone 1962). Contemporary
advances in palaeomagnetism led to a need for
methods to assess the fidelity of the stable rema-
nence, increasing the interest in AMS and other
techniques for measuring magnetic anisotropy
(Fuller 1960, 1963; Rees 1961). The technique
was refined with the appearance of rigorous
measurement schemes (Girdler 1961) and mathe-
matical theories to explain the origin of AMS
(Nagata 1961; Stacey 1963; Uyeda et al. 1963;
Bathal 1971).
The ultimate goals of magnetic fabric research
in the geosciences have remained essentially
unchanged since these early studies: determining
flow/emplacement directions in sediments, intru-
sive and extrusive rocks; establishing principal
orientations (as well as estimating magnitudes)
of finite or incremental strains; and ascertaining
the extent of possible deviations of NRM vectors
from the palaeofield orientation due to aniso-
tropic acquisition and/or subsequent deforma-
tion. With these consistent goals, the field has
evolved primarily in its recognition of the
From: MARTiN-HERNANDEZ, F., LONEBURG, C. M., AUBOURG, C. JACKSON, M. (eds) 2004. Magnetic Fabric:
Methods and Applications. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 238, 1-7. 0305-8719/04/$15.00
9 The Geological Society of London 2004.
2 F. MARTiN-HERNANDEZ ET AL.
complexity of natural magnetic fabrics and in
the development of increasingly sophisticated
methods for extracting meaningful information
from them. This evolution may be traced
through a series of excellent reviews (Bhathal
1971; Hrouda 1982; MacDonal d & Ellwood
1987; Rochette et al. 1992; Tarling & Hrouda
1993; Kodama 1995; Borradaile & Henry 1997).
Magnet i c fabric characteri zati on methods
and mi neral sources
The first measurements of AMS were performed
using low-field torque magnetometers (Ising
1943; Granar 1958; Stone 1962; King & Rees
1966). The crystalline anisotropy can also be
determined by means of high-field torque magne-
tometry in natural samples (Stacey 1960; Bane-
rjee & Stacey 1967) and ferromagnetic single
crystals such as pyrrhotite (Mikami et al. 1959;
Bin & Pauthenet 1963; Sato et al. 1964) or hema-
tite (Townsend 1916; Townsend 1920; Lin 1959).
Measurements are tedious and time-consuming
and for this reason an alternative was found,
with measurements based on astatic magnet-
ometers (Johnson & Steiner 1937; Collinson
1967; Deutsch et al. 1967; Roy 1971; Fujiwara
& Yoshida 1981) or spinner magnetometers (Jeli-
nek 1966; Noltimier 1971; Schmidt et al. 1988).
The technique became a standard measurement
with the appearance of a.c. susceptibility bridges
(Fuller 1960; Girdler 1961; Graham 1964; Jelinek
1973), which are relatively fast, inexpensive,
simple to use and very precise (Pokorny et aL,
this volume). Parallel to the development of the
instrumentation, the measurement technique
became more refined and additional work
helped to evaluate accurately the magnetic sus-
ceptibility tensor and analytical uncertainty, for
individual specimens and for groups of samples
(Owens 2000a; Owens 2000b; Borradaile 2003
and references therein). The statistical treatment
of the AMS data requires analysis of the shape
of the ellipsoid, degree of anisotropy and their
correlation with bulk properties as the magnetic
susceptibility (Nakamura & Borradaile, this
volume).
The AMS measures the anisotropy of all
minerals present in the samples, weighted
according to their specific susceptibilities (which
vary by roughly six orders of magnitude), con-
centrations, grain-scale anisotropies (controlled
by crystallography, grain shape and/or stress)
and degrees of preferred orientation. In most
rocks and sediments, AMS is mainly due to the
heavily weighted trace ferromagnetic phases,
and often it reflects a single dominant event or
process. In such favourable cases it is possible
to quantify the orientation distribution of the
magnetic minerals (Jezek & Hrouda, this
volume). But in many cases the AMS has been
proved to consist of multiple superposed compo-
nents, carried by different mixtures of ferro-,
para- and even diamagnetic minerals (Hrouda;
Just et al. , this volume), with different preferred
orientations imposed by different mechanisms
(e.g. Daly 1967). It has become necessary, in
order to unravel the history of deformation and
alteration of natural samples, to separate these
individual magnetic subfabrics. Several tech-
niques are now available for this purpose,
based on measurements at different temperatures
(Richter & van der Pluijm 1994; Hrouda et al.
1997; Lfineburg et al. 1999; Par6s & van der
Pluijm 2002), measurements at different fields
(Hrouda & Jelinek 1990; Martin-Hernfindez &
Hirt 2001; Kelso et al. 2002; Martin-Hern/mdez
& Hirt 2004) or a combination (Rochette &
Fillion 1988; Richter & van der Pluijm 1994).
Comparison between magnetic fabrics or sub-
fabrics and the results of other techniques such
as neutron texture goniometry (Chadima et al. ,
this volume), acoustic waves (Louis et al. 2003),
or X-ray texture goniometry (Debacker et aL,
Hirt et aL, this volume) allow a better under-
standing of the nature, origin and significance
of measured magnetic fabrics.
The separation of superposed magnetic sub-
fabrics can also be achieved through measure-
ments of the anisotropy of magnetic remanence
(AMR) alone (reviewed by Potter, this volume).
The AMR is a measurement of the anisotropy
of ferromagnetic minerals that can be evaluated
using different types of magnetization, including
anhysteretic remanence (ARM) (McCabe et al.
1985; Jackson et al. 1988; Jackson 1991), iso-
thermal remanence (IRM) (Daly & Zinsser
1973; Stephenson et al. 1986; Borradaile &
Dehls 1993; Jelinek 1993), thermoremanence
(TRM) (Cogn~ 1987) and gyroremanence
(GRM) (Stephenson 1981). In some cases the
ferromagnetic mineral anisotropy can be isolated
without recourse to laborious AMR measure-
ments, by analysing the variation of AMS with
mean susceptibility (e.g. Henry & Daly 1983;
Hamilton et aL, this volume). The results from
AMS and AMR measurements can be combined
in order to effectively compute the different sub-
fabrics (Hrouda 2002). One as-yet poorly under-
stood aspect of AMR is its sensitivity to
magnetostatic interactions between neighbour-
ing grains (Muxworthy & Williams, this volume).
In samples with weak anisotropy, it has in some
cases proven effective to ' enhance' the ferro-
magnetic fabric (i.e. increase the susceptibility
INTRODUCTION 3
and/or its anisotropy) by thermal treatment of the
samples. In many cases the new ferromagnetic
phases that appear while heating mimic the pre-
existing fabric of the rocks (Dunlop 1974;
Henry et al. 2003; de Wall & Warr, this volume).
From sedi mentary fabrics to tectonic fabrics
in sedi mentary rocks
In the five decades since the seminal paper of
Graham (1954), numerous studies have docu-
mented a general consistency between magnetic
fabric and petrofabric in sedimentary rocks (see
Borradaile & Jackson, this volume). This con-
sistency is essentially qual i t at i v e , i.e. a parallelism
between magnetic fabric axes and sedimentary or
tectonic structures or finite strain axes. Addition-
ally, the shape of the magnetic fabric ellipsoid
(oblate, triaxial or prolate) often generally
corresponds in a qualitative way with the shape
of the petrofabric ellipsoid. However, few
successful q u a n t i t a t i v e correlations (involving
direct correlation of axial ratios) have been docu-
mented. This is due in essence to the variable
intrinsic properties of magnetic carriers, the vari-
able proportions of different carriers in different
samples, and the bulk (non-mineral-specific)
sensitivity of magnetic fabric.
In sedimentary rocks, the magnetic foliation
results from a combination of depositional pro-
cesses and diagenetic compaction. The magnetic
lineation can result from sedimentary currents
in marine conditions or wind in continental con-
dition (see Matasova & Kazansky, this volume).
When subjected to strain, the magnetic fabric
of sedimentary rocks rapidly starts to record an
imprint (see Parks, this volume). Studies of the
palaeomagnetic remanence and AMS can help
in the understanding of the magnetic fabric
acquisition process at early stages of deformation
(Larrasoafia e t al . , this volume). The magnetic
lineation carries the first imprint of shortening
or extension. This imprint seems to resist sub-
sequent deformation and can behave therefore
as a passive marker. The magnetic foliation is
more resistant to early strain. However, the
development of magnetic foliation strongly obli-
que to bedding has been documented in clastic
rocks and carbonates during horizontal shorten-
ing (the so called layer parallel shortening). Inter-
estingly, this tectonic magnetic foliation is
cryptic and it is not necessarily accompanied by
its macroscopic equivalent plane in the field
(Sun et al. 1993).
In low-grade metamorphic rocks (e.g. Ander-
son & Morris; Aubourg et aL; Debacker et aL,
this volume), the consistency between magnetic
fabric and petrofabric is observed either at the
scale of the macroscopic elements (cleavage,
lineation) or thin section. Magnetic foliation, i f
carried by phyllosilicates, is closely parallel to
macroscopic cleavage. Magnetic lineation is
often the result of microfolding of phyllosilicates
and therefore reflects the fold axis or intersection
lineation (Hirt e t al . , this volume). The plunge-
attitude of magnetic lineation (strike-parallel to
down-dip) with respect to magnetic foliation
can be a useful indicator of the degree of defor-
mation (Aubourg e t aL this volume). In flysch-
derived metamorphic rocks, Debacker e t al.
(this volume) suggest that a sedimentary linea-
tion carried by coarse ferromagnetic grains is
preserved. While magnetic fabric is generally
very well defined in metamorphic rocks, the fre-
quent mixture of several ferromagnetic phases
(pyrrhotite, magnetite, hematite) interplaying
with paramagnetic phyllosilicates is the cause of
complex magnetic fabric (Aubourg et al., this
volume), rendering difficult a quantitative char-
acterization of strain. In addition, different
deformation mechanisms on the microscale are
domi nant with increasing strain and strongly
influence magnetic - and petrofabric - ellipsoids,
hampering correlations with finite strain (Hirt
e t aL, this volume) or macroscopic structures.
However, examples exist where, despite a com-
plex tectonic history, the magnetic fabric is
rather consistent with macroscopic structures
(Ka, dzialko-Hofmokl e t al . , this volume).
Pl utoni c & igneous fabrics
Magnetic fabric analysis is a powerful approach
for studying granites because it provides mag-
matic to strain patterns at a regional scale, in
rocks where fabric is difficult to characterize
(e.g. Bouchez 2002). We present in this volume
a view of the current state of the art in magnetic
fabric applications, together with other tech-
niques (Gil-Imaz & Barbero-Gonz~ilez, L6pez de
Luchi e t al., Pueyo e t al., this volume). Similarly
to extensive studies performed in granites, there
is a growing interest in magnetic fabric studies
of igneous rocks, which allow definition at differ-
ent scales of the direction and the sense of
magma flows (trapp, dyke swarm). Khan (1962)
presented the first interpretation of AMS in
igneous rocks and dykes and the technique has
been used since then in order to understand
lava flow and emplacement mechanism of
igneous rocks (Hargraves e t a / . 1991; Tauxe
et al. 1998). Cafi6n-Tapia (this volume) provides
a historical review of AMS applications in
volcanic rocks.
4 F. MARTIN-HERN,~NDEZ E T A L .
The i nt erpret at i on of AMS analysis in igneous
rocks is based on the devel opment of the pre-
ferred or i ent at i on of magnet i c particles duri ng
the flow of mat eri al (Cafi6n-Tapia & Chfivez-
Alvarez, this volume). Ferromagnet i c minerals,
in part i cul ar t i t anomagnet i t es, are the mai n
carriers of AMS in volcanic rocks, and due to
the high intrinsic susceptibility of t i t anomagne-
tite with respect to paramagnet i c phases, it typi-
cally overwhelms the signal from ot her sources
(Tarling & Hr ouda 1993; Raposo 1997). Optical
observat i ons of the mi neral fabrics in lava flows
have revealed t hat the mi neral fabric of paramag-
netic phases such as plagioclase correlates with
the principal directions given by AMS as well
(Archanj o e t al . 2002; Ferr~ e t al . 2002; Arehanjo
& Launeau, this volume). The met hodol ogy to
retrieve the magma flow has changed consider-
abl y duri ng the last decade (Cafi6n-Tapia, this
volume). Fr om the early i nt erpret at i on of mag-
netic l i neat i on parallel to the flow (Ellwood
1978), it appears t hat i mbri cat i on of magnetic
lineations provides in addi t i on the sense of flow
(Kni ght & Wal ker 1988). To account for the
large occurrence of inverse magnet i c fabrics in
volcanic rocks, Geoffroy e t al . (2002) proposed
to use in addi t i on t he i mbri cat i on of magnet i c
fol i at i on to retrieve the sense of flow. Addi t i on-
ally to the empl acement mechani sm, the combi-
nat i on of AMS studies and pal aeomagnet i c
directions provi de i nf or mat i on on the post-
empl acement def or mat i on (Petronis e t al . , this
volume).
O u t l o o k
The papers in this volume collectively por t r ay the
current state of research on magnetic fabric
analysis, its physical basis and its geological
applications. In practice, the terms magnetic
fabric and AMS remai n nearly synonymous.
AMS cont i nues to be by far the most widely
applied magnetic met hod for characterizing
fabrics because AMS measurement s are fast,
nondest ruct i ve and extremely precise, enabl i ng
regional mappi ng of sedi ment ary features,
strain and magma flow in al most all rock types.
We ant i ci pat e t hat this will cont i nue to be the
case in the comi ng decades, but t hat more
comprehensi ve met hods, including field- and
t emperat ure-dependent measurement s and
remanence ani sot ropy at higher applied fields,
will play an ever-increasing role in magnet i c
fabric charact eri zat i on. Toget her with growing
i nt egrat i on of magnet i c and nonmagnet i c
approaches (e.g. neut r on and X-ray goni omet ry,
Scanni ng El ect ron Mi croscopy with EBSD),
these more detailed approaches will enabl e
more accurate identification and characteriza-
t i on of the separate component s of composi t e
fabrics, their mi neral sources and geological
significance.
On the geophysical side, two of the i mpor t ant
research frontiers where we ant i ci pat e maj or
advances concern inverse fabrics and magnet o-
static interactions. Inverse magnet i c fabrics
involve a t ransposi t i on or per mut at i on of princi-
pal axes with respect to pet rofabri c (e.g. magnetic
l i neat i on normal to bedding in undeformed sedi-
ments), arising from the magnet ocryst al l i ne and
magnet ost at i c peculiarities of a relatively small
number of magnet i c phases (e.g. si ngl e-domai n
magnetite). When ' expected' ori ent at i ons are
unknown, inverse magnet i c fabrics cannot be
recognized a p r i o r i and they provi de misleading
i ndi cat ors of petrofabric. Yet it is precisely
when ' expected' ori ent at i ons are unknown t hat
magnetic fabrics have the greatest pot ent i al
i mport ance, and more reliable met hods of estab-
lishing mi neral PDOs and PCOs from a combi na-
t i on of remanence ani sot ropy, t emperat ure- and
field-dependent AMS measurement s will be of
considerable value. Similarly, i nt eract i on aniso-
t ropy (also known as ' di st ri but i on ani sot ropy' )
is generally underst ood t heoret i cal l y and experi-
mentally, but remains a significant compl i cat i ng
fact or in some geological applications. An i mpor-
t ant challenge for the future will be the develop-
ment of met hods for part i t i oni ng the AMS of
nat ural materials i nt o component s related to
PCO, PDO and interactions,
The scope of magnet i c fabric applications,
which already comprises all nat ur al materials,
cannot expand, but we may expect a cont i nui ng
shift from qual i t at i ve to more quant i t at i ve appli-
cations.
We would like to thank all the people who have con-
tributed to this volume, authors, reviewers and collea-
gues. The following people were asked to review one
or more of the submitted papers, they are all kindly
acknowledged: I. Abad, C. Archanjo, J. Bascou, J.
Becker, K. Benn, G. J. Borradaile, J. P. Callot, E.
Cafi6n-Tapia, D. Czeck, L. Geoffroy, H. de Wall,
B. B. Ellwood, E. C. FerrY, M. Fuller, B. Henry,
A. M. Hirt, J. Hodych, B. Housen, M. Hounslow, F.
Hrouda, J. Jesek, P. Kelso, K. Kodama, F. Lagroix,
P. Launeau, W. Lowrie, M. Mattei, J. M. Miranda,
B. Moskowitz, M. Ort, Averbuch, J. M. Par6s,
B. van der Pluijm, D. Potter, I. Raposo, C. Richter,
P. Robion, P. Rochette, L. Sagnotti, S. Siegesmund,
M. Sintubin, P. Souquet, S. Spassov, J. Y. Talbot,
D. H. Tarling, L. Tauxe, R. Trindade, K. Ullemeyer,
X. Wang, T. Werner. We also want to express our
sincerely thanks to Angharad Hills and Andy Morton
from the Geological Society of London who have
been helpful along all the editorial process.
I NTRODUCTI ON 5
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