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I Need Food and I Deserve a Raise: People Feel More Entitled When Hungry
Emily M. ite!" #ornell $niversity
%le&ander H. 'ordan" Dartmouth #ollege
%(stra)t
Entitlement" or the *eeling that one is more deserving o* positive out)omes than other people are"
has negative )onse+uen)es in the ,or!pla)e and in interpersonal relationships. It is there*ore
important to understand the sour)es o* entitlement. We test the hypothesis that hunger" a sel*-
*o)used state" leads people to *eel more entitled. In .tudy 1" parti)ipants ,ho had not yet eaten
lun)h reported greater entitlement and ,ere more li!ely to re*use to help the resear)her than
parti)ipants ,ho had eaten lun)h. In .tudy /" parti)ipants ,ho ,ere made to *eel hungry (y
smelling a desira(le *ood reported greater entitlement than did parti)ipants ,ho did not smell the
desira(le *ood. Impli)ations o* these results are dis)ussed.
01his paper ,ill (e presented at the /213 %)ademy o* Management %nnual Meeting in
Philadelphia.
/
I NEED FOOD AND I DESERVE A RAISE:
PEOPLE FEEL MORE ENTITLED WHEN HUNGRY
It is (e)oming in)reasingly )ommon *or a poorly per*orming employee to demand a raise
or *or a sla)!ing student to demand an % on a paper. Entitlement is on the rise 41,enge" /2256"
and to understand ,here a sense o* entitlement )omes *rom" ,hat its )onse+uen)es are" and ho,
to deal ,ith entitled individuals" resear)hers have (egun studying entitlement in various groups
su)h as students 47reen(erger" 8essard" #hen" 9 Farruggia" /22:; <opp" inn" Finney" 9 'uri)h"
/2116" )onsumers 4=utori" /212; Fis! 9 Neville" /2116" and employees 4Fis!" /212; Harvey 9
Martin!o" /22>6. In this paper" ,e add to the entitlement literature (y demonstrating *or the *irst
time that a physiologi)al state" hunger" )an (e a sour)e o* entitlement.
Entitlement: Definition, Cone!"en#e, $n% So"&#e
Psy)hologi)al entitlement is the *eeling that one is more deserving o* positive out)omes
than other people are 4#amp(ell" =ona))i" .helton" E&line" 9 =ushman" /2236. Entitled
individuals (elieve that they are o,ed valua(le resour)es 4e.g." a higher salary" more po,er" a
(etter grade6 regardless o* their e**ort or per*orman)e relative to others 41,enge 9 #amp(ell"
/22>6. Entitlement is a type o* sel*-*o)us 4?@=rien" %nastasio" 9 =ushman" /2116 in that entitled
individuals pay attention to themselves and the spe)ial treatment that they should re)eive over
other things. Individuals sho, some sta(le di**eren)es in their levels o* entitlement a)ross time"
and entitlement also varies ,ithin a person a))ording to situational in*luen)es. 1here*ore"
entitlement )an (e )onsidered as (oth a personality trait and a dynami) psy)hologi)al state
41omlinson" /21A6.
Entitlement )arries a host o* so)ial )onse+uen)es" mostly negative. Entitled individuals
(ehave sel*ishly; they thin! a(out their o,n needs (e*ore the needs o* others. For e&ample"
A
entitled individuals are less li!ely to help other people 4ite!" 'ordan" Monin" 9 8ea)h" /2126"
and they are less empathi) and ,orse at perspe)tive-ta!ing 4#amp(ell et al." /2236. In one study"
entitled individuals )laimed more o* a )ommon resour)e" even though sharing it ,ould (e (etter
*or everyone 4#amp(ell et al." /2236" and in another study" entitled parents ,ere more li!ely to
drop out o* a parenting )lass" even though )ontinued enrollment )ould (ene*it their )hildren
4.no," <ern" 9 #urlette" /2216.
Furthermore" entitled individuals are more li!ely to (ehave dishonestly 47reen(erger et
al." /22:6" ma!e unethi)al de)isions 41am(ors!i" =ro,n" 9 #ho,ning" /21/6" and (rea! rules
4=urt" Donnellan" 9 1a)!ett" /21/6. %dditionally" entitled individuals have interpersonal
pro(lems. 1hey are more li!ely to treat their romanti) partners in a sel*ish manner 4#amp(ell et
al." /2236" have sel*-image goals in relationships 4#ro)!er 9 #anevello" /22:6" re*use to
apologiBe *or their mista!es 4Ho,ell" Dop!o" 1uro,s!i" =uro" /2116" a)t aggressively ,hen
)riti)iBed 4#amp(ell et al." /2236" and have hostility and )on*li)t in their relationships 4Moeller"
#ro)!er" 9 =ushman" /2126.
Resear)h demonstrates that entitlement has spe)i*i) negative )onse+uen)es in the
,or!pla)e. Entitled individuals are more li!ely to (lame e&ternal *a)tors *or pro(lems at ,or!
4Harvey 9 Martin!o" /22>6 and per)eive that they are (eing treated poorly (y their supervisors
4Harvey" Harris" 7illis" 9 Martin!o" in press6. Entitlement is also asso)iated ,ith redu)ed Co(
satis*a)tion and in)reased turnover intent 4Harvey 9 Martin!o" /22>6. %dditionally" people ,ho
have to intera)t ,ith entitled individuals in the ,or!pla)e may e&perien)e de)reases in their
physi)al and psy)hologi)al ,ell-(eing 4Fis! 9 Neville" /2116.
7iven that entitlement has so many negative )onse+uen)es in the ,or!pla)e and in li*e in
general" it is important to understand ,hat )auses entitlement. .ome s)holars have dis)ussed
3
ho, messages in the media 41,enge" /2256 or an organiBation@s )ulture or re,ard system
41omlinson" /21A6 )an )ontri(ute to entitlement. Furthermore" resear)h has sho,n that people@s
entitlement in)reases a*ter they re)all an un*air event 4ite! et al." /2126" during a negotiation
a*ter investing in )ostly outside options 4Malhotra 9 7ino" /2116" and a*ter they are e&posed to
entitlement-related ,ords 4?@=rien et al." /2116. Moving (eyond these so)ial and )ognitive
)auses o* in)reased entitlement" ,e propose that entitlement may also (e driven (y ampli*ied
levels o* a (asi) physiologi)al driveDhungerD,hi)h may )ause people to turn their *o)us
in,ard and pla)e their needs a(ove those o* others. I* our hypothesis is supported" this ,ould
point to a sour)e o* entitlement that is (oth ,idely varia(le and readily modi*ia(le in the
,or!pla)e and else,here.
H"n'e& $n% Self(Fo#"
Hunger is thought to (e a lo,er-order need that has to (e satis*ied (e*ore people )an
,orry a(out higher-order needs" su)h as (eing so)ial 4<enri)!" 7ris!evi)ius" Neu(erg" 9
.)haller" /212; Maslo," 1>3A6. Hunger )an (e )onsidered a motivationally-intense negative
a**e)t" and motivationally-intense a**e)ts narro, attention 47a(le 9 Harmon-'ones" /2126. 1hus"
,hen people are hungry and paying )lose attention to themselves and their desire *or *ood" they
may have trou(le *o)using on anything else" espe)ially the needs o* others" giving rise to
psy)hologi)al entitlement.
%lthough most past resear)h on hunger has e&amined attention" memory" and pre*eren)e
*or *ood-related )ues 4e.g." 7reen" Elliman" 9 Rogers" 1>>5; Mogg" =radley" Hyare" 9 8ee"
1>>:; Morris 9 Dolan" /221; Read 9 van 8eeu,en" 1>>:6" some studies have e&amined ho,
hunger )an a**e)t so)ial Cudgments 4e.g." Nelson & Morrison, 2005; Pettijohn, Sacco, & Yerkes,
2009; .,ami 9 1ovee" /2256. For e&ample" one study sho,ed that people ,ho had not yet eaten
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dinner ,ere less interested in so)ial a)tivities than people ,ho had Cust eaten dinner 4PettiCohn"
%hmed" 9 PettiCohn" /21/6. 1he results o* this study are )onsistent ,ith our idea that hungry
people are *o)used on themselves and their needs instead o* other people" although the authors
did not loo! spe)i*i)ally at ,hether hunger in)reases entitlement.
C"&&ent Ree$&#)
In this paper" ,e e&plore the relationship (et,een hunger and entitlement. First" in a
reanalysis o* an e&isting data set" ,e e&amine the )orrelation (et,een hunger and entitlement.
1hen" in .tudy 1" ,e survey parti)ipants (e*ore or a*ter they eat lun)h to e&amine ,hether
hungry parti)ipants 4i.e." those ,ho have not yet eaten lun)h6 report greater entitlement and a)t
more entitled than do parti)ipants ,ho are not hungry. In .tudy /" ,e manipulate hunger ,ith
*ood smells and e&amine ,hether hungry parti)ipants 4i.e." those ,ho smell deli)ious *ood6
report greater entitlement than do parti)ipants ,ho are not hungry. 1hese studies test the
hypothesis that ,hen people are hungry" they *eel entitled.
REANALYSIS OF AN E*ISTING DATA SET
%s an initial test o* our hypothesis" ,e e&amined the )orrelation (et,een hunger and
entitlement in an e&isting data set )olle)ted *or a separate purpose. In the study" parti)ipants ,ere
told that they ,ould (e tasting and rating various *oods. Parti)ipants *irst reported ho, hungry
they ,ere on a s)ale *rom 1 4not at all hungry6 to F 4very hungry6. 41his item ,as originally a
*iller item.6 1hey then tasted and rated the *oods. %*ter,ard" parti)ipants *illed out the
Psy)hologi)al Entitlement .)ale 4PE.; #amp(ell et al." /2236 in ,hi)h they rated their level o*
agreement 41 G strong disagreement" F G strong agreement6 ,ith items su)h as HI honestly *eel
I@m Cust more deserving than othersI and HPeople li!e me deserve an e&tra (rea! no, and then.I
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Parti)ipants ,ere as!ed to report ho, they *elt at the present moment so that a measure o* state
entitlement ,as )olle)ted 4J G .>26.
Results *rom 135 parti)ipants sho,ed a signi*i)ant )orrelation (et,een hunger and
entitlement" r G ./2" p G .2/. %s predi)ted" parti)ipants ,ho ,ere hungrier *elt more entitled.
%lthough this )orrelation is )onsistent ,ith our hypothesis" the reason *or this )orrelation is
un)lear. It is possi(le that hunger leads to greater entitlement" as ,e are predi)ting" or that
entitled people e&aggerate their hunger or other needs. .tudy 1 see!s to address this issue (y
surveying people ,ho are )lassi*ied as hungry or not hungry (y an o(Ce)tive standard.
STUDY +
1he goal o* this study ,as to determine ,hether *eeling hungry leads people to (e more
entitled. Follo,ing a )ommon method used in other resear)h on hunger and so)ial pre*eren)es
4e.g." PettiCohn" %hmed" 9 PettiCohn" /21/.6" parti)ipants ,ere surveyed as they entered or e&ited
a dining hall at lun)htime" and ,e )ompared the sel*-reported entitlement o* parti)ipants ,ho
had not eaten lun)h yet ,ith that o* those ,ho had eaten lun)h. 7iven that entitled people are
less li!ely to help others 4ite! et al." /2126" to measure an entitled (ehavior" ,e also as!ed
parti)ipants i* they ,ould help the resear)her (y *illing out an additional survey.
Met)o%
Participants. ?ne hundred and three undergraduates 4E5 ,omen" 3F men" Mage G 1>.26
)ompleted the survey on the ,ay into or out o* a dining hall. 1hey re)eived a pen *or
parti)ipating.
Survey. Parti)ipants (egan (y indi)ating ,hether they had eaten lun)h or not and ho,
hungry they ,ere at that moment on a F-point s)ale *rom 1 4not at all hungry6 to F 4very hungry6.
F
Ne&t" parti)ipants *illed out the PE. 4#amp(ell et al." /2236 as a measure o* their entitlement 4J
G .>26. 1hen a*ter reporting their (asi) demographi)s" parti)ipants read:
1han! you *or )ompleting the survey. 1here is an additional" optional survey on the (a)!.
Kou do not have to )omplete it" (ut it ,ould help us i* you *illed it out. I* you are ,illing
to )omplete the se)ond survey" please *lip this paper over to the (a)!.
I* parti)ipants )hose to )ontinue to the (a)! o* the survey" they then )ompleted an
unrelated survey as!ing a(out male and *emale sports )oa)hes.
Re"lt
Manipulation check. ?* the parti)ipants surveyed" E2 had eaten lun)h" and EA had not
yet eaten lun)h. Parti)ipants ,ho had not eaten lun)h ,ere mu)h hungrier 4M G E.2:" SD G 1.236
than ,ere parti)ipants ,ho had eaten lun)h 4M G 1.>/" SD G 2.>36" t41216 G 15.13" p L .221.
1here*ore" surveying people (e*ore and a*ter lun)h ,as a good ,ay o* )omparing hungry and
non-hungry people.
Entitlement. %s predi)ted" parti)ipants ,ho had not eaten lun)h reported a signi*i)antly
greater sense o* entitlement on the PE. 4M G A.3:" SD G 1.1/6 than did parti)ipants ,ho had
eaten lun)h 4M G /.:>" SD G 1.2/6" t41216 G /.F:" p G .21. Furthermore" parti)ipants ,ho had not
eaten lun)h ,ere less li!ely to *ill out the e&tra survey 452M helped6 than ,ere parti)ipants ,ho
had eaten lun)h 4F:M helped6" N
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41" N G 12A6 G A.FA" p G .2E. 1hus" parti)ipants ,ho ,ere
hungry not only said that they *elt more deserving" (ut they a)ted entitled (y re*using to help the
resear)her.
Di#"ion
1his study provides support *or our hypothesis that hungry people *eel more entitled.
Parti)ipants ,ho had not eaten lun)h said they *elt more deserving than others and ,ere more
:
li!ely to re*use to help the resear)her. %lthough it is possi(le that parti)ipants ,ho had not eaten
lun)h re*used to *ill out the e&tra survey (e)ause they ,ere in a rush to get into the dining hall"
this does not e&plain the signi*i)ant di**eren)e on the PE. given that it ta!es the same amount o*
time and e**ort to endorse more or less entitled responses on this s)ale.
%lso" note that in this study" the relationship (et,een hunger and entitlement )annot (e
e&plained (y an in)reased li!elihood o* )omplaining a(out hunger on the part o* the entitled
individuals. People ,ere surveyed either on their ,ay into or out o* the dining hall" and ,hether
they had or had not eaten lun)h ,ould not (e a**e)ted (y their entitlement levels.
STUDY ,
1he goal o* this study ,as to manipulate hunger using *ood smells. 1he presentation o*
*ood-related stimuli has (een sho,n to (e an e**e)tive hunger indu)tion in other resear)h 4e.g."
Pie)h" Hampshire" ?,en" 9 Par!inson" /22>6. We made the la( room either smell normal or
smell li!e piBBa" and ,e e&amined ,hether parti)ipants in the piBBa-smelling room reported
greater entitlement.
Met)o%
Participants. 1,o hundred and thirteen undergraduates 41AF ,omen" FE men" 1
unreported" Mage G 1>.:6 )ompleted this e&periment in e&)hange *or OE.
Manipulation and procedure. Parti)ipants too! the study in a la( room that either
smelled li!e piBBa or did not smell li!e piBBa. In the piBBa smell )ondition" parti)ipants sat in a
la( room in ,hi)h a *roBen piBBa ,as (eing )oo!ed in a toaster oven. Part,ay through the
e&periment" someone entered the la( room and said that she ,as gra((ing her lun)h. .he then
too! the piBBa out o* the toaster oven and le*t. .he )losed the door on her ,ay out to !eep the
piBBa smell trapped in the room. In the no smell )ondition" parti)ipants sat in the same la( room
>
(ut ,ithout a piBBa smell and ,ithout a visi(le toaster oven. Part,ay through the e&periment"
someone entered the la( room and said that she ,as gra((ing some pen)ils. .he also )losed the
door on her ,ay out.
Parti)ipants in (oth )onditions *irst played t,o ,ord games 4they listed )ities that started
,ith H#I and )ompleted a ,ord sear)h6" and they ans,ered *iller +uestions a(out the tas!s. 1hen
parti)ipants *illed out a personality test in ,hi)h they reported ,hether they agreed ,ith various
statements a(out themselves at the present moment 41 G strong disagreement" F G strong
agreement6. 1he personality test in)luded the items *rom the PE. 4#amp(ell et al." /2236" ,hi)h
,ere used as our measure o* entitlement" 4J G .:56" as ,ell as some *iller items used in other
resear)h 4ite! et al." /212" E&periment A6. Ne&t" parti)ipants responded to some *iller +uestions
su)h as the short *orm o* the Positive and Negative %**e)t .)hedule 4Ma)!innon" 'orm"
#hristensen" <orten" 'a)om(" 9 Rodgers 1>>>6 and demographi)s +uestions. %t the end o* the
study" parti)ipants reported ho, hungry they ,ere on a s)ale *rom 1 4not at all hungry6 to F 4very
hungry6. 1hey also reported ,hether they )ould smell piBBa in the la( room 4as a manipulation
)he)!6 and ho, mu)h they li!e piBBa on a s)ale *rom 1 4not at all6 to F 4very much6. 1he
+uestions a(out hunger and piBBa ,ere pla)ed at the end to help disguise the purpose o* the
study.
Re"lt
We e&)luded the data *rom 1/ parti)ipants ,ho got the manipulation )he)! +uestion
in)orre)t 4i.e." said that there ,as no piBBa in the room ,hen there ,as or vi)e versa6. %nd
(e)ause smelling piBBa should only ma!e people hungry i* they li!e piBBa" ,e e&)luded the data
*rom A5 additional parti)ipants ,ho said that they did not li!e piBBa 4i.e." responded less than 3
on the F-point s)ale6. 1his le*t 155 parti)ipants in our analyses.
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Manipulation check. Parti)ipants ,ho smelled the piBBa reported marginally higher
hunger levels 4M G A.:1" SD G /.2/6 than did parti)ipants ,ho did not smell the piBBa 4M G A.A1"
SD G 1.F:6" t415A6 G 1.5:" p G .2>. It is possi(le that the e**e)t siBe on the hunger manipulation
)he)! +uestion ,as small (e)ause this item appeared to,ard the end o* the study ,hen
parti)ipants had adCusted to the piBBa smell. We also as!ed parti)ipants in the piBBa smell
)ondition ,hether the smell made them hungry" and the maCority said that it did" so this provides
some additional eviden)e that the manipulation ,as e**e)tive.
Entitlement. %s predi)ted" parti)ipants ,ho smelled the piBBa reported a signi*i)antly
greater sense o* entitlement on the PE. 4M G A.EF" SD G 1.226 than did parti)ipants ,ho did not
smell piBBa during the study 4M G A./5" SD G 2.>16" t41536 G /.2:" p G .23. 1hus" parti)ipants
,ho got hungry *rom the piBBa smell *elt more entitled.
Di#"ion
1he results o* this study repli)ate those o* .tudy 1. %gain" hunger led to in)reased
entitlement. ?* the parti)ipants ,ho li!ed piBBa" they reported greater entitlement ,hen the room
smelled li!e piBBa as )ompared to ,hen the room did not smell li!e piBBa. 1hus" it seems that
hunger ,as indu)ed in people ,ho li!ed piBBa" and that made those people *eel deserving o*
good things.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
In this paper" ,e provided eviden)e *or our hypothesis that hunger leads people to *eel
more entitled. In our reanalysis o* e&isting data *rom a study involving the rating o* *oods" ,e
*ound that sel*-reports o* hunger and entitlement ,ere positively )orrelated. In .tudy 1"
parti)ipants ,ho had not yet eaten lun)h reported greater entitlement and ,ere more li!ely to
re*use to help the resear)her than parti)ipants ,ho had eaten lun)h. In .tudy /" parti)ipants ,ho
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,ere made to *eel hungry (y smelling a desira(le *ood reported greater entitlement than did
parti)ipants ,ho did not smell the desira(le *ood. 1hus" it seems that the sel*-*o)us involved in
*eeling hungry e&tends (eyond *ood a)+uisition. Hungry people thin! a(out themselves instead
o* others and *o)us on their o,n needs" ,hi)h leads them to *eel and a)t entitled.
Dealing ,ith entitled individuals is not easy and )an even lead to redu)tions in our ,ell-
(eing 4Fis! 9 Neville" /2116" so it is important to understand ,here entitlement )omes *rom and
ho, ,e )an redu)e it. Hunger levels *lu)tuate throughout the day" and people@s sense o*
entitlement seems to *lu)tuate along ,ith their hunger. #ompared to other sour)es o* in)reased
entitlement su)h as (eing treated un*airly 4ite! et al." /2126 or hearing entitled messages in the
media 41,enge" /2256" entitlement (rought on (y hunger should (e mu)h more modi*ia(le.
People might not (e a(le to *orget the un*air event or the message *rom the media" (ut" assuming
that *ood is availa(le" they )an eat. Entitlement )an )ause (ig pro(lems in the ,or!pla)e 4Harvey
9 Martin!o" /22>6" so managers might ,ant to provide *ood to employees or ,ait to s)hedule
potentially-)ontentious meetings until a*ter lun)h. .imilarly" i* a person ,ants to )ut (a)! on his
or her o,n entitlement" that person should ma!e sure to eat (e*ore intera)ting ,ith others or
ma!ing important de)isions. It is interesting to note that" although )ertainly due to a host o*
*a)tors" organiBations ,ith readily-availa(le *ood" su)h as 7oogle" are also !no,n *or having
unentitled" grate*ul" and satis*ied employees.
?ne interesting +uestion *or *uture resear)h is ho, our *indings e&tend to people ,ho *eel
)hroni)ally hungry or e&tremely hungry. It is un)lear ,hether our results ,ould generaliBe to
individuals ,ho are trying to lose ,eight and ,ho are thus moderately hungry all the time" or to
individuals ,ho do not have a))ess to enough *ood and ,ho are involuntarily under*ed and
possi(ly e&tremely hungry. % se)ond +uestion *or *uture resear)h is ,hether other (asi)
1/
physiologi)al drives" (esides hunger" ,ould produ)e the same e**e)ts. We predi)t they ,ould.
For e&ample" thirst or a )raving *or drugs among those dependent on drugs should have similar
e**e)ts. People in these states should also (e highly *o)used on themselves and on satis*ying their
lo,er-order needs. In our *uture resear)h" ,e ,ill manipulate thirst and e&amine ,hether
entitlement in)reases as thirst in)reases.
In )on)lusion" in this paper" ,e demonstrated ho, a physiologi)al state" hunger" )ould (e
a sour)e o* entitlement. $nderstanding the relationship (et,een hunger and entitlement is
important (e)ause it provides one easy ,ay to potentially modi*y a person@s sense o* entitlement"
and redu)ing entitlement )ould have many positive )onse+uen)es in the ,or!pla)e" s)hool" or at
home.
1A
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