Abebe Handout

Introduction to Electrical Machines
173
CHAPTER FOUR
DC MACHINCES
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The dc machines are versatile and extensively used in industry. A wide variety of volt-
ampere or torque-speed characteristics can be obtained from various connections of the
field winding. Dc machines can work as generators, motors & brakes. In the generator
mode the machine is driven by a prime mover (such as a steam turbine or a diesel
engine) with the mechanical power converted into electrical power. In the motor mode,
the machine drives a mechanical load with the electrical power supplied converted into
mechanical power. In the brake mode, the machine decelerates on account of the power
supplied or dissipated by it and, therefore, produces a mechanical braking action.
There is almost no modern use of dc machines as generators although in the earlier
stages of electrical power generator and distribution. D.C. generators were the principle
means of supplying electrical power to industrial and domestic consumers. Presently, all
the land based electrical power networks are a.c systems of generation, transmission and
distribution.
The almost universal use of ac systems is on account of their lower generation and
transmission costs, higher efficiency (large bulk of ac power can be transmitted and
distributed over wide areas and long distance at much higher voltages that are impossible
in dc system), greater reliability on account of interconnection and control.
No doubt, application like aerocrafts, ships and road mounted vehicles which are isolated
from land based ac networks employ dc sources including dc generators and secondary
batteries for power supply but the modern trend is to use ac generators with the dc supply
being obtained by rectification with the help of static power rectifiers. D.C. generators
are still being used to produce power in small back-up and stand-by generating plants
driven by windmill and mountain streams (minihydro-electric plants) to provide
uninterrupted power supply.
Apart from dc generators, the dc motors are finding increasing applications, especially
where large magnitude and precisely controlled torque is required. Such motors are used
in rolling mills, in overhead cranes and for traction purpose like in forklift trucks, electric
vehicles, and electric trains. They are also used in portable machine tools supplied from
batteries, in automotive vehicles as starter motors, blower motors and in many control
applications as actuators and as speed and position sensing device (tachogenerators for
speed sensing and servomotors for positioning and tracing).
4.2. CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINES
The dc machines used for industrial applications have essentially three major parts:
a) Field system (stator); b) Armature (Rotor) and c) commutator
All the components of the dc machine are illustrated in cut-away view of Figure 4.1.
Chapter One: Electromagnetic Principles
174

Figure 4.1 cut-away view of DC machines
1.shaft; 2.end-bearings; 3. Commutator; 4. brushes; 5.armature; 6. main-pole; 7.main-
pole field winding; 8.frame; 9.end-shield; 10.ventilator; 11.basement; 12.bearings
Field System
The field system is located on the stationary part of the machine called stator. The field
system is designated for producing magnetic flux and, therefore, provides the necessary
excitation for operation of machine. Figure 4.2 shows that the main flux paths which
starts from a North pole, crosses the air gap and then travels down to the armature core.
There, it divides into two equal (/2) halves, each half enter the nearby South Pole so as
to complete the flux. Each flux line crosses the air-gap twice. Some flux lines may not
enter the armature; this flux, called the leakage flux, is not shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.1 Flux paths in a 6-pole dc machines
175
The stator of dc machines comprises of
1. Main poles: These poles are designed to produce the main magnetic flux
2. Frame: These provide support for the machine. In many machines the
frame is also a part of the magnetic circuit.
3. Interpoles: These poles are designed to improve commutation conditions to
ensure sparkles operation of machine.

Figure 4.3 Main-pole
Main-pole
Poles are made of sheet steel laminations of 1.0 to 1.2mm thickness (nowadays the
thickness becomes 0.4-0.5mm). The pole shoes support the field coils placed on the pole
body and also spread the total flux over a greater area, thereby reduce the air gap
reluctance and giving the desired flux distribution to limit saturation in the teeth of the
armature. ) (
A
l
= .The poles are secured to the yoke by means of bolts. In small

machines the pole are built of steel forgings, bolted directly to the yoke. In case of
machines having compensating windings, the pole face is slotted to accommodate the
windings.
Yoke (Frame)
The stator of a dc machines consists of a frame or yoke, and poles which support the
field windings. The Frame or Yoke in addition to being a part of a magnetic circuit
serves as mechanical support for entire assembly.
Earlier, cast iron was used for the construction of yoke but it has been replaced by cast
steel. This is because cast iron has saturation density of 0.8 Wb/m
2
while saturation
occurs in cast steel at density of approximately 1.5 Wb/m
2
. Thus, the cross section of the
cast steel frame or yoke is half that of iron cast and hence cast steel is used in case it is
desired to reduce the weight of machine. Fabricated steel yokes are commonly used, as
they are economical and have consistent magnetic & mechanical properties. For very
small sized machines it may still be advantageous to use cost iron frames but for medium
and large sizes rolled steel is used.
Interlopes
In addition to the main poles, modern direct current machines are also provided with
interlopes with windings on them in order to improve commutation under loaded
176
conditions. They are arranged midway between the mains poles and are bolted to the
yolk. Laminated interlopes are used in machine with sever commutation problems. For
small and medium size machines they could be solid.
Armature
The armature is the rotating part (rotor) of the dc machine where the process of
electromechanical energy conversion takes pace. The armature is a cylindrical body,
which rotates between the magnetic poles. An isometric view of a small size armature
structure is shown in Figure 4.4 (a). The armature and the field system are separated
from each other by an air gap. The armature consists of:
Armature core with slots and
Armature winding accommodated in slots
The purpose of the armature is to rotate the conductors in the uniform magnetic field and
to induce an alternating e.m.f in its winding. The armature core is normally made from
high permeability silicon-steel laminations of 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness, which are
insulated from one another by varnish or ceramic insulation. The use of high grade steel
is to keep hysteresis loss low, which is due to cyclic change of magnetization caused by
rotation of the core in the magnetic field and to reduce the eddy current in the core which
are induced by the rotation of the core in the magnetic field.
In order to dissipate the heat produced by hysteresis and eddy current losses etc,
ventilating ducts are provided. By the fanning action of the armature, air is drawn in
through these ducts, thus producing efficient ventilation. In the armature core of small
diameters, circular holes are punched in the center of the laminations for the shaft
(Figure 4.4(b)).

(a) (b)
Figure 4.4 (a) Isometric view of armature; (b) armature lamination
Commutator
It is mounted on the rotor of a dc machine and it performs with help of brushes a
mechanical rectification of power: from ac to dc in case of generators and dc to ac in
case of motors. The ends of armature coils are connected to the commutator, which
together with the brushes rectifies the alternating e.m.f induced in the armature coils and
helps in the collection of current. It is cylindrically shaped and is placed at one end of the
177
armature. The construction of the commutator is quite complicated because it involves
the combination of copper, iron and insulating materials. The connection of armature
conductors to the commutator is made with the help of risers. The risers connecting the
segments to the armature coils are made of copper strips for large machines. The outer
end of the riser is shaped so as to form clip into which the armature conductors are
soldered. The commutator bars are built of a small wedge shaped segments of high
conductivity hard drawn copper insulated from each other by mice or micanite of about
0.8mm thickness. The commutator segments are assembled over a steel cylinder. V-
shaped grove is provided at each end of the segments to prevent them from flying away
under the action of centrifugal force. Threaded steel rings are used to tighten the various
components together (see Figure 4.5). The commutator assembly is force and press fitted
on the shaft. Satisfactory performance of dc machines is dependent under good
mechanically stability of the commutator under all conditions of speed and temperature
within the operating range. A mechanically unstable commutator manifests itself in a
pool commutation performance and results in unsatisfactory bush life.
Commutator segment
Riser
Thread bolt
Insulating V-groove

End ring
End ring
Riser
Insulating V ring
Copper commutator bars
Thread bolt

(a) (b)
Figure 4.5 (a) cut-away view of commutator; (b) commutator segment
4.2.4. Brushes and Brush Holder
Brushes are needed to collect the current from the rotating commutator or to lead the
current to it. Normally brushes are made up of carbon and graphite, so that while in
contact with the commutator, the commutator surface is not spoiled. The brush is
accommodated in the brush holder where a spring presses it against the commutator with
pressure of 1.5 to 2.0 Ncm
2
(see Figure 4.6). A twisted flexible copper conductor called
pigtail securely fixed in to the brush is used to make the connection between the brush
and its brush holder. Normally brush holders used in dc machines are of box type. The
numbers of brush holders usually equal to the number of main poles in dc machines.

Figure 4.6 Brush and brush holder
178
4.3. PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR
An electrical generator is a machine, which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. The energy conversion is based on principle of dynamically induced emf,
whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is produced in it
(Faradays law). This emf causes a current to flow if the conductor is closed. The basic
essential parts of an electrical generator are:
A magnetic Field and
A conductor or conductors, which can so move as to cut the flux.
Figure 4.7 shows the schematic diagram of a simple machine consists of a coil ABCD
rotating in the magnetic field of a strong permanent magnet or powerful electromagnet.
The magnetic lines in the space between N and S poles are directed from the North Pole
N to the South Pole S as shown in Figure 4.7. The ends of the coil ABCD are connected
to two copper rings R
1
and R
2
, fixed on the shaft. Two brushes B
1
and B
2
connected to
the external load circuit make contact with the copper rings R
1
and R
2
respectively.
N S
A
D
C B
Load
B
1
B
2
R
2
R
1
+
_

N S
A
D
C
B
Load
B
1
B
2
R
2
R
1
+
_

(a) (b)
Figure 4.7 (a) and (b) Schematic diagram of a simple dc generator
Let the coil be rotated in an ACW, with constant surface speed v[m/s] in relation to the
magnetic field . According to Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction, an emf will
be induced in the rotating coil and is given by
volts Blv e =
As l and v are constant for particular case,
179
volts B t tan cons e =
Hence under the given conditions, the change in the magnitude of induced e.m.f with
time depends upon the magnetic flux density distribution under the poles. It may be
assumed neglecting harmonics it is a sine wave distribution. The direction of the induced
emf in this case can be determined by Flemings right hand rule as shown in Figure
below. Hence the conductor AB of the coil ABCD moves downward and CD moves
upward, the direction of the induced emf in the coil is along DCBA as shown in Figure
4.7(a). The current in the external remains the same half a revolution of the coil starting
from its vertical position.

S S
N N
EMF
Flux
Motion

e e

Figure 4.8 Right-hand rule to determine the direction of induced emf.
Similarly, in the next half of the revolution, the direction of the induced emf is reversed
and hence the current flows from brush B
2
to B
1
as shown in Figure 4.7(b).The
magnitude of current in the external circuit also varies with time as per sine law; i.e. its
magnitude is not constant with time.
If the machine has P poles and the armature rotates at N revolutions per minute, then the
frequency of the induced emf in the armature is,
120
PN
f = , Hz
The above discussion clearly indicates that the e.m.f induced in the armature of a dc
generator is of alternating nature, alternating with frequency of f hertz depending upon
the number of poles in the machine and the speed of the armature.
However, the output voltage or the current of dc generator must be unidirectional and
that too of a constant value. Thus to compel the above alternating current to flow in one
stipulated direction through the external load circuit, the dc machine is furnished with a
special device called the commutator.
Figure 4.9 shows that the coil ABCD connected to a ring commutator split in two halves
R
1
and R
2
well insulated from each other. The rings of the commutator are so arranged
that during half the revolution of the coil, each half ring remain in contact with a
particular brush. Figure 4.9(a) wile during the next half revolution, when the current is
reversed, the same half ring is in contact with other brush as shown in Figure 4.9 (b).
180
N S
A
D
C B
Load
B
1
B
2
R
2
R
1

N S
A D
C B
Load
B
1
B
2
R
2
R
1

(b)
Figure 4.9 coil ABCD connected to a ring commutator
As a result, current in the external load circuit remains in the same direction. The nature
of the variation of current in the external load current with the rotation of the coil, i.e.
with time, has been shown in Figure 4.10. Such unidirectional current or emf which
fluctuates between maximum and zero values is quite inconvenient for practical
purposes.
0
90
0
180
0
270
0
360
0
450
0
540
0
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

Figure 4.10 Unidirectional current wave shape
To overcome the above difficulty of the nature of a move shape, consider two coils
whose planes are inclined to each other at an angle of 90
0
and divided the commutator
ring mounted on the same shaft into four parts. The leads of each coil are connected to
the two diametrically opposite parts of the ring. In such case, the e.m.f or current wave
shape due to either coil will be of the same type but 90
0

out of phase, i.e. when the
current in one reaches maximum value, the current in the other coil has zero value as
shown in Figure 4.11. The resultant current in the external circuit due to the rotation of
the two coils simultaneously at the same speed can be obtained by superimposing the
two current waves. Hence, the resultant current wave shape is less fluctuating. Similarly,
if a large number of coils are provided on the rotating armature of the machine with
double the number of commutator segments, the wave shape of the resultant current or
181
the emf will practically be parallel to the time axis and hence constant with respect to
time.

Figure 4.11 Resultant current wave shape
4.4. TYPES OF DC GENERATORS
The field winding and the armature winding can be interconnected in various ways to
provide a wide variety of performance characteristics. This can be taken as outstanding
advantages of a dc machines. A dc machine can work as an electromechanical energy
converter only when its field winding is excited with direct current, except for small dc
machines employing permanent magnets. According to the method of their field
excitation dc generators are classified into the following group:
a) Separately excited and
b) Self excited
DC machines may have one or more field windings and their method of excitation,
determines the performance characteristics of the dc machine.
Separately Excited
Its field winding consists of several hundreds turns of fine wire and is connected to a
separate or external dc source i.e. field winding are energized from an independent
external sources of dc current. The voltage of the external dc source has no relation with
the armature voltage, i.e. the field winding energized from a separate supply, can be
designed for any convenient voltage.

Important relationships

L a
I I =

a a L g
R I V E + =
iii.
a g dev
I E P =

L L del
I V P =

Figure 4.12 separately excited dc machines
Self Excitation
182
When the field winding is excited by its own armature, the machines is said to be a self
excited dc machine. In these machines, the field poles must have a residual magnetism,
so that when the armature rotates, a residual voltage appears across the brushes. This
residual voltage should establish a current in the field winding so as to reinforce the
residual flux. According the connection of the field winding with the armature winding,
a self-excited dc machine can be sub-divided as follows:
Series Excitation
The field winding consists of a few turns of thick wire and is connected in series with the
armature. In other words, the series field current depends on the armature current and in
view of this; a series field may be called a current operated field.

L se a
I I I = =
( )
se a a L g
R R I V E + + =
a g dev
I E P =
L L del
I V P =

Figure 4.13 Series excited dc machine
Shunt Excitation
The field winding consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and is connected in
parallel (or in shunt) with the armature. Therefore the voltage across the armature
terminals and the shunt field is the same and it is for this reason that a shunt field may be
called voltage operated field.


L
sh
sh
sh
R
V
I =

L sh a
I I I + =
iii.
a a L g
R I V E + =

a g dev
I E P =

L L del
I V P =

Figure 4.14 Shunt excited dc machine
Remember that series field and shunt field windings are characterized by low and high
resistance respectively. In some application, a shunt excited winding may be replaced by
a separately excited winding.
183
Compound Excitation
A compound excitation involves both series-exited winding and the shunt-excited
winding. From the view point of connections, a dc compound machine may have short-
shunt connection or a long shunt connection. In short shunt connection of Figure 4.15 (a)
the shunt field or voltage excited winding is connected across the armature terminals. In
long-shunt connection, the shunt field is connected across
the series connection of the armature and series winding or
the machine or line terminals as shown in Figure 4.15 (b).
However there is appreciable difference in the operating characteristics of short-shunt
and long shunt. The choice between the two types depends on mechanical considerations
of connections or reversing switches.

(a)


L se
I I =

sh
se se L
sh
a a g
sh
R
R I V
R
R I E
I
+
=
=

iii.
L sh a
I I I + =

se L a a L g
R I R I V E + + =

a g dev
I E P =

L L del
I V P =

(b)


se a
I I =

( )
sh
L
sh
se a a g
sh
R
V
R
R R I E
I =
+
=
iii.
L sh a
I I I + =
( )
se a a L g
R R I V E + + =

a g dev
I E P =

L L del
I V P =

Figure 4.15 DC compound machine connections for a) short-shunt and b) long shunt

In a compound machine, the magnetic flux produced by the shunt field is stronger than
the series field. When series field aids the shunt field, so that the resultant air gap flux
per pole is increases, then the machine is said to be cumulatively compounded. In
Figure 4.16 (a) the direction of arrows corresponds to the direction magnetic flux
produced by shunt and series field windings. As the two arrows are in the same direction
in Figure 4.16 (a), this Figure is for a cumulatively compounded dc machine.
184

(a) (b)
Figure 4.16 compound excited dc machine (a) cumulative and b) differential
On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field so that the resultant air gap flux
per pole is decreased, the machine is called a differentially compounded dc machine as
shown in Figure 4.16(b).
In Figure 4.15(a), each pole of compound machine is shown to possess shunt and series
field windings. Figure 4.17(a) illustrated how these windings are arranged on one pole of
a dc machine. In Figure 4.17 shunt field coil is placed near yoke and series field coil near
the pole shoe just for sake of clarity.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.17 Series and shunt field windings on one pole of dc compound machine
Actually physical arrangement of these coils is shown in Figure 4.17 (b). It is seen that
first shunt field coil is wound around the pole body and over it is then wound the series
field coil. The reasons for placing the series field coil outside are:
i) convenience in the construction and
ii) for its better cooling
4.5. EMF EQUATION OF DC GENERATOR
Let = flux per pole in Weber
Z = total number of armature conductors
= Number of slots Number of conductors per slot
185
P = Number of poles
a = number of parallel paths in armature
N= armature rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm)
E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated emf, Eg= emf generated in one of the parallel path
Average emf generated / conductor volt ,
dt
d
=
Now, flux cut / conductor in one revolution, Wb , P d =
Number of revolution / second ond sec ,
60
N
=
Hence according to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction
emf generated / conductor volt ,
60
PN
dt
d
= =
For wave winding

Number of parallel path a = 2
Number of conductors (in series) in one path
2
Z
=
emf generated / path volt
60 2
ZPN
2
Z
60
PN
= =

For lap winding

Number of parallel path a = P
Number of conductors (in series) in one path
P
Z
=
emf generated / path volt
60
ZN
P
Z
60
PN
= =
In general, the Generated emf
volt
a
P
60
ZN
E
g
|
\
|
=

Where, a =2 for wave winding
a = P for lap winding
N K E
a g
=
where,
a 60
ZP
K
a
= is machine constant.
Example 4.1 A dc shunt generator supplies a load of 10 kW at 220 V through feeders
of resistance 0.1. The resistance of armature and shunt field windings is 0.05 and
100 respectively. Calculate, (i) terminal voltage, (ii) shunt field current and (iii)
generated emf.
Solution
i) Load supplied , P
del
= 10 kW
186
= 10 10
3
W
Voltage at the load terminals = 220 V
Thus load current,

A 5 . 45
220
10 10
V
P
I
3
del
L
=
= =

Resistance of the feeders = 0.1
Voltage drop in the feeders = I
L
0.1
= 45.5 0.1 = 4.55 V
Terminal voltage across the armature terminals, V
= 220 + 4.55
= 224.55 V
Shunt field current,

A 25 . 2
100
55 . 224
R
V
I
sh
'
sh
=
= =

Generated emf,

V 82 . 226
05 . 0 5 . 45 55 . 224
R I V E
a a
'
g
=
+ =
+ =

Example 4.2 A 4-pole dc shunt generator with lap-connected armature supplies a load
of 100 A at 200 V. The armature resistance is 0.1 and the shunt field resistance is 80
. Find (i) total armature current, (ii) current per armature path, and (iii) emf generated.
Assume a brush contact drop of 2V.
Solution
Terminal voltage across the armature terminals, V = 200 V
Shunt field resistance, R
sh
= 80

A 5 . 2
80
200
R
V
I
sh
sh
=
= =

187
Load current, I
L
= 100 A
Armature current, I
a
= I
L
+ I
sh

= 100 + 2.5
= 102.5 A
ii) Shunt generator is lap-wound, as such the number of parallel circuits in the
armature winding is equal to the number of poles.
Thus number of parallel circuits a = 4
Total armature current, I
a
= 102.5 A
Thus the current per armature path,

A 625 . 25
4
5 . 102
=
=

iii) Emf generated,

V 25 . 212
2 05 . 0 5 . 102 200
V R I V E
bd a a g
=
+ + =
+ + =

Example 4.3 A short shunt compound generator supplies 200 A at 100 V. The
resistance of armature, series field and shunt field is respectively, 0.04, 0.03 and 60 .
Find the emf generated.
Solution
Terminal voltage across the load, V
L
= 100 V
Load current, I
L
= 200 A
Resistance of series field winding R
se
= 0.03
Voltage drop in series field winding = I
L
R
se

= 200 0.03
= 6 V
Terminal voltage across the armature, V = V
L
+ I
L
R
se

= 100 + 6
= 106 V
188

A 77 . 1
60
106
R
V
I
sh
sh
=
= =

Armature current, I
a
= I
L
+ I
sh

= 200 + 1.77
= 201.77 A
Generated emf,

V 07 . 114
04 . 0 77 . 201 6 100
R I R I V E
a a se L L g
=
+ + =
+ + =

Example 4.4 The armature of a four pole, wave wound shunt generator has 120 slots
with 4 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb. The armature resistance is 0.05
and the shunt field resistance 50 . Find the speed of the machine when supplying 450
A at a terminal voltage of 250 V.
Solution
Terminal voltage, V
L
= 250 V
Load current, I
L
= 450 A
sh
= 50

A 0 . 5
50
250
R
V
I
sh
L
sh
=
= =
I
Armature current, I
a
= I
L
+ I
sh

= 450 + 5
= 455 A
Armature resistance, R
a
= 0.05
Generated emf,

V 75 . 272
05 . 0 455 250
R I V E
a a L g
=
+ =
+ =

Generated emf,
V
a 60
NZ P
E
g
=
189
Number of poles, P == 4; Flux per pole, = 0.05 Wb; Number of slots on armature =
120; Conductors per slot = 4
Thus total number of conductors on armature = 120 4 = 480
As the armature is wave wound, number of parallel paths, a=2
Substituting these in the above equation,

2 60
480 N 05 . 0 4
75 . 272

=
Speed of rotation,

rpm 341
480 05 . 0 4
2 60 75 . 272
N
=

=

Example 4.5 A long-shunt compound generator supplies a load at 110 V through a pair
of feeders of total resistance 0.04 . The load consists of five motors, each taking 30 A
and a lighting load of 150 bulbs each of 60 W. The armature resistance is 0.03 , series
field resistance 0.04 and shunt field resistance, 55 . Find, (i) load current, (ii)
terminal voltage, and (iii) emf generated.
Solution
i) Current drawn by each motor = 30 A
Thus current drawn by five motors = 30 5
= 150 A
Total lighting load = 150 60
= 9000 W
Current taken by the lighting load = A 82
110
9000
=
Hence, total load current = 150 + 82
= 232 A
ii) Voltage at the terminals of the load = 110 V
Total resistance of the feeders = 0.04
Current through the feeders = 232 A
Voltage drop in feeders = 232 0.04
= 9.28 V
Terminal voltage across the generator terminals,
V = V
L
+ drop in feeders
= 110 + 9.28
= 119.28 V
190
iii) Resistance of shunt field, R
sh
= 55
Current in shunt field winding,
A 2 . 2
55
28 . 119
R
V
I
sh
sh
= = =
Current in the armature winding, I
a
= I
L
+I
sh

= 232 + 2.2 = 234.2 A
Current in the series field winding, I
se
= I
a
= 234.2 A
Total resistance of armature and series field winding = R
a
+ R
se

= 0.03 + 0.04 = 0.07
Generated emf ,

( )
A 67 . 135
07 . 0 2 . 234 28 . 119
R R I V E
se a a g
=
+ =
+ + =

1. ARMATURE REACTION
By armature reaction is meant the effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on
the distribution of flux under main poles. In other words armature reaction is meant the
effect of armature ampere-turns upon the value and the distribution of the magnetic flux
entering and leaving the armature core. The armature magnetic field has two effects:
1. It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux &
2. It cross magnetizes or distorts it

Let us illustrate (demonstrate) these two effects of armature reaction for 2-pole d.c
generator. For better understanding let us see three cases.
Case-I: Figure 4.18 shows the distribution of magnetic flux when there is no current
(I
a
=0) in the armature conductors,. For this case
a) The distribution magnetic flux symmetrical with respect to the polar axis.
b) The magnetic neutral axis or place (M.N.A.) coincides with geometrical neutral
axis or plane (G.N.A)
M.N.A may be defined as the axis along which no-emf is produced in the armature
conductors because they move parallel to the lines of flux
or M.N.A. is the axis which is perpendicular to the flux passing through the armature.
In this case, brushes are always placed along M.N.A and the mmf (F
m
) producing the
main flux is directed perpendicular to M.N.A.
191

Figure 4.18 Magnetic flux distribution due to the main field poles only
Case-II: Figure 4.19, shows the field (or flux) set up by the armature conductors alone,
when current carrying the field coils being unexcited (I
f
= 0). The direction of the
armature current is the same as it would be when the generator is loaded & determined
by Flemings Right-hand rule. Under this case, the magnetic fields, which are set up by
armature conductor are symmetrical to G.N.A. and the mmf of the armature conductor
(depending on the strength of I
a
) is shown separately both in magnitude and direction by
the Vector OF
a
which is parallel to G.N.A
.
M
.
N
.
A
G
.
N
.
A

Figure 4.19 Magnetic flux distribution due to the armature excitation only
In the above two cases, we considered the main mmf and armature mmf separately, as if
they existed independently, which is not the case in practice under actual load
conditions. The two cases exist simultaneously in generator as will be shown in case III.
Case-III: Figure 4.21 shows the combination of case I & II. In this case the main flux
through the armature is no longer uniform and symmetrical about the pole-axis, rather it
has been distorted. The flux is seen to be crowded at the trailing pole tips but weakened
or thinned out at the leading pole tips (the pole tip which is first met during rotation by
armature conductors are known as the leading pole tip and the other as trailing pole tip).
192
In Figure 4.20 is shown the resultant mmf OF
R
which is found by vectorally combining
OF
m
and OF
a
.

Figure 4.20 combined magnetic flux distribution due to armature and field
The new position of M.N.A which is always perpendicular to the resultant mmf vector
OF
R
is shown in Figure 4.20. Due to the shift of M.N.A, say through an angle , brushes
are also shifted so as to lie along the new positions of M.N.A. Due to this brush shift (or
forward, leads), the armature conductors and hence the armature current is redistributed,
i.e. some armature conductors, which were earlier under the influence of N-pole, come
under the influence of S-pole and vice-versa. Let us see this condition with help of
Figure 4.21.
Now the armature mmf is now represented by vector F
a
that is no vertical but is inclined
by angle to the left (Figure 4.21). This vector can be resolved into two rectangular
components, F
d
parallel to polar axis and F
c
perpendicular to this axis, we find that
1. Component F
c
is at right angle to the vector OF
m
(Figure 4.18) representing the
main mmf it produces distortion in the main field and is hence called the cross-
magnetizing or distorting component of the armature Reaction.
2. Component F
d
is in direct opposition to OF
m
, which represents the main mmf. It
exerts a demagnetizing influence on the main pole flux. Hence, it is called the
demagnetizing or weakening component of the armature reaction.
From the above discussion we can conclude that:
1. The flux across the air gap is no longer uniform, but weakens under the leading
pole tips and strengthened under the trailing pole tips. (The pole tip which is first
met during rotation by armature conductors is known as the leading pole tip and
the other as trailing pole tip).Due to this the resultant mmf given rise to decreases
flux. So that emf in the armature under loaded conditions is somewhat less than
that of under no-load conditions.
193
2. The brushes should be shifted in the direction of rotation to avoid a heavy short-
circuit current and sparking at brushes.
3. The field distortion cause, an increase in the iron losses as compared its no-load
value because of increases peak value of flux density in the tooth.

Figure 4.21 the demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing components of armature mmf
2. COMMUTATION
The armature conductors carry current in one direction when they are under the influence
of N-pole and in opposite direction when they are under S-pole. So when the conductors
come under the influence of the S-pole from the influence of N-pole, the direction of
flow of current in them is reversed. This reversal of current in a coil will take place when
the two commutator segments to which the coil is connected are being short circuited by
brush. The process of reversal of current in a coil is termed as commutation. The period
during which the coil remains short-circuited is called commutation period, T
c
. This
commutation period is very small of the order of 0.001 to 0.003s.
If the current reversal i.e. the changes from+ I to ZERO and then to I is completed by
the end of short circuit or commutation period, the commutation is Ideal. If current
reversal is not completed by that time, then sparking is produced between the brush and
the commutator, which results in progressive damage to both.
Let us discuss the process of commutation in more detail with help of Figure 4.22 where
ring winding has been used for simplicity.

(a)

(b)
194

(c)
Figure 4.22 commutation process
In Figure 4.22 (a) Coil B carries current in clock wise direction but it is about to be short
circuited, because brush is about to come in touch with commutator segment a.
Figure 4.22 (b) shows the coil B in the middle of its short-circuited period and it is
observed that current can reach the brush with out passing through coil B, so coil B has
no current.
Figure 4.22(c) depicts the moment when coil B is almost at the end of commutation or
short-circuit period and the current in the coil has to be reversed.
During the period of short circuit, period of commutation, the current in the short-
circuited coil should be reversed to full value. Rapid reversal of current in the short
circuited coil does not attain its full value in the reverse direction by the end of short
circuit. The failure of current in the short-circuited coil to reach the full value in reverse
direction by the end of short circuit is the basic cause of sparking at the commutator ( as
shown in Figure c current jump from commentator segment b to brush in the form of
an arc). The reason for sparking at brushes of dc machine is due to reactance voltage
(self-inducted emf), which sets-up by rapid reversal of current in the armature coil and
tend to delay the current reversal in the coil.
Because coil B has some inductance L, the change of current I in a time t induce a
voltage ( )
t
I
L
in the coil. According Lenzs law, the direction of this voltage is

opposite to the change I that is causing it. As a result, the current in the coil does not
completely reverse by the time the brushes move from segment b to a.

Figure 4.23 Commutation in Coil B
195
4.7.1. Methods of improving commutation
There have been adapted two practical ways of improving commutation i.e. of making
current reversals in the short-circuited coil as sparkles as possible. The two methods are:
i. resistance commutation and
ii. emf commutation.

This method is achieved by
i. By replacing low-resistance copper brush by comparatively high resistance
carbon brush (approximately 12 times that of copper). However , it should be
clearly understood that the main causes of the sparking commutation is the self
induced emf ,so brushes alone do not give a sparkles commutation, though they
do help in obtaining it.
ii. By the help of inter poles, neutralize the self- reactance voltage by producing
reversing emf. In this method, arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance
voltage by producing a reversing emf in the short-circuited coil under
commutation. This reversing emf, as the name shows, is an emf in opposition to
the reactance voltage and if its value is made up equal to the latter, it will
completely wipe it off, thereby producing quick reversal of current in short-
circuited coil which will result in sparkles commutation.
4.7.2. Interpoles or Compoles
These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced in between the main poles. They are
wound with comparatively few heavy gauge copper wire turns and are connected in
series with the armature so that they carry full armature current. Their polarity, in the
case of a generator, is the same as that of the main pole ahead in the direction of rotation
as illustrated in Figure 4.24 (a). For a motor, the polarity of the interpole must be the
same as that of the main pole behind it in the direction of rotation as shown in Figure
4.24 (b) .
N
N
S
S

S
S
N
N

(a) (b)
Figure 4.24 polarity of Interpoles (a) in generator mode; (b) in motor mode
The function of interpole is two fold:
196
i) As their polarity is the same as that of the main pole ahead, the induced an emf in
the coil (under commutation) which helps the reversal of current. The emf induced by
the compoles is known as commutating or reversing emf. The commutation emf
neutralizes the reactance emf thereby making commutation sparkles. As interpoles carry
armature current, their commutating emf is proportional to the armature current. This
ensures automatic neutralization of the reactance voltage, which is also due to armature
current.
ii) Another function of the interpoles is to neutralize the cross-magnetize effect of
armature reaction. Hence, brushes are not to be shifted from the original position.
Neutralization of cross- magnetization is automatic and for all loads because both are
produced by the same armature current.
4.7.3. Compensating winding
The effect of cross-magnetization can be neutralized using compensating winding. These
are conductors embedded in pole faces, connected in series with the armature windings
and carrying current in an opposite direction to that flowing in the armature conductors
under the pole face. Once cross-magnetization has been neutralized, the M.N.A does not
shift with the load and remains coincident with the G.N.A. at all loads.

Figure 4.25 compensating windings
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS
The behavior of various types of dc generators can be studies by their characteristic. The
three most important characteristic curves of a dc generator are:
1. Magnetization characteristic or open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) -
shows the relationship between the field current I
f
and the generated emf Eg at no load
and at constant given speed.
2. External characteristic-shows the relationship between the terminal voltage
V across the load and the current I
L
flowing in the external load circuit.
3. Internal characteristic shows the relationship between the emf generated E
(after allowing for demagnetizing effect of armature reaction) at load and the armature
current I
a
.

Magnetization characteristic (O.C.C.)
197
The emf generated in the armature winding of a dc machine under no load condition is
given by
a 60
NZ P
E
g
=
P, Z and a are constants for a particular generator, hence at constant given speed.

g
E

The generated emf is directly proportional to the flux per pole (speed being constant),
which in turns depends upon the field current I
f

The characteristic curve plotted between generated emf E
g
and the field current I
f
at
constant speed of rotation is called the magnetization curve or O.C.C. of the dc
generator. The magnetization characteristics of a separately excited generator or shunt
generator can be obtained as explained below.

Figure 4.26 Circuit diagram for determination of magnetization characteristics
Figure 4.26 shows the connections of the generator and the field for determination of
O.O.C. A potentiometer arrangement has been made to supply the field winding so that
the field current can be varied over a wide range by moving the contact K. Ammeter
indicate the field current and voltmeter indicate the generated emf. The field current is
increased in steps from zero to maximum and the corresponding value of I
f
and E
g
are
noted down at each step. On plotting these results, a curve of the form shown in Figure
4.27 is obtained.
A
B
C
D
E
g
I
sh
OA=Residual emf
(due to residual Magnetism)
AB- Unsaturated Region
(Straight line)
O
BC- Knee of the curve
( Operating Region)
CD- Saturated Region

Figure 4.27 Magnetization curve or O.C.C.
On analyzing the curve in Figure 4.27, it is observed that a small emf OA is generated by
the generator, even when the field current is zero. The reason for this generated emf is
the residual magnetism in the poles. This emf which is due to residual magnetism is
198
normally 1 to 5% of the normal voltage of the generator. The magnetization curve of a
shunt generator and a series generator can also be obtained in a similar manner.
However, a shunt generator differs compared to separately excited one, in the manner
that the field current in shunt generator is due to the generated emf only, where as the
field current is independent of the generated emf in case of separately.
This magnetization curve is of grate importance because it represents the saturation level
in the magnetic system of the dc machine for various value of the excitation mmf
(current).
4. VOLTAGE BUILD-UP PROCESS IN SHUNT GENERATOR
In the shunt or self-excited generator the field is connected across the armature so that
the armature voltage can supply the field current. Under certain conditions, to be
discussed here, this generator will build up a desired terminal voltage. If the machine is
to operate as a self-excited generator, some residual magnetism must exist in the
magnetic circuit of the generator. Figure 4.28 shows the magnetization curve of the dc
machine. Also shown in this Figure 4.28 is the field resistance line, which is a plot of R
f
I
f
versus I
f
.

Figure 4.28 voltage build-up process in self excited dg generator
A simplistic explanation of the voltage build-up process in the self-excited dc generator
is as follows:
Assume that the field circuit is initially disconnected from the armature circuit and the
armature is driven at a certain speed. A small voltage, E
ar
will appear across the armature
terminals because of the residual magnetism in the machine. If the switch SW is now
closed (Figure 4.29) and the field circuit is connected to the armature circuit, a current
will flow in the field winding. If the mmf of this field current aids the residual
magnetism ,eventually a current I
f1
will flow in the field circuit.
199

Figure 4.29 schematic diagram of a shunt or selfexcited dc generator
The buildup of this current will depend on the time constant of the field circuit. With I
f1

following in the field circuit, the generated voltage is E
a1
(from the magnetization curve)
but the terminal voltage is V
t
= I
fl
R
F
< E
al
. The increased armature voltage E
al
will
eventually increase the field current to the value I
f2
, which in turn will build up the
armature voltage to E
a2
. This process of voltage buildup continues. If the voltage drop
across R
a
is neglected (i.e. R
a
<< R
f
), the voltage builds up to the value given by the
crossing point P of the magnetization curve and the field resistance line. At this point E
a

= I
f
R
f
= V
t
(assume R
a
is neglected), and no excess voltage is available to further
increases the field current. In the actual case, the changes in I
f
and E
a
take place
simultaneously and the voltage buildup follows approximately the magnetization curve,
instead of climbing the flight of stairs.
Figure 4.30 shows the voltage buildup in the self-excited dc generator for various field
circuit resistances. At some resistance value R
f3
, the resistance line is almost coincident
with the linear portion of the magnetization curve. This coincidence condition results in
an unstable voltage situation. This resistance is known as the critical field circuit
resistance. If the resistance is greater than this value, such as R
f4
, buildup (V
t4
) will be
insignificant on the other hand, if the resistance is smaller than this value, such as R
f1
or
R
f2
, the generator will build up higher voltages (V
t1
, V
t2
).
To sum up, four conditions are to be satisfied for voltage buildup in a self-excited dc
generator.
1. Residual magnetism must be present in the magnetic system.
2. Field winding mmf should aid the residual magnetism.
3. Field circuit resistance should be less than the critical field circuit resistance.
4. The speed at which the armature is rotating should be greater than the critical speed.

Figure 4.30 effect of field resistances on voltage build-up process
200
5. EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
The external characteristics of a dc generator express the relationship between the
terminal voltage and the load current at a constant speed and with the field current
keeping the same as under the no load condition. The shape of this curve depends upon:
i. The armature reaction
ii. voltage drop in the armature winding, series , inter pole and compensating
windings
iii. voltage drop at the brush contact( 0.8- 1,0-V per brush ) and
iv. The drop in terminal voltage due to (i) and (ii) results in a decreased field current
which further reduces the induced emf.

Separately Excited Generator
In separately excited generators, the field current is independent of the load current, so
that if there were no armature reaction and no voltage drop in various windings the
terminal voltage will be equal to the generated emf and would be constant for various
values of load current as indicated by curve I in Figure 4.31.

Figure 4.31 external characteristics of separately excited generator
As the generator is separately excited, the armature current is equal to load current.
However, the armature reaction will cause a decrease in the voltage, which depends upon
the load current. As such considering the effect of armature action only, the curve of
terminal voltage V
s
armature current will be slightly drooping as shown by curve II in
Figure 4.31. Curve II of the generator, which takes into account the effect of armature
reaction, gives to a different scale the emf induced in the armature and thus, it is
normally called the internal characteristics of the generator. The curve of terminal
voltage V
s
load current or armature current is obtained by subtracting the holmic drop in
the armature winding with respect to the armature current is represented by the straight
line passing through the origin as shown Figure 4.31. When the ordinates of straight line
representing the voltage drop in the armature winding (I
a
R
a
) are deducted from those of
curve II, a cure III is obtained, which given the external characteristic of the generator
i.e. curve III = curve II - I
a
R
a
.

External characteristics clearly indicate that the terminal
voltage falls as load on the generator increase.
201
Shunt-Wound Generator
In this type of generator, the field winding is connoted across the armature winding. The
generator will therefore build up its own magnetism. The voltage across the shunt field
winding is equal to the terminal voltage of the generator as discussed above, the terminal
voltage of the generator will fall down due to the armature reaction and the ohmic drop
in the armature winding, as the load on the generator increases. Thus the voltage across
the field will not remain constant as the load on the shunt generator increases. The
voltage across the field winding decreases with an increase in the load current, which
causes a decrease in the exciting current. The terminal voltage further falls down incase
of a shunt generator because of decreases in excitation current as explained earlier with
increasing load current. Hence the total decreases in the voltage in case of shunt
generators is mush greater than in separately excited generators.
For obtaining the relation between the terminal voltage and load current, the generator is
connected as shown in Figure 4.32 (a). Figure 4.32 (b) shows the external
characteristics, of a particular generator, when it is run as a separately excited generator
(curve IV) and when run as a shunt generator (Curve III). Comparing these two curves
for the same generator, it is observed that with self-excitation the external characteristic
is lower than that obtained with separate excitation.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4.32 external characteristics of shunt wound generator
The basic reason for the difference in the two curves is that, in the former case the shunt
field current decreases with decreasing terminal voltage, while in the case of separate
excitation the field current remains constant. If the load on the shunt generator is
gradually increased by decreasing the resistance in the external circuit, its terminal
voltage tends to fall by a process of exactly a reverse nature to that of building up. Up to
the normal load current, steady conditions are obtained without a serious fall in the
terminal voltage as shown by the thick line of curve III. When the load on the shunt
generator increase beyond its full load value, the drop in terminal voltage becomes more
appreciable as shown by the dotted line of curve III of Figure 4.32(b).
Up to the point D on curve III, the load current increases upon decreasing the external
resistance in the load circuit, where the terminal voltage has fallen to an appreciably low
value. The current corresponding to this condition is generally termed as critical current
I
c
. A further decrease in the external load resistance beyond the point D, does not
202
increase the current in the load circuit, but on the other hand decreases it, because the
load resistance shunts the field winding to such an extent the terminal voltage decreases
more rapidly than the load resistance. Hence the external characteristic turns back and
the terminal voltage is zero when the armature is actually short-circuited. The armature
current at this instant is shown by a vale OE that is purely due to residual magnetism of
the generator. To obtain the internal characteristics of the dc shunt generator, the sum of
the voltage drop in the armature winding including the brush contact drop is added to the
external characteristic, thus obtaining curve II representing this characteristic. Figure
4.32 also shows the no load voltage E
o
of the generator represented by the dotted line I.
The voltage drop between curve II and line I is due to reduction in flux caused by the
combined action of armature reaction and the fall caused by the combined action of
armature reaction and the fall in the shunt field current.
Series Wound Generator
In series- wound generators, the field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding. Thus, the current in the field winding is the same as the current in the armature
winding. If the generator is driven at the constant rated speed, and the armature current is
varied by varying the external resistance in the load circuit, a curve III of Figure 4.33 is
obtained by plotting the terminal voltage verses the load current or armature current.
I
II
III
M
a
g
n
e
t
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

C
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
I
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

C
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
E
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

C
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
V
L

Figure 4.33 external characteristics of series wound generator
The internal or total characteristic of the same generator is represented by curve II in
Figure 4.33 which can be obtained by adding the voltage drop in the armature circuit
including brush contact drop to terminal voltage (curve III). Curve I, in Figure 4.33,
shows the magnetization characteristics of the same generator. The voltage drop between
the curves I and II is caused by armature reaction.
Compound Generator
The shunt generator already discussed has a drooping external characteristic, i.e. the
terminal voltage falls with load, whereas series generators have an external
characteristic, in which the terminal voltage rises with the load. Hence, a series field
winding in dc generators can compensate for the tendency of the shunt generator to lose
voltage with load, thus maintaining practically a constant voltage at all loads. For this
reason, the majority of dc generators in service have both shunt and series windings.
Such a dc generator having both shunt and series windings is called a compound
generator.
203

Figure 4.34 the external characteristics of dc compound generator.
Curve I shows the external characteristic, in which the series excitation is such that the
terminal voltage on full load is the same as on no load and the terminal voltage remains
practically constant from no load to full load. A dc compound generator giving such an
external characteristic is called level-compounded generator. The external characteristic
shown by curve II indicates that the terminal voltage rises with the load. Such a
compound generator with this external characteristic is said to be over compounded
generator. The compound generator having an external characteristic of the nature
represented by curve III is called under compounded generator.
In all the above three types of compound generators, i.e. level-compounded , over-
compounded and under-compounded, the series field aids the shunt field and thus these
compound generators can also be called as cumulative compound generator. Cumulative
compound generator is most widely used in practice. Their external characteristic can
match to all classes of service. These types of generators used for electric railways, for
supplying current of incandescent lamps, etc. In case the series field opposes the shunt
field, the external characteristic of the generator will be highly drooping with large
demagnetizing armature reaction as shown by curve IV in Figure 4.34. Such a compound
generator said to be differential-compound generator. Differential compound generators
find their field of application in arc welding where a large voltage drop is desirable,
when the current increase.
Example 4.6 The open circuit characteristic of generator driven at 500 rpw is as
follows:
Field current, I
sh
(A) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Emf , E
g
(V) 40 66 86 101 112 121 128 133
The machine is connected as shunt generator and driven at 500 rpm. Find
i) open circuit voltage, when the field circuit resistance is 94 ,
ii) the additional resistance required in the field circuit to reduce the emf to 110 V
and
iii) critical value of shunt field resistance.
204
Solution
Figure 4.35 shows the magnetization characteristic drawn as per the given data. Line
OA has been drawn as the field resistance line, representing a resistance of 94 . Any
point on the field resistance line can be found out corresponding to a particular value of
field current, for example, when the field current is 1.0 A, voltage across the shunt field
will be
V
sh
= I
sh
R
sh
=1.0 94 = 94 V,
thus establishing a point B on the field resistance line. The field resistance line is drawn
joining the point B with the origin O.
i) The field resistance line OA cuts the magnetization curve at the point A. Hence the
generator will develop an emf corresponding to the operating point A, which is equal to
OC or 126 V.
ii) Corresponding to the voltage of 110 V, a horizontal line is drawn, which cuts the
OCC at the point D. Join the point D with the point O. The line OD represents the field
resistance line that would generate a voltage of 110 V.

Figure 4.35 Magnetization curve for example 4.6
Hence to generate a voltage of 110 volts, the total resistance of the shunt field circuit
should be
= = 7 . 116
6 . 0
70
R
F

Resistance of the shunt field winding, R
sh
is 94 . Thus additional resistance in the shunt
field circuit is
R
add
= 116.7 - 94 = 22.7
205
iii) Critical value of shunt field resistance is obtained by drawing a tangent from the
origin to the initial portion of the magnetization curve. Line DE represents the critical
resistance of the shunt field.
Thus critical resistance,

=
=
200
2 . 0
40
R
cr

Example 4.7 The open circuit characteristic of a dc generator at rpm is as follows:
Field current, I
sh
(A) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3:0 3.5
open circuit voltage, V
OCC
(V) 60 120 138 145 149 151 152
The machine is connected as shunt generator and driven at 1000 rpm. The resistance of
shunt field circuit being 60 . Calculate,
i) the open circuit voltage,
ii) the critical value of the field resistance,
iii) the terminal voltage when the load has resistance of 4.0 , and
iv) the load current when the terminal voltage is 100 V. Neglect armature reaction.
The armature resistance is 0.1.
Solution
The open circuit characteristic of the dc shunt generator at 1000 rpm has been plotted in
Figure above. The resistance of the shunt field circuit is 60 and as such field resistance
line OA has been drawn. Any point on this line gives a resistance value of 60 , for
example, corresponding to field current of 2 A, the voltage is 120 V (point F).
i) The field resistance line OA corresponding to the field resistance of 60 cuts the
OCC at point A. Hence the shunt generator will generate a voltage corresponding to the
operating point A which is equal to OC or 149 V.Thus open circuit voltage = 149 V.
ii) Tangent OE is drawn to the OCC from the origin O to find out the critical value
of shunt field resistance. The resistance represented by this tangent line OE is
= 120
0 . 1
120
. Hence critical resistance of shunt field = 120 .
iii) Let the terminal voltage across the load of 4 resistance be V volts
Then the load current, A
0 . 4
V
I
L
=
Shunt field resistance = 60
Thus shunt field current, A
60
V
I
sh
=
For shunt generator, I
a
= I
L
+ I
sh
206

A V
15
4
60
V 16
60
V
4
V
=
= + =

Voltage at no load, E
g
= V + I
a
R
a

Terminal voltage,

V 0267 . 0 149
1 . 0 V
15
4
149
R I E V
a a g
=
\
|
=
=

Or ( ) 149 0267 . 0 1 V = +
Terminal voltage, V 1 . 145
0267 . 1
149
V = =
iv) Terminal voltage, V = 100 V
Voltage at no load, E
g
= V + I
a
R
a

or I
a
R
a
= E
g
V = 149 100 = 49 V
Armature current, A 490
1 . 0
49
I
a
= =
Shunt field current, A 67 . 1
60
100
60
V
I
sh
= = =
Hence load current, I
L
= 490 1.67 = 488.33 A
6
0
R
s
h
=

Figure 4.36 Open circuit characteristic for example 4.7
207
Example 4.8 The OCC of a dc generator when driven at 750 rpm gave the following
results:
Field current, I
sh
(A) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Emf, E
g
(V) 50 84 105 120 131
i) If the machine is run as shunt generator at 750 rpm, to what voltage will it excite
with shunt field resistances equal to (a) 70 (b) 55 ?
ii) What is the critical value of the shunt field resistance?
iii) What is the critical speed when the shunt field resistance is 70 0 ?
iv) With the shunt field resistance equal to 55 , what reduction in speed must be
made to make the open circuit voltage equal to 100 V?

Figure 4.37 Open circuit characteristic for example 4.8
Solution
OCC of the shunt generator at 750 rpm has been plotted in Figure 4.37 as per the given
data. Line OA has been drawn to represent field resistance line corresponding to 55
|
|
\
|
A 0 . 2
V 110
. Another line OB has been drawn, which represents field resistance of 70
|
|
\
|
A 0 . 1
V 70
.
i.) (a) When the field resistance is equal to 70 , the generator will generate a
voltage corresponding to the operating point B, which is a common point on 70 field
resistance line and the OCC of the generator. The open circuit voltage is equal to OC or
105 V. Hence generator will excite to the voltage of 105 V.
208
(b) When the field resistance is 55 , the shunt generator will excite to a voltage given
by the operating point A, at which the 55 field resistance line cuts the OCC of the
generator. The corresponding voltage is equal to OD or 128 V. Thus the generator will
excite to the voltage of 128 V.
ii.) A tangent line OE is drawn to the OCC of the generator to find out the critical
resistance of the shunt field. The resistance represented by OE is the critical shunt field
resistance, which is equal to = 100
A 1
V 100
. Thus critical value of shunt field resistance
= 100 .
iii.) The shunt field resistance in this case is 70 . Critical speed can be obtained by
erecting a perpendicular from the point F, so as to cut the 70 field resistance line at G
and critical shunt field resistance line OE at point H. Then,

750
speed critical
FH
FG
=
Or 750
FH
FG
speed critical =
But
100
70
FH
FG
=
Thus
rpm 525
750
100
70
speed critical
=
=

iv.) Open circuit voltage E
g
= 100 V
Shunt field resistance = 55
With shunt field resistance equal to 57 , the generator generates a voltage of 128 V at
750 rpm. To generate 100 V with the same field resistance, the operating point has to be
M instead of A, for which the speed of the generator has to be reduced. The speed in
such a case can be found out by drawing a perpendicular from the point M, so as to meet
the OCC at point N. Then,

750
speed desired
LN
LM
=
Hence,

rpm 652
115
100
750
LN
LM
750 speed desiredl
=
= =

Reduction in speed = 750 652 = 98 rpm
Example 4.9 A dc generator has the following open circuit characteristics at 800 rpm:
Field current , I
sh
(A) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Generated emf, E
g
(V) 10 112 198 232 252 266
209
Find the no load terminal voltage when the machine runs as a shunt generator at 1000
rpm. The resistance of the field circuit is 70. What additional field regulator resistance
will be required to reduce the voltage to 270 V?
Solution
The open circuit characteristic of the dc generator has been given at 800 rpm. However,
this generator runs as a shunt type at 1000 rpm. As the speed of the generator has
increased, the emf generated corresponding to the same field current will increase and is
given by
KN
a 60
NZ P
E
g
=
= for the same field current

Hence,
1
2
1 g
2 g
N
N
E
E
=
Or
800
1000
E
N
N
E E
1 g
1
2
1 g 2 g
= =
Based on this, the readings for the OCC at 1000 rpm will be:
Open Circuit Characteristics at 1000 rpm
I
f
(A) 0 1 2 3 4 5
E
g
(V) 12.5 140 247.5 290 315 332.5
Figure 4.38 shows the open circuit characteristics of the shunt generator driven at 1000
rpm, which has been plotted based on the calculated values of generated emf E
g2
. A field
resistance line OA representing resistance of 70
|
|
\
|
A 3
V 210
has been drawn.
Field current, I
sh
, A

Figure 4.38 Magnetization curve for example 4.9
210
i.) The field resistance line of 70 cuts the OCC at the point A. the shunt
generator will generate voltage equal to OC or 330 V. Hence no load terminal voltage is
330 V.
ii.) The no load terminal voltage is 270 V. Corresponding to 270 V, a horizontal
line FD shown dotted in Figure 4.38 has been drawn, which cuts the OCC at D. Hence to
generate 270 V, the operating point must be D. The point D is joined with the origin,
thus giving the resistance line OD corresponding to the operating point D.
The resistance represented by the line OD
= = 5 . 112
A 4 . 2
V 270

sh
= 70
Hence additional resistance required in the field circuit is
112.5 70 = 42.5.
6. VOLTAGE REGULATION
The change in output voltage of a generator from no-load to full-load divided by the full-
load voltage, is called the voltage regulation.
% 100
V
V V
% V
FL
FL NL
=
It is an important parameter in the performance of generator by providing an information
that how constant the output voltage is with load.
7. DC MOTORS
Working principle
The principle upon which a dc motor works is very simple. If a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, mechanical force is experienced on the
conductor, the direction of which is given by Fleming's left hand rule (also called motor
rule) and hence the conductor moves in the direction of force. The magnitude of the
mechanical force experienced n the conductor is given by
F = B I
c
l
c
, [Newtons]
Where B is the field strength in Teslas (wb/m
2
), I
c
is the current flowing through the
conductor in amperes and l
c
is the length of conductor in meters. When the motor is
connected to the dc Supply mains, a direct current passes through the brushes and
commutator to the armature winding. While it passes through the commutator it is
converted in to a.c. so that the group of conductors under successive field poles carries
currents in the opposite directions, as shown in Figure 4.39. Also the direction of current
in the individual conductor reverses as they pass away from the influence of one pole to
that of the next.
211

Figure 4.39 schematic diagram of 4-pole dc motor
In Figure 4.39, a 4-pole d.c motor is shown when the filed and armature circuits are
connected across dc supply mains. Let the current in armature conductors be outwards
under the N-poles (shown by dots) and inwards under S-poles (shown by crosses). By
applying Flemings left hand rule Figure 4.40, the direction of force on each conductor
can be determined, which has been illustrated in Figure 4.39. From Figure 4.39 it is
observed that each conductor experiences a force which tends to the motor armature in
clock-wise direction. These forces collectively produce a driving torque.

Figure 4.40 Left-hand rule for determination of the direction of force
8. COMPARISON OF MOTOR AND GENERATOR ACTION
As mentioned above, dc motor and the dc generator are the same devices, at least
theoretically. The machine operating as a generator is driven by some external driving
force and dc out put is obtained from it where as the machine operating as a motor is
supplied by electric current and mechanical rotation is produced.
Let us first consider the generator operation. In Figure 4.41(a) dc machine driven, in a
clock-wise direction, by its prime mover and supplying direct current to external load
circuit is shown. The machine is working as a generator and the direction of the
generated emf and current flowing through the armature conductors, as determined by
Fleming's right hand rule, will be as shown in the Figure 4.41(a).
212

(a) (b)
Figure 4.41 (a) Generator action ; (b) Motor action
Since the armature is carrying current and rotating in a magnetic field, Electro-magnetic
forces will be given by Fleming's left hand rule. These Electro magnetic forces acting on
the armature conductors will collectively result in torque acting on the armature in a
counter-clockwise direction ( see T
back
in Figure 4.41(a)). This Electro-magnetic torque,
therefore, opposes the outside driving torque, which is causing the rotation of the
machine and called the backward torque(T
back
) or magnetic drag on the conductors. The
prime mover has to work against this magnetic drag and the work so done is converted in
to electrical energy. The larger the output current, more will be the backward torque and,
therefore, more mechanical energy will be required to be supplied to the generator.
In Figure 4.41(b) the same machine operating as a motor is shown. This operation takes
place when the prime mover is uncoupled from the machine and the machine is
connected to the dc supply mains. With the directions of field and armature current
shown in the Figure 4.41(b) the torque developed by Electro-magnetic actions will rotate
the machine in a clockwise direction (as determined by Fleming's left-hand rule). The
friction of the machine and the mechanical load that the motor is driving will exert a
torque in counter-clockwise direction, opposing the rotation of the motor. Since the
armature conductors are revolving in the magnetic field, emf is induced in the armature
conductors. The direction of emf so induced, as determined by Fleming's right hand rule,
is in direct opposition to the applied voltage (see E
b
in Figure 4.41(b)). That is why the
induced emf in motor often is called the counter emf or back emf E
b
. The applied voltage
must be large enough to overcome this back emf and to send the current through the
resistance of the armature. The electric energy supplied to overcome this opposition is
converted into mechanical energy development in the armature.
Thus we see that an emf is generated in both generator and motor, therefore, there is a
generator action in both motor and generator operation. However, in generator
operation the generated emf produces the armature current, where as, in motor operation
the generated emf opposes the current direction. We also observe that Electro-magnetic
torque is developed in generator as well as motor i.e. there is a motor action in both
generator and motor, operation. However, in motor operation the Electro-magnetic
213
torque developed causes the armature rotation, where as in a generator operation the
Electro-magnetic torque produced opposes the rotation.
9. TYPES OF DC MOTORS
All dc motors must receive their excitation from an external source; therefore, they are
separately excited. Their field and the armature windings are connected, however, in one
of the three different ways employed for self-excited dc generators, and so according the
field arrangement there are three types of dc motors namely;
i) Series wound ii) shunt wound and iii) compound wound.
4.13.1. Series wound motor
A series motor is one in which the field winding is connected in series with the armature
so that the whole current drawn by the motor passes through the field winding as well as
armature. Connection diagram is shown in Figure 4.42.
+
_
Series
Winding
I
a
I
se
I
L
V
L
E
b


L
I
se
I
a
I = =
( )
se
R
a
R
a
I
L
V
b
E + =
iii.
L
I
L
V
drawn
P =

a
I
b
E
dev
P =
Figure 4.42 connection diagram of series-wound motor
4.13.2. Shunt wound motor
A shunt wound motor is one in which the field winding is connected in parallel with
armature as illustrated in Figure 4.43. The current supplied to the motor is divided into
two paths, one through the shunt field winding and second through the armature.


sh
R
L
V
sh
I =

a
I
sh
I
L
I + =
iii.
a
R
a
I
L
V
b
E =

L
I
L
V
drawn
P =

a
I
b
E
dev
P =

Figure 4.43 connection diagram of shunt-wound motor
214
4.13.3. Compound wound motor
A compound wound motor has both series and shunt windings which can be connected
as short-shunt or long shunt with armature winding as illustrated in figure 4.44.


L
I
se
I =

sh
R
se
R
se
I
L
V
sh
R
a
R
a
I
b
E
sh
I

=
+
=
iii.
a
I
sh
I
L
I + =

se
R
L
I
a
R
a
I
L
V
b
E =

L
I
L
V
drawn
P =

a
I
b
E
dev
P =

(a) short-shunt compound motor


se a
I I =

( )
sh
R
L
V
sh
R
se
R
a
R
a
I
b
E
sh
I =
+ +
=
iii.
L
I
sh
I
L
I + =
( )
se
R
a
R
a
I
L
V
b
E + =

L
I
L
V
drel
P =

a
I
b
E
dev
P =

(b) long -shunt compound motor
Figure 4.44 connection diagram of compound-wound motor
10. DIRECTION OF ROTATION
It is clear that, from principle operation of dc motor, if the armature current were
reversed by reversing the armature terminal leads, but leaving the field polarity the same,
torque would be developed in a counter-clock wise direction. Likewise, if the field
polarity were reversed leaving the armature current as shown torque would be developed
in a counter-clockwise direction. However if both the armature current direction and
field polarity were reversed torque would be developed in a clock-wise direction as
before. Hence the direction of rotation of a motor can be reversed by reversing the
current through either the armature winding or the field coils. If the current through
both is reversed, the motor will continue to rotate in the same direction as before.
11. SIGNIFICANCE OF BACK EMF
As explained earlier, when the motor armature continues to rotate due to motor action,
the armature conductors cut the magnetic flux and therefore emfs are induced in them.
The direction of this induced emf known as back emf is such that is opposes the applied
215
voltage. Since the back emf is induced due to the generator action , the magnitude of it
is, therefore , given by the same expression as that for the generated emf in a generator
, volts
a
P
60
ZN
E
b

= 4.1
The symbols having their usual significance

Figure 4.45 Equivalent circuit of a motor Armature
The equivalent circuit of a motor is shown in Figure 4.45. The armature circuit is
equivalent to a source of emf E
b
in series with a resistance, R
a
put across a dc supply
mains of V volts. It is evident from Figure3 that the applied voltage V must be large
enough to balance both the voltage drop in armature resistance and the back emf at all
times i.e.
V = E
b
+I
a
R
a
4.2
Where V is the applied voltage across the armature, E
b
is the induced emf in the
armature by generator action; I
a
is the armature current and R
a
is the armature resistance.
Equation (4.2) may be rewritten as
a
b
a
R
E V
I

=
to give armature current in terms of
applied voltage V, induced emf E
b
and armature resistance, R
a
.
As obvious from Eqs.(4.1) and (4.2) the induced emf in the armature of a motor, E
b
depends among other factors upon the armature speed and armature current depends
upon the back emf E
b
for a constant applied voltage and armature resistance. If the
armature speed is high, back emf E
b
will be large and therefore armature current
becomes small. If the speed to the armature is low, then back emf E
b
will be less and
armature current I
a
will be more resulting in development of large torque. Thus it is
evident that back emf E
b
acts like a governor i.e. it makes a motor self-regulating so that
it draws as much current as just required.
216
12. TORQUE EQUATION
The back emf of dc motor is given by

a a b
R I V E = 4.3
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (4.3) by I
a
,

a
2
a a a b
R I VI I E = 4.4
In Eq. (4.4) VI
a
= Total electrical power supplied to the Armature of the dc motor
(armature input) and I
a
2
R
a
= power wasted in the armature (armature copper loss). The
difference between the armature input and the armature copper loss is equal to the
mechanical power developed by the armature of the motor.
Hence, mechanical power developed = E
b
I
a
, watts 4.5
If T
a
is the torque in Newton meter developed by the armature of the motor, running at N
revolutions per minute, then
Mechanical power developed, watts
60
T . N 2
P
a
mech
= 4.6
Equating Eqs. (4.5) and (4.6)

N
I E
.
2
) 60 (
Ta , Torque
60
T N 2
Ia E
a b
a
b
=
4.7
However back emf,

a . 60
NZ p
E
b
= 4.8
Substituting Equation (4.8) into equation (4.7)
] . [ . 159 . 0
60
.
2
60
, m N
a
Z I P
N a
NZI P
T Torque
a a
a

For a particular dc motor; P, Z & a are fixed. Hence,
a a
I T
Therefore, the torque developed by the armature of dc motor is proportional to the
product of armature current and the flux per pole. For dc shunt motor, the flux per pole is
practically constant, hence the torque developed is directly proportion to the armature
current, i.e.
217

a a
I T (for dc shunt motor)
For dc series motor, the flux per pole is directly proportional to I
a
hence the torque
developed is directly proportion to the square of the armature current, i.e.

2
a a
I T (for a dc series motor)
13. SPEED EQUATION
The back emf for dc motor is given by
volts
a 60
Z . N P
E
b
=
Also,
a a b
R I V E =
Combing the above two equations,

a a
R I V
a 60
Z . N P
=

Or
=
I
.
PZ
a . 60
). R I V ( N
a a

For a given particular motor, P, Z and a are fixed. Hence

( )
=
b a a
E
K
R I V
K N
Thus the speed of dc motor is directly proportional to the voltage applied to the armature
or the back emf & inversely proportional to the flux per pole. For dc shunt motor, the
flux per pole is approximately constant and hence the speed of dc shunt motor is directly
proportional to the back emf i.e.
b
E N . For dc series motor, the flux per pole is
directly proportional to the armature current and hence the load on the motor. Thus the
speed of dc series motor is inversely proportional to the flux per pole or the armature
current i.e.
1
N . The speed of the motor increases with the fall in flux.
Example 4.10 The armature of a 6 pole, 6 circuit dc shunt motor takes 300 A at
the speed of 400 revolutions per minute. The flux per pole is 75 10
-3
Wb. The number
of armature turns is 500. The torque lost in windage, friction and iron losses can be
assumed as 2.5 per cent. Calculate (i) the torque developed by the armature, (ii) shaft
torque and (iii) shaft power in kW.
Solution
i) The torque developed by the armature of a dc motor is given by
m . N
A
Z I P
159 . 0 T
a
a
=
Number of poles of shunt motor, P = 6
Armature winding has 6 circuits, thus, A = 6
218
Armature current, I
a
= 300 A
Number of armature turns = 500
Thus total conductors on the armature, Z = 2 500 = 1000
Flux per pole, = 75 10
-3
Wb
Substituting these values in the above equation
Armature torque, m . N 5 . 3577
6
1000 300 10 75 6
159 . 0 T
3
a
=

=

Torque lost in windage, friction and iron losses
= 2.5% of T
a

= 0.0255 3577.5 = 89.44 N.m
Thus, shaft torque, T
sh
= 3577.589.44 = 3488.06 N m
Shaft power,

kW 22 . 146
1000 60
06 . 3488 400 2
kW
1000 60
Z NT 2
T
sh
sh
=
=

Example 4.11 A 440 V dc motor takes an armature current of 60 A when its
speed is 750 rpm. If the armature resistance is, 0.25, calculate the torque produced.
Solution Back emf developed, E
b
= V I
a
R
a
= 440600.25 = 425 V
Torque produced, m . N 68 . 324
60 / 750 2
60 425
60 / N 2
I E
T
a b
a
=

=
Example 4.12 A 10 hp 230V shunt motor takes an armature current of 6A from
230 V line at no load and runs at 1,200 rpm. The armature resistance is 0.25.
Determine the speed and electro-magnetic torque when the armature takes 36 A with the
same flux.
Solution No-load back emf, E
bo
= V I
ao
R
a
= 23060.25 = 228.5 V
No-load speed, N
0
= 1200 rpm.
When armature takes 36 A
Back emf developed E
b1
= V I
a1
R
a
= 230360.25 = 221
Since N E
b

0
1
0
1
2
1
0 b
1 b
N
N
N
N
E
E
=
= Qflux is same i.e.

1
=

0

219
Or rpm 1161 1200
5 . 228
221
N
E
E
N
0
0 b
1 b
1
= = =
Electro-magnetic torque developed, m . N 44 . 65
60 / 1161 2
36 221
60 / N 2
I E
T
1
a b
a
=

=
Example 4.13 The armature of a 4-pole dc shunt motor has a lap winding
accommodated is 60 slots, each containing 20 conductors. If the useful flux per pole be
23 mWb, calculate the total torque developed in Newton meters when the armature
current is 50 A.
Solution
Flux per pole, = 23 mWb = 0.023 Wb
Total number of armature conductors, Z = 60 20 =1200
Number of poles, P=4
Armature current, I
a
= 50 A
Since armature has lap winding, Number of parallel paths, A=P=4
Total torque developed,

m . N 6 . 219 50 1200 023 . 0 159 . 0
A
I
ZP 159 . 0 T
a
a
= =
=

14. DC MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
The 3 Important characteristic curves of dc motors are:
1. Torque-Armature Current Characteristic
This characteristic curve gives relation between mechanical torque T and armature
current I
a
. This is known as electrical characteristic.
2. Speed-Armature Current Characteristic
This characteristic curve gives relation between speed N and armature current I
a

3. Speed-Torque Characteristic
This characteristic curve gives relation between speed N and mechanical torque T. This
is also known as mechanical characteristics. This curve can be derived from the above
two curves.
4.18.1. Characteristics of Dc Series Motors
a.) Magnetic characteristic
In case of dc series motors the flux varies with the variation in line or armature current
as the field is in series with the armature. The flux increase following a linear law with
220
the increase in load current, becomes maximum at saturation point and finally become
constant.
b.) Torque-Armature Current Characteristics
From expression of mechanical torque T it is obvious that

a a
I T

Up to saturation point flux is proportional to field current and hence to the armature
current because I
a
= I
f
. Therefore on light load
2
a
I T and hence curve drawn between T
and I
a
up to saturation point is a parabola as illustrated in Figure 4.46. After saturation
point flux is almost independent of excitation current and so
a
I T . Hence the
characteristics curve becomes a straight line as shown in Figure 4.46. From the torque-
armature current curve it is evident that series motor develops large starting torque to
accelerate the heavy masses. Hence series motors are used where large starting torque is
required such as in hoists electric railways, trolleys and electric vehicles.
W
b
,

Figure 4.46 Speed- current and Torque-current characteristics of DC series
motors
c.) Speed-Current Characteristic
From expression of speed, it is obvious that

a a b
R I V E
N
If the applied voltage remains constant, speed is inversely proportional to flux per pole.
So, if a curve is drawn between reciprocal of flux and current I, the speed current
characteristic is obtained which is a rectangular hyperbola in shape as represented in
Figure 4.46.
Since on no load the speed is dangerously high, as obvious from speed-current
characteristic curve, which will result in heavy centrifugal force which in turn will
221
damage the motor. That is why, series motors are never started on no load, which is
explained below:
When the motor is connected across the supply mains without load, it draws a current
from the supply mains flowing through the series field and armature, the speed tends to
increase so the back emf, may approach the applied voltage in magnitude. The increase
in back emf weakens the armature current and hence the field current. This cause again
increases in speed so in back emf. Thus the field continues to weaken and speed
continues to increase dangerously until the armature gets damaged.
Since on no-load the series motor attains dangerously high speed, which cause heavy
centrifugal force resulting in the damage of the machine, therefore, series motor are not
suitable for the services:
i. where the load may be entirely removed and
ii. for driving by means of belts because mishap to the belt would cause the motor to
run on no-load

These motor are suitable for gear drive, because gear provides some load on account of
frictional resistance of the gear teeth in case of sudden release of load.
d.) Speed-Torque Characteristic
The speed- torque characteristic can be drawn with help of above two characteristics, as
shown in Figure 4.47, which shows that as the torque increases, speed decreases. Hence
series motors are best suited for the services where the motor is directly coupled to load
such as fans whose speed falls with the increase in torque. It should be noted that series
motor is a variable speed motor.
T, N.m

Figure 4.47 Speed-Torque characteristics of dc series motor
4.18.2. Characteristics of Dc Shunt Motors
a.) Speed-Current Characteristic
If applied voltage V is kept constant, the field current will remain constant hence flux
will have maximum value on no load but will decrease slightly due to armature reaction
as the load increase but for more purpose the flux is considered to be constant neglecting
the effect of armature reaction.
222
From expression of speed N is directly proportional to back emf E
b
or (VI
a
R
a
) and
inversely proportional to the flux . Since flux is considered to be constant as mentioned
above, so with the increase in load current the speed slightly falls due to increase in
voltage drop in armature I
a
R
a
. Since voltage drop in armature at full-load is very small
as compared to applied voltage so drop in speed from no-load to full-load is very small
and for all practical purposes the shunt motor is taken as a constant speed motor.
Since there is a slight variation in speed of the shunt motor from no-load to full-load and
this slight variation in can be made by inserting resistance in the shunt field and so
reducing the flux. Therefore, shunt motors being constant speed motors are best suited
for driving of line shafts, machine lathes, milling machines, conveyors, fans and for all
purposes where constant speed is required.

Figure 4.48 Speed- current and Torque-current characteristics of dc shunt motor
b.) Torque- Current Characteristic
From the expression for the torque of a dc motor, torque is directly proportional to the
product of flux and armature current. Since in case of dc shunt motors the flux is
constant therefore torque increase with the increase in load current following linear law
i.e. torque-armature current characteristics is a straight line passing through origin (refer
Figure 4.48).
c.) Speed-Torque Characteristic
This characteristic curve can be drawn from the above two characteristics and is shown
in Figure 4.49.

223
Figure 4.49 Speed-Torque characteristics of dc shunt motor
224
4.18.3. Characteristics of Compound Would Motor
a.) Cumulative compound wound motor
As the load is increased, the flux due to series field winding increase and causes the
torque greater than it would have with shunt field winding alone for a given machine and
for given current. The increase in flux due to series field winding on account of increase
in load cause the speed to fall more rapidly than it would have done in shunt motor. The
cumulative compound motor develops a high torque with increase of load. It also has a
definite speed of no load, so does not run away when the load is removed (refer Figure
4.50 and 4.51). Cumulative compound wound motors are used in driving machines
which subject to sudden applications of heavy loads, such as occur in rolling mills,
shears or punches. This type of motor is used also where a large starting torque is regard
but series motor cannot be used conveniently such as in cranes and elevator.
b.) Differential compound wound motor
Since the flux decrease with the increase in load, so the speed remains nearly constant as
the load is increased and in some cases the speed will increase even. The decrease in flux
with the increase in load causes the torque to be less than that of a shunt motor. The
characteristics are similar to those of a shunt motor. Since the shunt motor develops a
good torque and almost constant speed, therefore differential compound motor is seldom
used. The characteristics are shown in Figure 4.50 and 4.51.

Figure 4.50 Speed- current and Torque-
current characteristics of dc shunt motor

Figure 4.51 Speed-Torque characteristics
of dc shunt motor
15. STARTING OF DC MOTOR
If dc motor is directly connected to a dc power supply, the starting current will be
dangerously high. From Figure 4.52 (a),
a
a i
a
R
E V
I

=

The back emf ) N K ( E
a b
= is zero at start. Therefore,
a
start a
R
V
I =
225

(a)
(b)

(c)
Figure 4.52 dc motor starter
Since R
a
is small , the starting current is very large. The starting current can be limited to
a safe value by the following methods.
1. Insert an external resistance, R
ae
(Figure 4.52 (b), at start.
2. Use a low dc terminal voltage (V) at start. This , of course , requires a
variable-voltage supply
With an external resistance in the armature circuit, the armature current as the motor
speeds up is
ae a
b
a
R R
E V
I
+
=

The back emf E
b
increases as the speed increases. Therefore, the external resistance R
ae

can be gradually taken out as the motor speeds up without the current exceeding a certain
limit. This is done using a starter, shown in Figure 4.52(c). At start, the handle is moved
to position 1. All the resistances, R
1
, R
2
, R
3
and R
4
appear in series with the armature and
thereby limit the starting current. As the motor speeds up the handle is moved to
positions 2, 3, 4, and finally 5. At position 5 all the resistances in the starter are taken out
of the armature circuit. The handle will be held in position 5 by the electromagnet, which
is excited by the field current I
f
.
226
I
amax
I
amin
R
ae1
t
R
ae2
R
ae3
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
I
a

(b)
Figure 4.53 variation of starting current and speed as starting rheostat brought out from
armature circuit
16. SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR
Speed control means intentional change of the drive speed to a value required for
performing the specific work process. This concept of speed control or adjustment
should not be taken to include the natural change in speed which occurs due to change in
the load on the drive shaft. The desired change in speed is accomplished by acting
accordingly on the derive motor or on the transmission connecting it to the unit it serves
to drive. This may be done manually by the operator or by means of some
automatic control device.
The nature speed control requirement for an industrial drive depends upon its type. Some
drives may require continuous variation of speed for the whole of the range from zero to
full speed, or over a portion of this range ; while the others may require two or more
fixed speeds. Some machines may require a creeping speed for adjusting or setting up
the work. Such a speed is of the order of few r.p.m. For most of the drives, however,
speed a control of speed within the range of 20% may be suitable.
On of the aattractive features the d.c. motor offers over all other types is the relative
ease with which speed control can be achieved. The various schemes available for speed
control can be deduced from the expression of speed for a d.c. motor.
It has been shown earlier the speed of a motor is given by the relation
. s . p . r
R I V
K
P
a
Z
R I V
N
a a a a
=
|
\
|
=
Where R
a
=armature circuit resistance
It is obvious that the speed can be controlled by varying
a) Flux/pole i.e. Flux control
b) Resistance R
a
of the armature circuit i.e. Rheostatic Control and
c) Applied voltage V i.e. Voltage control
227
4.20.1. Speed control of shunt motors
a) Variation of Flux or Flux control Method
It is seen from above equation that,
1
N . By decreasing the flux, the speed can be
increase and vice versa. Hence, the name flux or field control method. The flux of dc
motor can be changed by changing I
sh
with help of a shunt field rheostat. Since I
sh
is
relatively small, shunt field rheostat has to carry only a small current, which means I
2
R
loss is small. So this method is, therefore, very efficient.

Figure 4.54 speed control of shunt motor by varying field flux
In non-interpolar machines, the speed can be increased by this method in the ratio of 2:1.
Any further weakening of flux adversely affects the commutation and hence puts a
limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. In machines fitted with
interpoles, a ratio of maximum to minimum speeds of 6:1 is fairly common.
b) Armature or Rheostatic Control Method
This method is used when speeds below the no-load speed are required. As the supply
voltage is normally constant, the voltage across the armature is varied by inserting a
variable rheostat or resistance (called controller resistance) in series with the armature
circuit as shown in Figure 4.55(a).

(a) (b)
Figure 4.55 speed control of shunt motor by varying resistance in the armature circuit
As controller resistance is increased, potential difference across the armature is
decreased, thereby decreasing the armature speed. For a load of constant torque, speed is
approximately proportional to the Potential difference across the armature. From the
speed/armature current characteristics, as shown in Figure 4.55, it is seen that the greater
the resistance in the armature circuit, greater is the fall in speed.
228
c) Armature-terminal voltage control
Utilizes the fact that the change in the armature terminal voltage of a shunt motor is
accompanied in the steady state by a substantially equal change in the speed voltage (E
b
)
and, with constant motor flux, a consequent proportional change in motor speed. One
common scheme, called the Ward-Leonard System, required an individual motor-
generator set to supply power to the armature voltage of the motor whose speed is to be
controlled. Frequently the control of generator voltage is combined with motor-field
control, as indicated by the rheostat in the field of motor M in Figure 4.56, in order to
achieve the widest possible speed range. With such dual control, base speed can be
defined as the normal-armature voltage full field speed of the motor. Speeds above base
speed are obtained by motor field control; speeds below base speed are obtained by
armature-voltage control. As discussed in connection with field-current control, the
range above base speed is that of constant power drive. The range below base speed is
that of a constant torque drive because, as in armature-resistance control, the flux and the
allowable armature current remain approximately constant.
supply - 3

Figure 4.56 ward-Leonard system

Figure 4.57 constant-torque and constant-power operation
229
Example 4.14 A 200 V dc shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.4 and a
field resistance of 200 . When the motor is driving at 600 rpm a load, the torque of
which is constant, the armature takes 20 A. It is desired to raise the speed from 600 to
900 rpm by inserting a resistance in the shunt field circuit. Assuming the
magnetization curve to be a straight line, find the value of additional resistance in the
field circuit.
Solution
Initial speed of the motor, N
1
= 600 rpm
Armature current, I
a1
= 20 A
Applied voltage, V = 200 V
Back emf developed by the motor at 600 rpm
E
b1
= V I
a1
R
a

= 200 200.4 = 192 V
Field current under this condition, A 0 . 1
200
200
I
1 sh
= =
Now let the total resistance in shunt field circuit to raise the speed to 900 rpm be R
f
.
Then the field current, A
R
200
I
f
1 sh
=
The magnetization curve is to be assumed as a straight line, thus flux is directly
proportional to field current, i.e.
sh
I
Or
f 1 sh
2 sh
1
2
R
200
I
I
= =

As per the given conditions, the torque remains constant during the change of speed.
Thus T
1
= T
2
Torque
a
I T

1 1 a
'
1
I K T

2 2 a
'
2
I K T
Or
2 2 a 1 1 a
I I =

f
f
2
1
1 a 2 a
R 1 . 0
200
R
20 I I = =
=
Where, I
a2
is the current drawn by the armature, when the motor is driving the load at
900 rpm.
Back emf at 900 rpm, E
b2
= V I
a2
R
a

= 200 0.1 R
f
0.4
= 200 0.04 R
f

230
Back emf for a particular motor, N K E
b
=
Thus
1 1 1 b
N K E = (i)
And
2 2 2 b
N K E = (ii)

Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),

1
2
1
2
1 b
2 b
N
N
E
E
=

600
900
R
200
192
R 04 . 0 200
f
f
= =

Or, 0 57600 R 200 R 04 . 0
f
2
f
= +

=
+
=
8 . 306
08 . 0
9216 000 , 40 200
R
f

Additional resistance in the shunt field circuit =R
f
R
sh1

= 306.8 200 = 106.8
Example 4.15 A 250 V dc shunt motor runs at its normal speed of 500 rpm when
the armature current is 100 A. Find the speed of the motor under the following cases: (i)
a resistance of 1.0 is connected in series with the armature circuit, the shunt field
remaining constant, (ii) the shunt field current is reduced to 60 per cent of its normal
value by inserting a resistance in the field circuit.
The armature current in both the above cases is 50 A. The resistance of the armature is
0.25 and that of interpole winding, 0.05.
Solution
Total resistance of the armature circuit 0.25+0.05 = 0.3
Normal speed, N
1
= 500 rpm
Applied voltage, V = 250 V
Armature current at normal speed, I
a1
= 100 A
Back emf at 500 rpm, E
b1
= 250 100

0.3
= 220 V
i) Additional resistance in the armature circuit = 1.0
Total resistance in the armature circuit = 0.3 + 1.0 = 1.3
Armature current under this condition, I
a2
= 50 A
Back emf, E
b2
= 250 50

1.3
= 185 V
As the field current remains unchanged,
1
=
2

231
Back emf for a particular motor, N K E
b
=
or
1 1 1 b
N K E = (i)
And
2 2 2 b
N K E = (ii)

1
2
1
2
1 b
2 b
N
N
E
E
=
Or
500
N
1
220
150
2
=
Speed, rpm 420
220
185
500 N
2
= =
ii) Total resistance in the armature circuit = 0.3
Armature current, I
a3
=50 A
Back emf under this condition, E
b3
= 250 50

0.3
= 235 V
Shunt field current under this condition, I
sh3
= 0.6 I
sh1

Assuming the magnetization curve to be linear,
sh
I
Or 6 . 0
I
I
1 sh
3 sh
1
3
= =

Now,
1
3
1
3
1 b
3 b
N
N
E
E
=
Or
500
N
6 . 0
220
235
3
=
Speed of the motor, rpm 890
6 . 0 220
235 500
N
3
=
=
Example 4.16 A 230 V shunt motor drives a load at 900 rpm drawing a current
of 30A. The resistance of the armature circuit is 0.4. The torque of the load is
proportional to the speed. Calculate the resistance to be connected in series with the
armature to reduce the speed to 600 rpm Ignore armature reaction.,
Solution
In normal conditions
Armature current, I
a
=30 A neglecting field
current
Armature circuit resistance, R
a
=0.4
Back emf, E
b1
= V I
a1
R
a

= 230 300.4 =218 V
Speed, N
1
= 900 rpm
232
Let resistance R be connected in series with the armature circuit to reduce the speed to
N
2
=600 rpm.
Since as per given data load torque, N T and also
a
I T

1
2
1 1 a
2 2 a
N
N
I
I
=

Assuming flux constant
A 20
900
600
30
N
N
I I
1
2
1 a 2 a
= = =
Back emf, E
b2
= V I
a2
(R +R
a
)

= 230 20( R+0.4)
=22220R
N E
b
Q and flux is constant

1
2
1 b
2 b
N
N
E
E
=
Or
900
600
218
R 20 220
=

Or R= 3.833
Example 4.17 A 220 V dc shunt motor draws 4.5 A on no load and runs at 1000
rpm. Resistance of the armature winding and shunt field winding is 0.3 and 157
respectively. Calculate the speed, when loaded and drawing a current of 30 A. Assume
that the armature reaction weakens the field by 3 %.
Solution
Voltage applied to the motor, V
L
= 220 V
sh
= 157
157
220
I
sh
= =
Current drawn by the motor at no load = 4.5 A.
Thus armature current at no load, I
ao
= 4.5 1.4 = 3.1 A
Back emf at no load, E
bo
= V I
ao
R
a

= 220 3.1 0.3
= 219.07 V
Under loaded conditions, current drawn by the Motor = 30 A
Armature current under loaded conditions, I
a
= 30 1.4 = 28.6 A
Back emf under loaded conditions, E
b
= V I
a
R
a

= 220 28.6 0.3
233
= 211.42 V
Let the flux under no load condition be
0
, then under the loaded condition flux = 0.97
0
, because of armature reaction.
The back emf for a de motor is given by

N K
a 60
NZ P
E
b
=
=

Thus
o o bo
N K E = (i)
Also, ( )N 97 . 0 K E
o bo
= (ii)
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),

( )
bo
b
o
E
E
N
97 . 0 N
=
Speed under the loaded condition,

rpm 995
97 . 0
1000
07 . 219
42 . 211
N
=
=

4.20.2. Speed Control Of Dc Series Motors
Flux Control Method
Variation in the flux of a Series motor can be brought about in any one of the following
ways.
i) Field Divertors
The series winding are shunted by a variable resistance knows as field divertor (Figure
4.54). Any desired amount of current can be passed through the divertor by adjusting its
resistance. Hence the flux can be decreased, consequently, the speed of the motor
increased.
+
_
Series
Field
I
a
Field
Divertor

Figure 4.58 speed control of series motor by field divertor method
234
ii) Armature Divertor
A divertor across the armature can be used for giving speeds lower then the normal
speed. For a given constant load torque, if I
a
is reduced due to armature divertor, then
must increase ( T
a
I
a
). This results an increase in current taken from the supply
(which increases the flux) and a fall in speed (N 1/). The variations in speed can be
controlled by varying the divertor resistance.

Figure 4.59 speed control of series motor by armature divertor method
iii) Tapped Field Control
This method is often used in electric traction (Show in Figure 3).The number of series
field turns in the circuit can be changed at will as shown. With full field, the motor runs
at its minimum speed, which can be raised in steps by cutting out some of the series
turns.

Figure 4.60 speed control of series motor by tapped field control method
Variable Resistance in series with Motor
By increasing the resistance in series with armature, the voltage applied across the
armature terminals can be decreased. With reduced voltage across the armature, the
speed is reduced. However, it will be noted that since full motor current passes through
this resistance, there is a considerable loss of power in it.
235
+
_
Series
Field

N
o

R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
W
it
h

R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
S
p
e
e
d
Current

Figure 4.61 speed control of series motor by variable resistance method
Example 4.18 A 200 V dc series motor runs at 500 r.p.m, when taking a current of 25 A.
the resistance of the armature is 0.5 and that of field is 0.3. If the current remains
constant, calculate the resistance necessary to reduce the speed to 250 rpm.
Solution
Motor input current, I
1
=25 A
Line voltage, V=200 V
Back emf, E
b1
= V I
1
(R
a
+R
se
)

= 200 25(0.5+0.3)
= 180 V
Speed, N
1
= 500 rpm
Let resistance R be connected in series with the armature circuit to reduce the speed to
N
2
=250 rpm.
Motor input current, I
2
= I
1
=25 A ......
(given)
E
b2
= V I
2
(R + R
a
+R
se
)

= 200 25(R+0.5+0.3)
= 18025R
Since
b
E
N
Or
1 b
2 b
21
1
1 b
2 b
1
2
E
E
E
E
N
N
=
=
1 2
= Q as field current remains
the same
Or
180
R 25 180
500
250
=
Or R= 3.6

236
Example 4.19 A series motor with series field and armature resistance of 0.06 and 0.04
respectively is connected across 220 V. The armature takes 40 A and speed is 1000
rpm. Determine its speed when the armature takes 75 A and excitation is increased by
10%.
Solution
Armature current, 1
a1
= 40 A
Bach emf, E
b1
= V I
1
(R
a
+R
se
)

= 220 40(0.04+0.06)
= 216 V
Speed, N
1
= 1000 rpm
Flux
1
= (say)
When armature current, I
2
= 75 A
Bach emf, E
b2
= V I
2
(R
a
+R
se
)

= 220 75(0.04+0.06)
= 212.5 V
Flux
2
= 1.1
1
= 1.1 ...... (given)
Since
b
E
N

rpm 894
1 . 1 216
5 . 212
1000
E
E
N N
21
1
1 b
2 b
1 2
=
=
=
=

Example 4.20 A series motor runs at 500 r.p.m. when taking a current of 60A at 460 V.
The resistance of the armature circuit is 0.2 and that of the field winding is 0.1 .
Calculate the speed when a 0.15 divertor is connected in parallel with the field
winding. Assume the torque to remain unaltered and the flux to be proportional to the
field current.
Solution
In normal conditions
Armature current, I
a1
= Series field current, I
se
= Line current, I
L1
= 60 A
Speed, N
1
=500 rpm
E
b1
= V I
a1
R
a
I
se1
R
se
)

= 220 60 0.2 600.1
= 442 V
After connecting a divertor of resistance of 0.15 a in parallel with the field winding let
the speed be N
2
and line current I
L2

Armature current, I
a2
= I
L2
237
Series field current,

2 L 2 L
div se
div
2 L 2 se
I
5
3
15 . 0 1 . 0
15 . 0
I
R R
R
I I
=
+
=
+
=

Since torque remains unaltered
T
2
= T
1

Or I
a2
2
= I
a1
1

Or I
a2
I
se2
= I
a1
I
se1
since
se
I
Or 60 60 I
5
3
I
2 L 2 L
=
Or A 46 . 77
3
5 3600
I
2 L
=
=
A 48 . 46 46 . 77
5
3
I
5
3
I
2 L 2 se
= = =
Back emf, E
b1
= V I
a2
R
a
I
se2
R
se
)

= 220 77.46 0.2 46.48 0.1
= 440.06 V

rpm 386
60
48 . 46
442
06 . 440
500
I
I
E
E
N
E
E
N N Speed
2 se
1 se
1 b
2 b
1
21
1
1 b
2 b
1 2
=
=
= =
=

17. LOSSES IN DC MACHINES
INTRODUCTION
The dc machines are used either for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy,
i.e. generators or for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy, i.e. motors.
This conversion of energy from one form to another obviously takes place at an
efficiency of less than 100 percent. A part of the energy consumed by machine can not
be effectively utilized in the machine proper and is dispersed in the form of heat. This
part of the energy is generally termed as lost energy or simply the losses of the machine.
The losses in general occur (i) in electrical circuits carrying a certain current, (ii) in
magnetic circuits subjected to alternating magnetization and (iii) due to mechanical
friction. Hence the losses occurring in an electrical machine constitute a source of
inefficiency. In addition, these are completely converted into heat, resulting in a rise in
the temperature of the machine. If reliable operation of an electrical machine is desired
during its normal service life, then the temperature of the various parts of the machine
should not be allowed to exceed beyond the permissible limit, decided by the type of
insulating material used in the machine. The temperature rise also decides the capacity to
which the machine can be loaded safely.
238
The losses occurring in the machine have also to be paid for and as such the running cost
of a less efficient machine for the same output is more compared to an efficient machine.
Hence the problem of losses in the machine is closely connected with the problems of its
service life and other economic factors. The initial cost of a more efficient machine is
certainly higher than that of a machine with poor efficiency. However, the higher initial
cost is compensated by the saving in running energy charges; moreover a more efficient
machine is highly reliable , less subject to breakdowns which is particular important
when continuity of service must be maintained. Better electrical materials are being
developed and with the use of these electrical machines are undergoing a continuous
improvement towards reduction in losses, so as to produce more efficient machines with
trouble free and continuous service even under more severe working.
4.21.1. Classification of Losses
Power losses originating in dc machines (either a motor or a generator) can be classified
into the following groups
1. Copper losses, caused by the current flow and occur in (i) armature winding, (ii)
series field winding , (iii) commutating pole winding , (iv) compensating winding , (v)
shunt field winding and (vi) loss due to brush contact resistance.
2. Iron losses caused by varying magnetization and occur in (armature core and (ii)
armature teeth , as hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
3. Mechanical losses caused by the rotation of the machine and occur as (i) bearing
friction (ii) brush friction and (iii) air friction (windage). These losses are also called
friction and windage losses.
4. Stray load losses include (i) increase in iron losses at load (ii) increases in copper
losses due to eddy currents in armature conductors and (iii) additional losses caused by
short circuit currents in the coils under commutation and occur in (a) armature teeth, (b)
armature core and (c) armature winding.
For smaller machines, stray losses are quite negligible. For fairly large machines, it may
be taken arbitrarily as one percent of the rating of the machine.
Of these groups of losses, copper losses vary with the load on the machine, whereas iron
and mechanical losses remain substantially constant at all loads. Stray losses are more or
less negligible in small and medium machines. Hence the total losses occurring in a dc
machine may also be classified as
i) variable losses and
ii) Constant losses.
In case of shunt or compound dc machines, even the shunt field copper losses can be
grouped with the constant losses because it remains practically constant at all loads. Thus
for a shunt or compound dc machine, the constant and variable losses include:
Constant losses including (i) iron losses, (ii) mechanical losses and (iii) shunt
field Cu losses.
239
Variable losses including (i) copper losses in armature winding (ii) copper
losses in series field winding (iii) copper losses in commutating pole winding (iv) copper
losses in compensating winding if any and (v) losses due to brush contact resistance.
4.21.2. Copper Losses
In general copper losses will occur in those parts of dc machines that carry electric
current. These losses could be further subdivided into three groups.
1. Armature copper loss
2. Field copper loss , and
3. Loss due to brush contact resistance.
Armature copper loss
Let the current flowing in the armature winding be designated I
a
amperes and its
resistance R
a
.
Then armature copper losses =
a a
R I
2
watts.
Moreover, series field winding, interpole winding and compensating windings are
connected in series with the armature winding. As such the current flowing in these
winding is also equal to the armature current, I
a
.
Thus, the total armature copper losses
= ( )
c i se a a
R R R R I + + +
2

Where R
se
, R
i
and R
c
are the resistance of series field winding, interpole winding and
compensating winding respectively.
The armature circuit copper losses vary as the square of the armature current. As such
these losses could be also called variable losses of the machine this loss is about 30 to
40% of full-load losses.
Field Copper loss
If I
sh
is the current flowing in the shunt field winding then , Copper losses in the shunt
field winding = I
sh
2
R
sh
where R
sh
is the resistance of the shunt field winding however the
resistance of the shunt field winding
sh
sh
I
V
R =

Where, V is the terminal voltage of the dc machine, i.e. voltage across the armature
terminals.
Hence, shunt field copper losses = V x I
sh
, watts
Terminal voltage and Ish are practically constant as such this loss can be taken into the
group of constant losses in the dc machine.
Losses due to Brush contact Resistance
240
In dc machines, brushes makes a sliding contact with the commutator and the conduction
of current is through minute arcs. The contact voltage drop for a particular grade of brush
is more or less constant, varying from 1 to 2 volts for normal carbon brushes. The brush
contact loss is equal to the product of contact voltage drop and the armature current.
Strictly speaking, it is not a copper loss; however it is normally included in the
classification of copper losses.
4.21.3. Iron Losses
The reversal of magnetization of the armature core leads to iron losses in the core and the
teeth of the armature structure. Iron losses can further be subdivided into: i) hysteresis
loss and ii) eddy current loss
Hysteresis loss
Hysteresis loss is mainly due to the reversal of magnetization in the armature core and
depends upon the area of the hysteresis loop of the magnetic material used for armature
core, the volume of the core and the frequency of magnetic flux reversal. Area of the
hysteresis loop again depends upon the flux density to which the material is being
worked.
Dr. Charles Steinmetz suggested an empirical formula based on a series of tests for
calculating the hysteresis loss, which expressed as follows,
( ) watts B Vf P
6 . 1
max h
= .
where, is a constant, known as Steinmetzs coefficient or hysteresis coefficient for a
particular material. Its value for 4% silicon steel and sheet steel is 275 and 500
respectively. Hysteresis loss is reduced by choosing a core material with low hysteresis
coefficient such as alloy steel.
Eddy current losses
As the armature core rotates relative to the magnetic field, it cuts the flux. Thus as per
the lows of electromagnetic induction, a small emf is induced in the armature core body,
which circulates a large current in the armature core due to its small resistance. Such a
circulating current is called eddy current and the power losses due to the flow of this
current are called eddy current losses. The resistance can be greatly increased by
laminating the armature core of the dc machine, thereby reducing the magnitude of eddy
current to an appreciable value. The eddy current losses depend upon the following
factors:
i) Thickness of laminations, t
ii) Frequency of flux reversal, f
iii) Maximum value of flux density, B
max

iv) Volume of armature core V and
v) Quality of iron.
241
Hence the eddy current losses occurring in the armature core and teeth of the dc
machine are given by
watts , V t f KB P
2 2 2
max c
=
4.21.4. Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses are due to the rotation of the armature and can be subdivided into
three categories.
1. bearing friction
2. brush friction and
3. air friction (winding)
There are also termed as friction and windage losses.
The bearing friction losses occurring in dc machine depend upon (i) the pressure on
bearing, (ii) Peripheral speed of the shaft at the bearing and (iii) coefficient of friction
between the bearing and the shaft.
The brush friction losses are quite appreciable in dc machines. These losses are
dependent upon (i) the brush pressure, (ii) the peripheral speed of the commutator and
(iii) the type of the brush.
The windage losses are mainly produced by the rotation of armature. These losses
depend upon (i) peripheral speed of the armature, (ii) armature diameter, (iii) armature
core length and (iv) construction of the machine
These three components added together give the total mechanical losses occurring in the
machine these are practically constant provided the speed remains the same during the
loading of the machine.
18. EFFICIENCY
The ratio of output of the machine to its input is generally called the efficiency of the
machine.

input
output
Efficiency =
Input to the machine = output + total losses
Thus,
losses total Output
Output
efficiency
+
=
Total losses in dc machine = constant losses + variable losses
= W
c
+ W
v

242
Hence,
losses variable losses onstant c Output
Output
efficiency
+ +
=

Condition for maximum efficiency
Let the dc machine works as a dc shunt generator, with a terminal voltage V volts and
load current I
L
ampere.
Then the power output of the dc generator = V I
L
,
Variable loss of the armature circuit = I
2
a
R
a
(assuming that the machine is not provided
with interpole and compensating windings).
Armature current, I
a
= I
L
+ I
Sh

Shunt field current is quite small compared to the load current and I
a
can be assumed
equal to I
L
. With this assumption,
Variable losses,
a L v
R I W
2
=
Let the constant losses be = W
C

Then, the efficiency of the generator,

a L C L
L
R I W I V
I V
2
+ +
=
Or
( )
V
R I
VI
W
a L
L
c
+
(
+
=
1
1

Efficiency will be maximum, when the denominator minimum i.e.
0 =
|
|
\
|
+
a
L
L
C
L
R
V
I
VI
W
dI
d

or
0
2
= +
V
R
VI
W
a
L
c

or
2
L
c a
VI
W
V
R
=

or
c a L
W R I =
2

i.e. copper losses in armature circuit = Constant Losses.
Hence efficiency of a dc machine will be maximum, when the variable losses are equal
to the constant losses.
Load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by
243

a
c
L
R
W
I =
Example 4.21 The armature of a 6 pole, 6 circuit dc shunt motor takes 300 A at
the speed of 400 rpm. The flux per pole is 75 10
-3
Wb. The number of armature turns is
500. The torque lost in windage, friction and iron losses can be assumed as 2.5 per cent.
Calculate
the torque developed by the armature,
shaft torque and
shaft power in kW.
Solution
i) The torque developed by the armature of a dc motor is given by
Nm
a
Z I P
159 . 0 T
a
a
= (i)
Number of poles of shunt motor, P=6
Armature winding has 6 circuits, thus, a=6
Armature current, I
a
= 300 A
Number of armature turns = 500
Thus total conductors on the armature, Z = 2 500 = 1000
Flux per pole, = 75 10
-3
Wb
Substituting these values in Eq. (i),
Armature torque,
Nm 5 . 3577
6
1000 300 10 75 6
159 . 0 T
3
a
=

=

ii) Torque lost in windage, friction and iron losses
= 2.5% of T
a

= 0.025 3577.5 = 89.44 N m
Thus, shaft torque, T
sh
= 3577.5 89.44
= 3488.06 N m
iii) Shaft power,

kW 22 . 146
1000 60
06 . 3488 400 2
kW
1000 60
NT 2
P
sh
sh
=
=

244
Example 4.22 2 A 200 V dc shunt motor takes a total current of 100 A and runs
at 750 rpm. The resistance of the armature winding and of shunt field winding is 0.1 and
40 respectively. Find out
i) the torque developed by the armature, and
ii) the copper losses.
If the friction and iron losses amount to 1500 W, also calculate
iii) shaft power, iv) shaft torque, and v) efficiency.
Solution
i) Voltage applied across the motor, V
L
= 200 V
Resistance of the shunt field winding, R
sh
= 40
40
200
R
V
I
sh
L
sh
= = =
Total current drawn by the motor, I
L
= 100 A.
Thus, armature current I
a
= I
L
I
sh
= 100 5 = 95 A
Armature resistance, R
a
= 0.1
Back emf, E
b
= V I
a
R
a

= 200 95 0.1
= 190.5 V
Mechanical power developed, P
mec
= E
b
I
a
= 190.5 95 =
= 18097.5 W
Now, mechanical power developed,
60
NT 2
I E
a
a b
=
Thus, torque developed by the armature,

m N 3 . 230
750 2
5 . 18097
60
N 2
I E
60 T
a b
a
=

=
=

ii) The back emf for a dc motor is given by,
E
b
= V I
a
R
a

Or E
b
I
a
= VI
a
I
a
2
R
a

Thus armature copper losses, I
a
2
R
a
= VI
a
E
b
I
a

= 200 95 18097.5
= 902.5 W
245
Field copper losses = I
sh
2
R
sh

= 5
2
40 = 1000 W
Total copper losses = 902.5 + 1000 = 1902.5 W
Copper losses could also be determined as follows:
Input to the motor = V
L
I
L
= 200 100 = 20,000 kW
Mechanical power developed, E
b
I
a
= 18097.5 W
Total copper losses = 20000 18097.5 = 1902.5 W
iii) Friction and Iron losses = 1500 W
Total copper losses = 1902.5 W
Output = 20 000 (1500+1902.5)
= 16 597.5 W
or shaft power 16.6 kW
iv) Shaft power
kW
1000 60
NT 2
P
sh
sh
=
Shaft torque,
m N 24 . 211
750 2
6 . 16 1000 60
T
sh
=

=

v) Efficiency,

% 99 . 82
20000
5 . 16597
P
P
input
output
=
= =

Example 4.23 A 100 V series motor takes 45 A when running at 750 rpm. Its
armature resistance is 0.22 , while the series field resistance is 0.13 . Iron and friction
losses amount to 750 W. Find (i) shaft power, (ii) total torque and (iii) shaft torque.
Solution
i) Voltage applied to the series motor, = 100 V
Total resistance of the armature circuit, = R
a
+ R
se

= 0.22 + 0.13 = 0.35
Current in the armature circuit, I
a
= 45 A
Back emf, E
b
= 100 45 0.35
= 84.25 V
Mechanical power developed = E
b
I
a
246
= 84.25 45 =
= 3791.25 W
Iron and friction losses = 750 W
Output = 3791.25 750 = 3041.25 W
Thus shaft power = 3.041 kW
ii) Mechanical power developed =
60
NT 2
I E
a
a b
=
Total torque,

m N 25 . 48
750 2
25 . 3791
60 T
a
=

=
T
iii) Output = 3041.25 W
Output
60
NT 2
sh
=
Or, shaft torque,

m N 7 . 38
750 2
25 . 3041 60
T
sh
=

=

Example 4.24 A long-shunt compound motor takes a current of 24A from 240 V
mains. Determine the efficiency if resistance of the armature, series field and shunt field
are 0.1, 0.08 and 60 ohms respectively and stray losses are 500 watts.
Solution
Input line current, I
L
= 24 A
Supply voltage, V = 240 V
Total input power to the machine VI
L
= 24024 = 5760 W
Shunt field current, A 4
60
240
R
V
I
sh
sh
= = =
Series field current, I
se
= I
a
= I
L
I
sh

= 24 4 = 20 A
Total losses = Stray losses + armature copper loss + series field copper loss + shunt field
copper loss
= P
s
+ I
a
2
R
a
+ I
se
2
R
se
+ V I
sh

= 500 + 20
2
0.1 + 20
2
0.08 + 2404 = 1532 W
247
Useful Output = Total input Total losses = 5760 1532 = 4228 W
Efficiency ,
% 4 . 73
5760
4228
input Total
output Usefull
= = =
Example 4.25 A 100 V dc series motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 and
series field resistance of 0.25. When its pulley exerts a torque of 27.58 N.m it runs at a
speed of 600 rpm, iron and friction losses at this speed are 300 W. Determine
(a) lost torque (b) copper losses and (c) efficiency.
Solution
Torque exerted, T =27.58 N.m
Speed, N= 600 r.p.m.
Motor output = W 1732
60
600 2 58 . 27
60
N 2
T =

=

Stray losses, P
s
=300 W
Let input current be of I amperes to give a torque of 27.58 N.m.
Copper losses in series field and armature = I
2
(R
a
+ R
se
)
= I
2
(0.2 + 0.25 )= 0.45 I
2

Input to motor =Motor output + P
s
+ copper losses
= 1732 + 300 + 0.45 I
2
= 2032 + 0.45 I
2

..(i)
Also motor input

=VI = 100 I
..(ii)
Comparing expressions (i) and (ii) we get
0.45 I
2
+2032 = 100 I
or I = 22.5
(b) Copper losses = I
2
(R
a
+ R
se
)= 22.5
2
0.45 = 227.8 W
(c) Efficiency of the motor, % 97 . 76 100
100 5 . 22
1732
100
Input
Output
=
= =
(a) Torque lost = m . N 4 . 8
60
600
2
8 . 227 300
60 / N 2
watts in Losses
=

+
=

=

248
PROBLEMS
4.1. The open-circuit voltage of a separately excited dc generator is 350 V when it
is running at 1800 rpm. If the excitation is held constant, what is the output voltage at
1200 rpm? At what speed would the generator run to produce 300 V?
Ans. 233.3V; 1543 rpm.
4.2. For the generator of Problem 4.2 draw no-load saturation curves at 1200 and
800. Determine the generated voltage at the speeds for currents of 2.4 A and 5 A.
4.3. A shunt generator has the no-load saturation curve shown in Figure 4.62.
Determine
a) The value of the field circuit resistance if the generated voltage is 350 V.
b) The output voltage if the field circuit resistance is 60.
c) The value of the critical field resistance for a speed of 2000 rpm.
Ans. (a) 58 , (b) 340 V , (c) 75
Field current, I
sh
(A)
OCC curve at
2000 rpm

Figure 4.62
4.4. A shunt generator with a field resistance of 60 has the no-load saturation
curve of Figure 4.63 at 2000 rpm. If R
a
is 0.16 and the brush drop is 2 V, plot a graph
of output voltage versus load current as it varies from 0 to 40 A in steps of 5 A. Assume
that the field flux remains essentially constant.

Figure 4.63
4.5. A 10-kW 250 V generator has a shunt-field resistance of 125, R
a
of 0.4, a
stray load loss of 540 W, and a 2-V brush voltage drop. If it is running at its rated output,
calculate:
249
a) The generated voltage.
b) The efficiency. Ans. a) 268.8 V ; b) 84.5%
4.6. A separately excited dc generator is driven at 1200 rpm and the following data
were recorded:
I
sh
(A) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
E
g
(V) 5 26 50 76 98 131 153 170
a) Draw the no-load curves at 1200 and l500 rpm.
b) The field circuit resistance is 200 . What is the open-circuit voltage of
the machine if it is connected as a shunt generator running at 1500 rpm.
c) What is the critical field resistance at 1000 rpm.
4.7. In a 150-kW 600-V short-shunt compound generator, 645.6 V is induced in the
armature when the generator delivers rated load at 600 V. The shunt-field current is 6 A.
R
se
=0.08. Determine:
a) The armature resistance and shunt-field resistance. (Neglect brush voltage
drop.)
b) The voltage regulation if the emf induced in the armature on no load is
600 V. Ans.: a) 0.1, 103.3; b) 10.0%
4.8. A separated excited generator has a no-load voltage of 125 V at a field current
of 2.1 A when driven at a speed of 1600 rpm. Assuming that it is operating on the
straight-line portion of its saturation curve, calculate:
a) The generated voltage when the field current is increased to 2.6 A.
b) The generated voltage when the speed is reduced to 1450 rpm and the
field current is increased to 2.8 A.
4.9. A 10-kW 220-V compound generator (long-shunt connected) is operated at no
load at the proper armature voltage and speed, from which the stray-power loss is
determined to be 705. The shunt-field resistance, R
sh
=110, the armature resistance
R
a
=0.265 and the series-field resistance, R
se
= 0.035. Assume a 2-V brush drop and
calculate the full-load efficiency.
Ans. 83.9%
4.10. A 250-kW 240-V 1200 rpm short-shunt compound generator has a shunt-field
resistance of 24, an armature resistance of 0.003, a series-field resistance of 0.0013,
and a commutating-field resistance of 0.004, calculate the generated emf at full load.
4.11. The terminal voltage of a 200-kW shunt generator is 600 V when it delivers
rated current. The resistance of the shunt field circuit is 250, the armature resistance is
0.32, and the brush resistance is 0.014 .
a) Determine the emf induced at rated current.
b) The terminal voltage is 620 V at half-rated current. Determine the emf
induced. Ans. a) 712.1 V; b) 676.5 V
4.12. The no-load saturation curve of a dc shunt generator when running at a speed of
1000 rpm is as illustrated in Fig. 4.64.
a) Determine the critical field resistance at;
250
i. 1000 rpm
ii. 1500 rpm
b) If the resistance of the field coils is 100, find the value of the field
rheostat to set the open-circuit voltage to l25 V at a speed of 1000 rpm.
Field current, I
sh
(V)
1000 rpm

Figure 4.64 No-load saturation curve for problem 4.12
4.13. The dc generator has the following OCC at 800 r.p.m
I
sh
(A) 0 1 2 3 4 5
E
g
(V) 10 112 198 232 252 266
a) Find the no-load terminal voltage when the machine runs as a shunt generator at
1000 r.p.m. The resistance of field circuit is 70-.
b) What additional field regulator resistance will be required to reduce the voltage to
270-V? Ans. a) 330 V; b) 42.5
4.14. The open-circuit characteristic of a de shunt generator driven at 850 rpm is
given by,
I
sh
(A) 2 3 4 5 6
E
g
(V) 68 87 100.5 109 112.5
The resistance of the shunt field winding is 22.2 . Find the voltage to which the
machine will excite, when it runs at 850rpm self-excited. Ans.108 V
4.15. The relation between the excitation current and the emf generated by
separately-excited generator running on open circuit at 600 rpm is given by,
I
sh
(A) 0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0
E
g
(V) 0 150 295 398 465 517
Find the voltage to which the dc machine will excite as a shunt generator on open circuit
with shunt field resistance of 60 (i) at 600 rpm, (ii) at 500 rpm and (iii) critical speed
of the generator.
4.16. The magnetization characteristic of dc shunt generator running at 850 rpm is
given by,
251
Field current (A) 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4
Emf (V) 0 28 57 76 90 100
Calculate
i. The emf to which the machine will excite, when the field circuit resistance is 22
,
ii. the emf when an additional resistance of 8 is included in the field circuit,
iii. the value of field resistance R
f
for normal voltage of 100V,
iv. Critical resistance of the field circuit and
v. Critical speed with field resistance R
f
as calculated in part (iii).
Ans.(i) 110 V (ii) 81 V (m) 25 (iv) 37 (v) 575 rpm
4.17. The open circuit characteristics of dc generator driven at 1000 rpm is given by,
The magnetization characteristic of 4 pole, lap wound dc shunt generator with 400
armature conductors and running at 750 rpm is given by,
I
sh
,(A) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.6 2,0 2.4 3.0 4.4 5.6
Emf, E
g
(V)
10 44 84 120 150 186 206 220 230 240 260 274
The machine is separately excited from supply of 220 V. The resistance of the field
coil is 40 .
i. Calculate the range of rheostat (ohms and current carrying capacity)
included in the field circuit to give voltage from 100 to 250 V
ii. What is the value of the resistance in the field rheostat, when the terminal
voltage is 200 V?
iii. If the field rheostat is kept constant at 50 and exciting voltage is 220 V,
what is the induced emf for generator speeds of 800, 1000 and 1200 rpm.
Ans. (i) 377 , 3.7 A (ii) 94 (iii) 184 V, 230 V, 276 V
4.18. The open circuit characteristics of a dc shunt generator driven at 1000 rpm is as
follows.
Field current, I
sh
(A) 0 1 2 3 4 6 8 10
Emf, E
g
(V) 4 115 230 315 360 405 430 450
Based on the above, calculate
i. the emf to which the machine will excite with shunt field resistance of 50,
ii. the additional resistance in the field circuit to reduce the emf to 392 V, and
iii. Critical resistance of the shunt field circuit at 600.
4.19. A 4-pole, 440 V dc shunt motor takes a full-load current of 40-A. the armature
is wave wound with 762 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.025 Wb. The armature
resistance is 0.25 . Assume a brush contact drop of 2V, calculate the full load speed.
Ans. 674 rpm
252
4.20. A dc shunt machine connected to 250 V mains has an armature resistance of
0.12 and a field resistance 0f 100 . Find the ratio of the speed as a generator to its
speed as a motor, the line current in each case being 80A.
4.21. A 460 V series motor runs at 500 r.p.m. taking a current of 40 A. Calculate the
speed and percentage change in torque if the load is reduced so that the motor is taking
30 A. Total resistance of the armature and field circuit is 0.8 . Assume flux is
proportional to the field current. Ans. 679 rpm, 43.75%
4.22. A 200 V dc series motor runs at 1000 r.p.m. and takes 20 A. Combined
resistance of armature and field is 0.4 . Calculate the resistance to be inserted in series
so as to reduce the speed to 800 r.p.m., assuming torque to vary as square of the speed
and linear magnetization curve.
4.23. A 250 V dc shunt motor draws 5 A from the line on no load and runs at 1000
rpm. The armature resistance and shunt field resistance are 0.2 and 250 respectively.
What will be the speed of the motor, when it is loaded and takes current of 50 A.
Armature reaction weakens the field by 3%. Ans.994 rpm
4.24. A 250 V dc shunt motor has a shunt field resistance of 250 and an armature
resistance of 0.25 . For a given load torque and no additional resistance included in
shunt field circuit, the motor runs at 1500 r.p.m. drawing an armature current of 20 A. If
a resistance of 250 is inserted in series with the field, the load torque remaining the
same, find out the new speed and armature current. Assuming the magnetization curve to
be linear.
4.25. A 4-pole, 440 V dc shunt motor takes a full load Current of 40 A. The armature
is wave wound with 762 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.025 Wb. Effective armature
resistance is 0.25. Assuming brush contact drop of 2 V, calculate the full load speed.
Ans.674 rpm
4.26. The armature of a 4-pole dc shunt motor has a lap winding accommodated in
50 slots, each containing 24 conductors. If the useful flux per pole is 25 m Wb, calculate
the total torque developed, when the armature current is 45 A.
4.27. A 240 V dc shunt motor has armature and shunt field resistance of 0.04 and 100
respectively.
i. Calculate the value of resistance that must be added to the field circuit in
order to increase its speed from 1200 to 7500 rpm, when the supply current is 200 A.
ii. With the field resistance as in (i), find the speed of the motor, when the
supply current is 100 A. Ans.(i) 25 (ii) 1525 rpm
4.28. A 230 V, 4-pole, dc shunt motor running at 750 rpm gives 7.46 kW with an
armature current of 38 A and field current of 1.0 A. The armature is wave wound and has
400 conductors. The resistance of armature winding is 0.2 and the drop at each brush
is 1.0 V. Determine (i) useful torque, (ii) total torque, (iii) useful flux per pole, (iv)
rotational losses, and (v) efficiency.
4.29. A 440 V, 6-pole dc shunt motor has a wave connected armature winding with
1100 conductors. The useful flux per pole is 20 mWb. The armatures and field
resistances are 0.4 and 220 respectively. Ignoring the effect of armature reaction, find
the speed and the total developed torque, when the current of 22 A is taken from the
mains. If the iron, friction and windage losses amount to 800 W, find the useful torque,
253
shaft power and efficiency. Ans. (i) 393 rpm (ii)
209.9 N m (iii) 190.4 N m (iv) 7.83 kW (v) 81 %
4.30. A 200 V dc shunt motor with an armature resistance of 0.4 is excited to give
constant main field. At full load, the motor runs at 600 rpm and takes an armature
current of 25 A. If a resistance of 0.8 is placed in the armature circuit, find the speed at
(i) full load torque and,
(ii) double full load torque.
4.31. A 220 V dc shunt motor takes a no load armature current of 10 A and runs at
1500 rpm. At full load, armature current is 100 A and the motor runs at 1470rpm.
Resistance of the armature circuit is 0.1. Calculate the following :
(i) back-emf at no load and at full load,
(ii) percentage reduction in flux due to armature reaction and
(iii) ratio of no load to full-load torque developed by the armature.
Ans. (i) 219 V, 210 V (ii) 2.14 % (iii) 0.102
4.32. A 440 V dc shunt motor takes an armature current of 120 A at full load and
runs at 800 rpm. Find the speed of the motor, when the torque on the motor is reduced to
60 per cent of its full load value and a resistance of 1.5 is inserted in the armature
circuit. Take the effective armature resistance as 0.2.
4.33. A 250 V dc shunt motor takes 21 A and runs at 600 rpm while driving a load,
the torque of which is constant. The resistance of the armature and the field are 0.5 and
250 respectively. It is desired to raise the speed from 600 to 800 rpm. What resistance
must be included in the shunt field circuit? Assume the magnetization curve to be
straight line. Ans.88
4.34. A 220 V dc shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.25 and a field
resistance of 55. The motor while driving a constant load torque takes 64 A and runs at
500 rpm. Find the speed when a resistance of 20 is inserted in the shunt field
circuit. Assume the flax to be proportional to the field current.
4.35. A 10 hp, 500 V dc shun motor has an armature resistance of 0.25 and field
resistance of 400. Its full load efficiency is 85 %. It is desired to reduce the speed of
motor by 30 % by including a resistance in the armature circuit, keeping the same field
and armature currents. Assuming that all losses except copper losses vary directly with
the speed, find the value of the resistance inserted in the armature circuit and also the
efficiency of the motor, when it is running at the reduced speed.
Ans.9.12, 59.6%

254
CHAPTER FIVE
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
5.1. INTRODUCTION
A synchronous machine rotates at a constant speed in the steady state. Unlike induction
machines, the rotating air gap field and the rotor in the synchronous machine rotate at the
same speed, called the synchronous speed. Synchronous machines are used primarily as
generators of electrical power. In this case they are called synchronous generators or
alternators. They are usually large machines generating electrical power at hydro,
nuclear, or, thermal power stations. Synchronous generators with power ratings of sev-
eral hundred MVA (mega-volt-amperes) are quite common in stations. Synchronous
generators are the primary energy conversion devices of the world's electical power
systems today. In spite of continuing research for more direct enery conversion
techniques, it is conceded that synchronous generators will continue to be used well into
the next century.
Like most rotating machines, a synchronous machine can also operate as both a
generator and a motor. In large sizes (several hundred or thousand kilowatts)
synchronous motors are used for pumps in generating stations and in small sizes
(fractional horsepower) they are used in electrical clocks, timers, record turntables, and
so forth where constant speed is desired. Most industrial drives run at variable speeds. In
industrial, synchronous motor are used mainly where a constant speed is desired. In
industrial drives, therefore, synchronous motors are not as widely used as induction or dc
motors. A linear version of the synchronous motor (LSM) is being considered for high-
speed transportation systems of the future.
An important feature of a synchronous motor is that it can draw either lagging or leading
reactive current from the ac supply system. A synchronous machine is a doubly excited
machine. Its rotor poles are excited by a dc current and its stator windings are connected
to the ac supply . The air gap flux is therefore the resultant of the fluxes due to both rotor
current and stator current. In induction machines, the only source of excitation is the
stator current, because rotor currents are induced currents. Therefore, induction motors
always operate at a lagging power factor, because lagging reactive current is required to
establish flux in the machine. On the other hand, in a synchronous motor, if the rotor
field winding provides just the necessary excitation, the stator will draw no reactive
current; that is, motor will operate at a unity power factor. If the rotor excitation current
is decreased, lagging reactive current will be drawn from the ac source to aid
maanetization by the rotor field current and the machine will operate at a lagging power
factor. If the rotor field current is increased, leading reactive current will be drawn from
the ac source to oppose magnetization by the rotor field current and the machine will
operate at a leading power factor. Thus, by changing the field current, the power factor
of the synchronous motor can be controlled. If the motor is not loaded but is simply
floating on the ac supply system, it will thus behave as a variable inductor or capacitor as
its rotor field current is changed. A synchronous machine with no load is called a
synchronous condenser. It may be used in power transmission systems to regulate line
voltage. In industry, synchronous motors are sometimes used with other induction
motors and operated in an overexcited mode so that they draw leading current to
compensate the lagging current drawn by the induction motors, thereby improving the
overall plant power factor. Example 5.3 illustrates the use of synchronous motors for
255
power factor improvement. The power factor characteristics of svnchronous motors will
be further discussed in a later section.

Figure 5.1 cutaway view of synchronous machines
5.2. CONSTRUCTION OF THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
The stator of the three-phase synchronous machine has a three-phase distributed winding
similar to that of the three-phase induction machine. Unlike the dc machine, the stator
winding, which is connected to the ac supply system, is sometimes called the armature
winding. It is designed for high voltage and current.
The rotor has a winding called the field winding, which carries direct current. The field
winding on the rotating structure is normally fed from an external dc source through slip
rings and brushes. Synchronous machines can be broadly divided into two groups as
follows:
a) High-speed machines with cylindrical (or non-salient pole) rotors.
b) Low-speed machines with salient pole rotors.
The cylindrical or non-salient pole rotor has one distributed winding and an essentiallv
uniform air gap. These motors are used in large generators (several hundred megawatts)
with two or sometimes four poles and are usually driven by steam turbines. The rotors
are long and have a small diameter, as shown in Figure 5.2. On the other hand, salient
pole rotors have concentrated windings on the poles and a nonuniform air gap. Salient
pole generators have a large number of poles, sometimes as many as 50, and operate at
lower speeds. The synchronous generators in hvdroelectric power stations are of the
salient pole type and are driven by water turbines. These gencrators are rated for tens or
hundreds of megawatts. The rotors are shorter but have a large diameter as shown in
Figure 5.3. Smaller salient pole synchronous machines in the range of 50 kW to 5 MW
am also used. Such synchronous generators are used independently as emergency power
supplies. Salient pole synchronous motors are used to drive pumps, cement mixers, and
some other industrial drives.
256
X
X
X
X
S S
N
N
Salient
pole
Rotor Field
winding
Distributed
stator Winding
Stator
Frame
Basement

(a)
Cylindrical
(non-Salient)
rotor
Rotor Field
winding
N
S
X
X
X
Distributed
stator Winding
Basement

(b)
Figure 5.3 rotor construction of synchronous machines (a) salient pole; (b) non-salient
pole
In the following sections the steady-state performance of the cylindrical rotor
synchronous machine will be studied first. Then the effects of saliency in the rotor poles
will be considered.
5.3. SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Refer to Figure 5.4 (a) and assume that when the field current I
f
flows through the rotor
field winding, it establishes a sinusoidallv distributed flux in the air gap. If the rotor is
now rotated bv the prime mover (which can be a turbine or diesel engine or dc motor or
induction motor), a revolving field is produced in the air gap. This field is called the
excitation field, because it is produced by the excitation current I
f
. The rotating flux so
produced will change the flux linkage of the armature windings aa', bb', and cc' and will
induce voltages in these stator windings. These induced voltages, shown in Fig. 5.4b,
have the same magnitudes but are phase-shifted by 120 electrical degrees.
257
a
b c
b
'
c
'
I
f

(a) (b)
Figure 5.4 Excitation voltage in synchronous machines
They are called excitation voltages E
f
. The rotor speed and frequencv of the induced
voltage are related by

p
f
n
120
= 5.1
Or

120
np
f = 5.2
Where n is the rotor speed in rpm
P is the number of poles
The excitation voltage in rms is

w f f
NK f . E = 44 4 5.3
Where
f
is the flux per pole due to the excitation Current I
f

N is the number of turns in each phase
K
w
is the winding factor

f f
n E 5.4
The excitation voltage is proportional to the machine speed and excitation flux, and the
latter in turn depends on the excitation current I
f
. The variation of the excitation voltage
with the field current is shown in Figure 5.5. The induced voltage at I
f
= 0 is due to the
residual magnetism. Initially the voltage rises linearly with the field current, but as the
field current is further increased, the flux
f
does not increase linearly with I
f
because of
saturation of the magnetic circuit, and therefore E
f
levels off. If the machine terminals
are kept open, the excitation voltage is the same as the terminal voltage and can be
measured using a voltmeter. The curve shown in Figure 5.5 is known as the open-circuit
characteristic (OCC) or- magnetization characteristic of the synchronous machine.
258

Figure 5.5 Open circuit characteristic (OCC) or magnetization characteristic of a
synchronous machine.

Figure 5.6 Space phasor diagram
If the stator terminals of the machine (Fig. 5.1(c)) are connected to a 3 load, stator
current I
a
will flow. The frequency of I
a
will be the same as that of the excitation voltage
E
f
. The stator currents flowing in the 3 windings will also establish a rotating field in
the air gap. The net air gap flux is the resultant of the fluxes produced by rotor current I
f

and stator current I
a
.
Let
f
be the flux due to I
f
and
a
be the flux due to I
a
known as the armature reaction
flux. Then,
a f r
+ = = resultant air gap flux, assuming no saturation
It may be noted that the resultant and the component fluxes rotate in the air gap at the
same speed, governed by Eq.5.1. The space phasor diagram for these fluxes is shown in
Figure 5.6. The rotor field mmf F
f
(due to I
f
) and the flux
f
produced by the mmf F
f
are
represented along the same line. The induced voltage E
f
lags the flux
f
by 90. Assume
that the stator current I
a
lags E
1
by an angle . The mmf F
a
(due to the current I
a
) and the
flux
a
produced by the mmf F
a
are along the same axis as the current I
a
. The resultant
mmf F
r
is the vector sum of the mmf's F
f
and F
a
. Assuming no saturation, the resultant
flux
r
is also the vector sum of the fluxes
f
and

a
.
259
5.4. THE INFINITE BUS
Synchronous generators are rarely used to supplv individual loads. These generators, in
general, are connected to a power supply system known as an infinite bus or grid.
Because a large number of synchronous generators of large sizes are connected together,
the voltage and freduency of the infinite bus hardly change. Loads are tapped from the
infinite bus at various load centers. A typical infinite bus or grid system is shown in
Figure 5.7. Transmission of power is normally at higher voltage levels (in hundreds of
kilovolts) to achieve higher efficiency of power transmission. However, generation of
electrical energy by the synchronous generators or alternators is at relatively lower
voltage levels (20-30 kV). A transformer is used to step up the alternator voltage to the
infinite bus voltage. At the load centers, the infinite bus (or grid) voltage is stepped down
through several stages to bring the voltage down to the domestic voltage level (115/230
V) or industrial voltage levels such as 4.16 kV, 600 V, or 480 V.

Figure 5.7 Infinite bus (or grid) svstem.
In a power plant the synchronous generators are connected to or disconnected from the
infinite bus, depending on the power demand on the grid system. The operation of
connecting a synchronous generator to the infinite bus is known as paralleling with the
infinite bus. Before the alternator can be connected to the infinite bus, the incoming
alternator and the infinite bus must have the same.
1. Voltage
2. Frequency
3. Phase sequence
4. Phase
260
In the power plant the satisfaction of these conditions is checked by an instrument known
as a synchroscope, shown in Figure 5.8. The position of the indicator indicates the phase
difference between the voltages of the incoming machine and the infinite bus. The
direction of motion of the indicator shows whether the incoming machine is running too
fast or too slow, that is, whether the frequency of the incoming machine is higher or
lower than that of the infinite bus. The phase sequence is predetermined because if phase
sequence is not correct it will produce a disastrous situation. When the indicator moves
very slowly (i.e., frequencies almost the same) and passes through the zero phase point
(vertical up position) the circuit break is closed and the alternator is connected to the
infinite bus.

Figure 5.8 Synchroscope.
A set of synchronizing lamps can be used to check that the conditions for paralleling the
incoming machine with the infinite bus are satisfied. In a laboratory such a set of lamps
can be used to demonstrate what happens if the conditions are not satisfied. Figure 5.9
shows the schematic of the laboratory setup for this purpose. The prime mover can be a
dc motor or an induction motor. It can be adjusted to a speed such that the frequency of
the synchronous machine is the same as that of the infinite bus. For example, if the
synchronous machine has four poles, the prime mover can be adjusted for 1800 rpm so
that the frequency is 60 cycles-the same as that of the infinite bus. The field current I
f

can then be adjusted so that the two voltmeters (V
1
and V
2
) read the same. If the phase
sequence is correct all the lamps will have the same brightness, and if the frequencies are
not exactlv the same the lamps will brighten and darken in step.
Let us examine what we expect to observe in the lamps if the conditions are not satisfied.
The phenomena can be explained by drawing phasor diagrams for the voltages of the
incoming machine and the infinite bus. Let
E
A
, E
B
, E
C
represent the phasor voltages of the infinite bus.
E
a
, E
b
, E
c
represent the phasor voltages of the incoming machine.
E
Aa
, E
Bb
, E
Cc
represent the phasor voltages of the synchronizing lamps.
The magnitude of these will represent the brightness of the
corresponding lamps.
261

Figure 5.9 Schematic diagram for paralleling a synchronous generator with the infinite
bus using synchronizing iamps.
1. Voltages are not the sarne, but frequency and phase sequence are the same.
Referring to Figure 5.10a, one sees that the two sets of phasor voltages (E
A
, E
B
, E
C
and
E
a
, E
b
, E
c
) rotate at the same speed. The lamp voltages E
Aa
, E
Bb
,and E
Cc
have equal
magnitudes and therefore all the three lamps will glow with the same intensity. To make
the voltages equal, the field current I
f
must be adjusted.
2. Frequencies are not the satrte, but voltages and phase sequences are the same.
The two sets of phasor voltages rotate at different speeds, depending on the frequencies.
Assume that the phase voltages are in phase at an instant t = t
1
(Figure 5.l0(b)). At this
instant, the voltages across the lamps are zero and therefore they are all dark. If f
1
> f
2
at
a later instant t = t
2
, phasors E
A
, E
B
, and E
C
will move ahead of phasors E
a
, E
b
, and E
c
.
Equal voltages will appear across the three lamps and they will glow with the same
intensity. It is therefore evident that if the frequencies are different, the lamps will darken
and brighten in step.
To make the frequencies the same, the speed has to be adjusted until the lamps brighten
and darken very slowly in step. It may be noted that as the speed of the incoming
machine is adjusted, its voltages will change. Therefore simultaneous adjustment of the
field current I
f
will also be necessary tokeep the voltages the same.
3. Phase sequences are not the same, but voltages and frequencies are the same.
Let the phase sequence of the voltages of the infinite bus be E
A
, E
B
, E
C
and of the
incoming bus E
a
, E
b
,E
c
as shown in Figure 5.l0(c). The voltages across the lamps are of
different magnitudes and therefore the lamps will glow with different intensities. If the
frequencies are slightlv different, one set of phasor voltages will pass the other set of
phasor voltages and the lamps will darken and brighten out of step.
To make the phase sequence the same, interchange connections to two terminals; for
instance, connect a to B and b to A (Figure 5.9).

262
4. Phase is not the same, but voltage, frequency, and phase sequeuce are the same.
The two sets of phasor voltages will maintain a steady phase difference as shown in
Figure 5.10(d) and the lamps will glow with the same intensity. To make the phase the
same or the phase difference zero, the frequency of the incoming machine is slightly
altered. At zero phase difference all the lamps will be dark, and if the circuit breaker is
closed the incoming machine will be connected to the infinite bus. Once the synchronous
machine is connected to the infinite bus, its speed cannot be changed further. However,
the real power transfer from the machine to the infinite bus can be controlled by
adjusting the prime mover power. The reactive power (and hence the machine power
factor) can be controlled by adjusting the field Current. Real and reactive power control
will be discussed in detail in later sections.
E
A
E
B
E
C
E
a
E
b E
c
E
Aa
E
Bb
E
Cc

(a)
E
A
E
B
E
C
E
a
E
b
E
c
E
A
E
B
E
C
E
a
E
b
E
c
E
Aa
E
Bb
E
Cc
f
1
f
2
instant t = t
1
instant t = t
2
(b)

(c) (d)
Figure 5.10 phasor voltages of the incoming machine and the infinite bus
263
5.5. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
When synchronous machine is used as a motor, one should be able to connect it directly
to the power supply like other motors, such as dc motors or induction motors. However,
a synchronous motor is not self-starting. If the rotor field poles are excited by the field
current and the stator terminals are connected to the ac supply, the motor will not start;
instead, it vibrates. This can be explained as follows.
Let us consider a two-pole synchronous machine. If it is connected to a 3, 60Hz ac
supply, stator currents will produce a rotating field that will 3600 rpm in the air gap. Let
us represent this rotating field by two stator poles rotating at 3600 rpm, as shown in
Figure 5.11(a). At start (t=0), let the rotor poles be at the position shown in Figure
5.11(a). The rotor will therefore experience a clockwise torque, making it rotate in the
direction of the stator rotating poles. At t = t
1
, let the stator poles move by half
revolution, shown in Figure 5.1(b). The rotor poles have hardly moved, because of the
high inertia of the rotor. Therefore, at this instant the rotor experiences a
counterclockwise torque tending to make it rotate in the direction opposite to that of the
stator poles. The net torque on the rotor in one revolution will be zero, and therefore the
motor will not develop any starting torque. The stator field is rotating so fast that the
rotor poles cannot catch up or lock onto it. The motor will not speed up but will vibrate.
S
N
S
N

Figure 5.11 Torque on rotor at start.
Two methods are normaly used to start a synchronous motor:
a) use variable-frequency supply or
b) start the machine as an induction motor.
Start with Variable-Frequency Supply
By using a frequency converter, a synchronous motor can be brought from standstill to
its desired speed. The arrangement is shown schematically in Figure 5.12. The motor is
started with a low-frequency supply. This will make the stator field rotate slowly so that
the rotor poles can follow the stator poles. Afterward, the frequency is gradually
increased and the motor brought to its desired speed.
264
The frequency converter is a costly power conditioning unit, and therefore this method is
expensive. However, if the synchronous motor has to run at variable speeds, this method
may be used.
Synchronous
motor
Frequency
converter
V, f
f control
V control
I
f
ply sup
3

Figure 5.12 Starting of a synchronous motor using a variable-frequency supply. .
Start as an Induction Motor
If the frequency converter is not available, or if the synchronous motor does not have to
run at various speeds, it can be started as an induction motor. For this purpose an
additional winding, which resembles the cage of an induction motor, is mounted on the
rotor. This cage-type winding is known a damper or amortisseur winding and is shown in
Figure 5.13.
To start the motor the field winding is left unexcited; often it is shunted by a resistance.
If the motor terminals are now connected to the ac supply, the motor will start as an
induction motor because currents will be induced in the damper winding to produce
torque. The motor will speed up and will approach synchronous speed. The rotor is then
closely following the stator field poles, which are rotating at the synchronous speed.
Now if the rotor poles are excited by a field current from a dc source, the rotor poles,
closely following the stator poles, will be locked to them. The rotor will then run at
synchronous speed.
If the machine runs at synchronous speed, no current will be induced in the damper
winding. The damper winding is therefore operative for starting. Note that if the rotor
speed is different from the synchronous speed because of sudden load change or other
transients, currents will be induced in the damper winding to produce a torque to restore
the synchronous speed. The presence of this restorative torque is the reason for the name
"damper" winding. Also note that a damper winding is not required to start a
synchronous generator and parallel it with the infinite bus. However, both synchronous
generators and motors have damper windings to damp out transient oscillations.

Figure 5.13 cage-type damper (or amortisseur) winding in a synchronous machine.
265
5.6. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL
In the preceding sections the qualitative behavior of the synchronous machine as both a
generator and a motor has been discussed to provide feel for the machine behavior. We
can now develop an equivalent circuit model that can be used to study the performance
characterislics with sufficient accuracy. Since the steady-state behavior will be studied,
the circuit time constants of the field and damper windings need not be considered. The
equivalent circuit will be derived on a per-phase basis.
The current I
f
in the field winding produces a flux
f
in the air gap. The current I
a
in the
stator winding produces flux
a
. Part of it,
al
, known as the leakage flux, links with the
stator winding only and does not link with the field winding. A major part,
ar
, known as
the armature reaction flux, is established in the air gap and links with the field winding.
The resultant air gap flux
r
is therefore due to the two component fluxes,
f
and
ar
.
Each component flux induces a component voltage in the stator winding. In Figure
5.14a, E
f
is induced by
f
, E
ar
by
ar
, and the resultant voltage E
r
by the resultant flux
r
.
The excitation voltage E
f
can be found from the open-circuit curve of Figure 5.5.
However, the voltage E
ar
, known as the armature reaction voltage, depends on
ar
(and
hence on I
a
). From Figure 5.14(a),

f ar r
E E E + = 5.5
or

r ar f
E E E + = 5.6
From the phasor diagram of Figure 5.14((b), the voltage E
ar
lags
ar
(or I
a
)

by 90.
Therefore, I
a
lags the phasor E
ar
by 90. In Eq. 6.6, the voltage -E
ar
can thus be
represented as a voltage drop across a reactance X
ar
due to the current I
a
. Equation 6.6
can be written as
r ar a f
E jX I E + =
This reactance X
ar
is known as the reactance of armature reaction or the magnitizing
reactance and is shown in Figure 5.14(c). If the stator winding resistance R
a
and the
leakage reactance X
al
(which accounts for the leakage flux
al
) are included, the per-
phase equivalent circuit is represented by the circuit of Figure 5.14(d). The resistance R
a

is the effective resistance and is approximately 1.6 times the dc resistance of the stator
winding. The effective resistance includes the effects of the operating temperature and
the skin effect caused by the alternating current flowing through the armature winding.
If the two reactances X
ar
and X
al
are combined into one reactance, the equivalent circuit
model reduces to the form shown in Figure 5.14e, where

al ar s
X X X + = (called synchronous reactance)

s a s
X R Z + = (called synchronous impedance)

266
r

ar

(a) (b)
E
f
X
ar
E
f
I
a

(c) (d)
X
s R
a
E
a
V
t
I
a
E
f

(e)
Figure 5.14 Equivalent circuit of a synchronous machine
The sychronous reactance X
s
takes into account all the flux, magnetizing as well as
leakage, produced by the armature (stator) current.
The values of these machine parameters depend on the size of the machine. Table 5.1
shows their order of magnitude in the per-unit system.
Table 5.1 Synchronous Machine Parameters
Smaller Machines
(tens of kVA)
Larger Machines
(tens of MVA)
R
a
0.05-0.02
X
al
0.05 -0.08
X
s
0.5-0.8
0.01-0.005
0.1-0.15
1.0-1.5
A 0.1 pu impedance means that if the rated current flows, the impedance will produce a
voltage drop of 0.1 (or 10%) of the rated value. In general, as the machine size increases,
the per-unit resistance decreases but the per-unit synchronous reactance increases.
267
5.7. DETERMINATION OF THE SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE X
s

The synchronous reactance is an important parameter in the equivalent circuit of the
synchronous machine. This reactance can be determined by performing two tests, an
open-circuit test and a short-circuit test.
5.7.1. Open-Circuit Test
The synchronous machine is driven at the synchronous speed, and the circuit terminal
voltage V
t
(= E
f
) is measured as the field current I
f
, is varied (see Figure 5.15(a)). The
curve showing the variation of E
f
with I
f
is known as the open-circuit characteristic
(OCC, shown in Fig. 5.15(c)). Because the terminals are open, this curve shows the
variation of the excitation voltage E
f
with the field current I
f
. Note that as the field
current is increased, the magnetic circuit shows saturation effects. The line passing
through the linear part of the OCC is called the air gap line. The excitation voltage
would have changed along this line if there were no magnetic saturation effects in the
machine.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 5.15 Open-circuit and short-circuit characteristics. (a) Circuit for open-circuit test.
(b) for short-circuit test. (c) Characteristics.
5.7.2. Short-Circuit Test
The circuit arrangement for this test is shown in Figure 5.15(b). Ammeters are connected
to each phase and the terminals are then shorted. The synchronous machine is driven at
synchronous speed. The field current I
f
is now varied and the average of the three
armature currents is measured. The variation of the armature current with the field
current is shown in Figure 5.15c and is known as the short-circuit characteristic (SCC).
Note that the SCC is a straight line. This is due to the fact that under short-circuit condi-
tions, the magnetic circuit does not saturate because the air gap flux remains at a low
level. This fact can be explained as follows.
The equivalent circuit under short-circuit conditions is shown in Figure 5.16 (a). Because
R
a
<< X
s
(see Table 5.1), the armature current I
a
lags the excitation voltage E
f
by almost
90. The armature reaction mmf F
a
therefore oppose the field mmf F
f
and the resultant
268
mmf F
r
is very small, as can be seen from Figure 5.16(b). The magnetic circuit therefore
remains unsaturated even if both I
f
and I
a
are large.
Also note from the equivalent circuit of Figure 5.16 (a) that the air gap voltage is
( )
al a a r
jX R I E + = . Because both R
a
and X
al
are small (see Table 6.1) at rated current ,
the air gap voltage will be less than 20 percent of the rated voltage (signifying
unsaturated magnetic conditions at short-circuited operation). If the machine stays
unsaturated, the excitation voltage E
f
will increase linearly with the excitation current I
f
along the air gap line and therefore the armature current will increase linearlv with the
field current.
E
f
X
ar
X
al
E
r
R
a
V
t
= 0
I
a

E
f
F
f
F
r
F
a

(a) (b)
Figure 5.16 Short-circuit operation of a synchronous generator
Unsaturated Synchronous Reactance
This can be obtained from the air gap line voltage and the short-circuit current of the
machine for a particular value of the field current. From Figure 5.15(c),

) unsat ( s a
ba
da
) unsat ( s
jX R
I
E
Z + = = 5.8
If R
a
is neglected

ba
da
) unsat ( s
I
E
X 5.9
Saturated Synchronous Reactance
Recall that prior to connecting a svnchronous machine to the infinite bus, its excitation
voltage is raised to the rated value. From Figure 6.15(c), this voltage is E
ca
(= rated V
t
)
and the machine operates at some saturation level. If the machine is connected to the
infinite bus, its terminal voltage remains the same at the bus value. If the field current is
now changed, the excitation voltage will change, but not along the OCC line. The
excitation voltage E
f
will change along the line Oc, known as the modified air gap line.
This line represents the same magnetic saturation level as that corresponding to the
operating point c. This can be explained as follows.
269
From the equivalent circuit of Figure 5.14(d),
( )
al a a t r
jX R I V E + + = 5.10
If the drop across R
a
and X
al
is neglected,

t r
V E 5.10 a
Because V
t
is constant, the air gap voltage remains essentially the same as yhe field
current is changed. This implies that the air gap flux level (i.e., magnetic saturation level)
remains practicallv unchanged and hence as I
f
is changed, E
f
will change linearly along
the line Oc of Figure 5.15c.
The saturated synchronous reactance at the rated voltage is obtained as follows:

) sat ( s a
ba
ca
) sat ( s
jX R
I
E
Z + = = 5.11
If R
a
is neglected

ba
ca
) sat ( s
I
E
X 5.12
5.8. PHASOR DIAGRAM
The phasor diagrams showing the relationship between voltages and currents for both
synchronous generator and synchronous motor are shown in Figure 5.17. The diagrams
are based on the per-phase equivalent circuit of the synchronous machine. The terminal
voltage is taken as the reference phasor in constructing the phasor diagram.
The per-phase equivalent circuit of the synchronous generator is shown in Figure
5.17(a). For convenience, the current I
a
is shown as flowing out of the machine in the
case of a synchronous generator.
= + + =
f s a a a t f
E X jI R I V E 5.13
The phasor for the excitation voltage E
f
is obtained by adding the voltage drops I
a
R
a
and
jI
a
X
s
to the terminal voltage V
t
. The synchronous generator is considered to deliver a
lagging current to the load or infinite bus represented by V
t
.
In the case of a synchronous motor the current is shown (Figure 5.17(b)) as flowing into
the motor.

s a a a f t
X jI R I E V + + = 5.14
= =
f s a a a t f
E X jI R I V E
o
0 5.15
270
The phasor E
f
is constructed by subtracting the voltage drops from the terminal voltage.
Here also, the synchronous motor is considered to draw a lagging current from the
infinite bus.
It is important to note that the angle between V
t
and E
f
is positive for the generating
action and negative for the motoring action. This angle (known as the power angle)
plays an important role in power transfer and in the stability of synchronous machine
operation.
o
0
t
V
t
V

(a)
o
0
t
V
t
V

(b)
Figure 5.17 Phasor diagram for sVnchronous machines. Assume V
t,
I
a
and known. (a)
Synchronous generator; (b) Synchronous motor.
Example 5.1 The following data are obtained for a 3, 10 MVA, 14 kV, star-connected
synchronous machine.
I
f

(A)
Open-Circuit
Voltage (kV)
(line-to-line)
Air Gap Line
Voltage (kV)
(line-to-tine

Short-Circuit
Current (A)

100
150
200
250
300
350
9.0
12.0
14.0
15.3
15.9
16.4

18

490
The armature resistance is 0.07 /phase.
a) Find the unsaturated and saturated values of the synchronous reactance in ohms
and also in pu.
271
b) Find the field current required if the synchronous generator is connected to an
infinite bus and delivers rated MVA at 0.8 lagging power factor.
c) If the generator, operating as in part (b), is disconnected from the infinite bus
without changing the field current, find the terminal voltage.
Solution
The data are plotted in Figure 5.18.
Base voltage phase / V 8083
3
000 , 14
V
b
= =
Base current A 41 . 412
000 , 14 3
10 10
I
6
b
=
=
Base impedance = = 6 . 19
41 . 412
8083
Z
b

a) From Eq. (5.8) and Figure 5.18,
=
= 21 . 21
490
10
3
000 , 18
Z
6
unsat s

pu 08 . 1 pu
6 . 19
2 . 21
2 . 21 07 . 0 21 . 21 X
2 2
unsat
s
= =
= =

From Eq. (5.11) and Figure 5.18, and because R
a
is Verv small,
2 / 1
2 2
sat s
sat s
07 . 0 X 5 . 16
490
3
000 , 14
Z
|
\
|
+ = = =

Figure 5.18 for example 5.1
272
b) It will be convenient to carry out the calculation in pu values rather than in actual
values
pu 0 1 V
t
o
=

o
9 . 36 cos 8 . 0 pf = =

o
9 . 36 1 I
a
=
pu 8 . 89 84 . 0
07 . 0
5 . 16
tan 841 . 0 Z
1
s
o
= =

Now

s a t
s a a a t f
Z I V
X jI R I V E
+ =
+ + =

o o o
8 . 89 85 . 0 9 . 36 1 0 1 + =

pu 24 649 . 1
67 . 0 j 5067 . 1
9 . 52 84 . 0 0 1
o
o o
=
+ =
+ =

, kV 24 14 649 . 1 V
t
o
= line-to-line
, kV 24 09 . 23 V
t
o
= line-to-line
Note that =24
0
and is positive , as it should be for generator operation.
The required field current from the modified air gap line (Figure 5.18) is
A 8 . 329 200 649 . 1 I
f
= =
c) From the open-circuit data (Figure 5.18) at If = 329.8 A the terminal voltage is
kV 25 . 16 V
t
= (line-to-line)
5.9. POWER AND TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS
A synchronous machine is normallv connected to a fixed-voltage bus and operates at a
constant speed. There is a limit on the power a synchronous generator can deliver to the
infinite bus and on the torque that can be applied to the synchronous motor without
losing synchronism. Analytical expressions for the steady-state power transfer between
the machine and the constant-voltage bus or the torque devcloped by the machine are
derived in this section in terms of bus voltage, machine voltage, and machine parameters.
The per-phase equivalent circuit is shown again in Figure 5.19 for convenience , where
V
t
is the constant bus voltage per phase and is considered as the reference phasor. Let

o
0 V V
t t
= 5.16
=
f f
E E 5.17
273

s s s a s
Z jX R Z = + = 5.18
Where the quantities inside the vertical bars represent the magnitudes of phasors.
o
0
t
V

f
E

Figure 5.19 Per-phase equivalent circuit
The per-phase complex power S at the terminals is

*
a t
I V S = 5.19
The conjugate of the current phasor Ia is used to conform with the convension that
lagging reactive power is considered as positive and leading reactive power as negative,
as shown in Figure 5.20.

( )
s
s
t
s
s
f
s s
t
s s
f
*
s
*
f
*
s
t f *
a
Z
V
Z
E
Z
0 V
Z
E
Z
E
Z
V E
I
=

=
=
=
o
5.20
From Eqs. 5.19 and 5.20
( ) phase / VA
Z
V
Z
E V
S
s
s
2
t
s
s
f t
= 5.21
The real power P and the reactive power Q per phase are
( ) phase / watt cos
Z
V
cos
Z
E V
P
s
s
2
t
s
s
f t
= 5.22
( ) phase / VAR sin
Z
V
sin
Z
E V
Q
s
s
2
t
s
s
f t
= 5.23
If R
a
is neglected, then Z
s
= X
s
and
s
=90. From Eqs. 5.22 and 5.23 for a 3 machine,
=
sin
X
E V 3
P
s
f t
3
5.24
274
watts sin P P
max 3
=
5.25

Figure 5.20 Complex power phasor.
Where
s
f t
max
X
E V 3
P = 5.25a
VAR
X
V 3
cos
X
E V 3
Q
s
2
t
s
f t
3
=
5.26
Because the stator losses are neglected in this analysis, the power developed at the
terminals is also the air gap power. The developed torque of the machine is

syn
3
P
T
=

5.27

= sin
X
E V
3
s
f t
syn
5.28
m . N sin T
max
= 5.29
Where
syn
max
s
f t
syn
max
P
X
E V
3
T
= 5.29a
= 2
60
n
syn
syn

n
syn
is the synchronous speed in rpm
Both power and torque vary sinusoidallv with the angle (as shown in Figure 5.21),
which is called the power angle or torque angle. The machine can be loaded gradually
up to the limit of P
max
or T
max
, which are known as static stabilitv limits. The machine
will lose synchronism if becomes greater than 90. The maximum torque T
max
is also
known as the pull-out torque. Note that since V
t
is constant, the pull-out torque can be
increased by increasing the excitation voltage E
f
. If a synchronous motor tends to pull
out of synchronism because of excessive load torque, the field current can be increased
275
to develop high torque to prevent loss of svnchronism. Similarly, in a synchronous
generator, if the prime mover tends to drive the machine to supersynchronous speed by
excessive driving torque, the field current can be increased to produce more counter
torque to oppose such a tendency.

Figure 5.21 Power and torque-angle characteristics.
As the speed remains constant in a synchronous machine, the speed- torque characteristic
is a straight line, parallel to the torque axis, as shown in Figure 5.22.

Figure 5.22 Torque-speed characteristics.
Example 5.2 A 3, 5 kVA, 208 V, four-pole, 60 Hz, star-connected synchronous
machine has negligible stator winding resistance and a synchronous reactance of 8 per
phase at rated terminal voltage.
The machine is first operated as a generator in parallel with a 3, 208 V, 60 Hz power
supply.
a) Determine the excitation voltage and the power angle when the machine is
delivering rated kVA at 0.8 pf lagging. Draw the phasor diagram for this condition.
b) If the field excitation current is now increased bv 20 percent (without changing the
prime mover power), find the stator current, power factor, and reactive kVA supplied by
the machine.
c) With the field current as in (a) the prime mover power is slowly increased. What is
the steady-state (or static) stabilitv limit? What are the corresponding values of the stator
(or armature) current, power factor, and reactive power at this maximum power transfer
condition?
276
Solution
The per-phase equivalent circuit for the svnchronous generator is shown in Figure 5.23a.
a) phase / V 120
3
208
V
t
= =
Stator current at rated kVA;
A 9 . 13
208 3
5000
I
a
=
=
8 . 0 of pf lagging for 9 . 36
o
=
From Figure E5.3a

=
+ =
+ =
5 . 25 9 . 206
90 8 9 . 36 9 . 13 j 0 120
X jI 0 V E
s a t f

Excitation voltage phase / V 9 . 206 E
f
=
Power angle = + 25.5

Note that because of generator action the power angle is positive. The phasor diagram is
shown in Figure 5.23b.
b) The new excitation voltage V 28 . 248 9 . 206 2 . 1 E
'
f
= = . Because power transform
remains same,

'
s
'
f t
s
f t
sin
X
E V
sin
X
E V
=
Or
' '
f f
sin E sin E =
Or
2 . 1
5 . 25 sin
sin
E
E
sin
'
f
f '
= =

o
21
'
=
The stotor current is

A 5 . 51 86 . 17
90 8
52 . 38 87 . 142
90 8
0 120 21 28 . 248
jX
V E
I
s
t f
a
o
o
o
o
o o
=
=

277
Power factor = cos 51.5 = 0.62 lag.
Reactive kVA = 3V
t
I
a
sin 51.5
= 3 120 17.86 0.78 10
-3

=5.03
Or from Eq.5.26
( )
03 . 5
1800 86 . 3476 3
10
8
120
21 cos
8
28 . 248 120
3 Q
3
2
=
=
|
|
\
|
=
o

c) From Eq. 5.25 the maximum power transfer occurs at = 90.
kW 32 . 9
8
120 9 . 206 3
X
V E 3
P
s
t f
max
=

= =

A 1 . 30 9 . 29
90 8
0 120 90 9 . 206 3
jX
V E
I
s
t f
a
o
o
o o
=
+
=
=

Stator current I
a
= 29.9 A
Power factor = cos 30.1 = 0.865 leading.
Alternative solution
The stator current and power factor can also be obtained by drawing the phasor diagram
for maximum power transfer condition. The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 5.23c.
Because = +90, E
f
leads V
t
by 90. The distance bd between phasors V
t
and E
f
is the
voltage drop I
a
X
s
and the current phasor I
a
is in quadrature with I
a
X
s
.
From the phasor diagram,

2
t
2
f
2
s a
V E X I =
A 9 . 29
8
120 9 . 206
I
2
2 2
a
=
|
|
\
|
+
=
From the two triangles abc and abd,

o
1 . 30
58 . 0
9 . 206
120
ad
ab
tan
abd abc
=
= = =
= =

Power factor = cos 30.1 = 0.865 lead.
278
o
5 . 25 =
o
9 . 36 =

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.23 for example 5.2
5.10. POWER FACTOR CONTROL
An outstanding feature of the synchronous machine is that the power factor of the
machine can be controlled by the field current. The field current can be adjusted to make
the stator (or line) current lagging or leading as desired. This power factor characteristic
can be explained bv drawing phasor diagrams of machine voltages and currents.
Assume constant-power operation of a synchronous motor connected to an infinite bus.
The equivalent circuit, neglecting the stator resistance, the phasor diagram are shown in
Figures 5.24a and 5.24b, respectively. For a three-phase machine the power transfer is
= cos I V 3 P
a t
5.30
Because V
t
is constant, for constant-power operation cos I
a
is constant that is, the in-
phase component of the stator current on the axis of the phasor V
t
is constant.

3 a
I
2 a
I
1 a
I
t
V
Sin
f
E
s
X
3 a
I
s
X
2 a
I
3 f
E
2 f
E
1 f
E
s
X
1 a
I

(a) (b)
279

I
f1 I
f2
I
f3
I
a
, pf
I
a
pf
I
f

(c)
Figure 5.24 power factor characteristics. (a) equivalent circuit; (b) phasor diagram; (c)
variation of I
a
and pf with I
f
.
The locus of the stator current is therefore the vertical line passing through the current
phasor for unity power factor. In Figure 5.24(b), phasor diagrams are drawn for three
stator currents:
I
a
= I
a1
, lagging V
t

= I
a2
, in phase with V
t
= I
a3
, leading V
t
For these stator currents the excitation voltages E
f1
, E
f2
, and E
f3
( representing the field
currents I
f1
, I
f2
, and I
f3
, respectively) are drawn to satisfy the phasor relationship

s a t f
X jI V E = 5.31

The power can also be expressed as

= sin
E V
3 P
syn
f t
5.32
Again, for constant-power operation, sin E
f
is constant. Thus, the locus of E
f
(or
I
f
) is also a straight line parallel to the phasor V
t
(see Figure.5.24(b)) such that the
vertical difference between the locus of E
f
and the phasor V
t
is constant and equals
sin E
f
.
The excitation voltage E
f
changes linearly with the field current I
f.
Therefore, as I
f
is
changed, E
f
will change along the locus of E
f
and I
a
will change along the locus of I
a,

signifying a change in the power factor angle of the stator current. For low field
current I
f1
, under-excitation (E
f
= E
f1
), the stator current (I
a
= I
a1
) is large and lagging.
The stator current is minimum (I
a
= I
a2
) and at unity power factor for the field current
280
I
f2
(E
f
= E
f2
), which is called normal excitation. For larger field current I
f3
,
overexcitation (E
f
= E
f3
), the stator current (I
a
= I
a3
) is large again and leading. The
variation of the stator current with the field current for constant-power operation is
shown in Figure 5.24(c). This is known as the V-curve because of the characteristic
shape. The variation of the power factor with the field current is the inverted V-curve,
also shown in Figure 5.24(c).
This unique feature of power factor control by the field current can be utilized to
improve the power factor of a plant. In a plant most of the motors are normally
induction motors, which draw power at lagging power factors. Synchronous motors
can be installed for some drives in the plant and made to operate in an overexcited
mode so that these motors operate at leading power factors, thus compensating the
lagging power factor of the induction motors and thereby improving the overall
power factor of the plant. Example 6.1 illustrates this method of power factor
improvement in a plant.
If the synchronous machine is not transferring any power but is simply floating on
the infinite bus, the power factor is zero; that is, the stator current either leads or lags
the stator voltage by 90. The magnitude of the stator current changes as the field
current is changed, but the stator current is always reactive. Looking from the
machine terminals, the machine behaves as a variable inductor or capacitor as the
field current is changed. An unloaded synchronous machine is called a synchronous
condenser and may be used to regulate the receiving-end voltage of a long power
transmission line. At present, solid-state control of inductors and capacitors is being
used increasingly to achieve voltage regulation of transmission lines.
Example 5.3 In a factory a 3, 4 kV, 400 kVA synchronous machine is installed along
with other induction motors. The following are the loads on the machines:
Induction motors: 500 kVA at 0.8 PF lagging.
Svnchronous motor: 300 kVA at 1.0 PF.
a) Compute the overall power factor of the factory loads.
b) To improve the factory power factor, the synchronous machine is overexcited (to
draw leading current) without any change in its load. Without overloading the motor, to
what extent can the factory power factor be improved? Find the current and power factor
of the synchronous motor for this condition.
Solution
a) Induction motors:
Power = 500 0.8 = 400 kW
Reactive power = 500 0.6 = 300 kVAR
Synchronous motor:
Power = 300 kW
Reactive power = 0
Factory:
281
Power = 700 kW
Reactive power = 300 kVAR
Complex power = kVA 762 300 700
2 2
= +
Power factor = lagging 92 . 0
762
700
=
b) The maximum leading kVAR that the synchronous motor can draw without
exceeding its rating is
kVA 58 . 264 300 400
2 2
=
Factory kVAR = 58 . 264 j 300 j
= j 35.42 (i.e., lagging)
New factory kVA = kVA 9 . 700 42 . 35 700
2 2
= +
Improved factory power factor = lagging 996 . 0
9 . 700
700
=
Synchronous motor current:
A 74 . 57
kV 4 3
kVA 400
I
SM
=
=
Synchronous motor power factor:
Pf
SM
lead 75 . 0
kVA 400
kW 300
= =
282
PROBLEMS
5.1. In a factory, the following are the loads.
Induction motors: 1000 hp
0.7 average power factor
0.85 average efficiency
Lighting and heating load: 100 kW
A 3 synchronous motor is installed to provide 300 hp to a new process. The
synchronous motor operates at 92% efficiency. Determine the kVA rating of the
synchronous motor if the overall factory power factor is to be raised to 0.95. Determine
the power factor of the synchronous motor. Ans. 548.24 kVA, 0.4082 (leading)
5.2. A 3, 60 Hz supply and two 3 synchronous machines are available. Determine the
speed, and a suitable number of poles, for each synchronous machine to provide:
(a) A 3, 180 Hz supply.
(b) A 3 , 500 Hz supply.
5.3. The following test data are obtained for a 3, 195 MVA, 15 kV, 60 Hz star-
connected synchronous machine.
Open-circuit test:
I
f
A) 150 300 450 600 750 900 1200
V
LL
(kV 3.75 7.5 11.2 13.6 15 15.8 16.5
Short-circuit test:
I
f
= 750A, I
a
= 7000A
The armature resistance is very small.
a) Draw the open-circuit characteristic, the short-circuit characteristic, the
air gap line, and the modified air gap line.
b) Determine the unsaturated and saturated values of the synchronous
reactance in ohms and also in pu.
c) Find the field current required if the synchronous machine is to deliver
100 MVA at rated voltage, at 0.8 leading power factor.
d) Find the voltage regulation of the synchronous generator for the load of
part (c). Voltage regulation (VR) is defined as follows.
% 100
V
V V
VR
load with t
load with t removed load t
=
Ans. (b) 1.5465 (1.3404 pu),1.2372 (1.0723 pu); (c) 601.2 A; (d) -9.33%

283
5.4. The following test results are obtained for a 3 , 25 kV, 750 MVA, 60 Hz, 3600
rpm, star-connected synchronous machine at rated speed.
I
f
(A) V
LL
(kV)
open-circuit test
I
a
(A)
short-circuit test
V
LL
(kV)
air gap line
1500 25 10,000 30
a) Determine the number of poles of the synchronous machine.
b) Determine the unsaturated and saturated values of the synchronous
reactance in ohms and per unit.
c) The short-circuit test is performed at constant field current (1500A) but at
different spceds-1000 rpm, 2000 rpm, 3000 rpm, and 3600 rpm. Determine the short-
circuit current at these speeds.
d) Determine the field current if the synchronous machine delivers rated
MVA to an infinite bus at 0.9 lagging power factor.
5.5. The synchronous machine of Example 6.2 is connected to a 3, 14 kV, 60 Hz
infinite bus and draws 5 MW at 0.85 leading power factor.
a) Determine the values of the stator current (I
a
), the excitation voltage (E
f
),
and the field current (I
f
). Draw the phasor diagram.
b) If the synchronous motor is disconnected from the infinite bus without changing the
field current, determine the terminal voltage before the speed decreases. Ans.
0.58831.8 pu, 1.3272 -18.5 pu, 265.44 A.
5.6. A 3, 2000 kVA, 11 kV, 1800 rpm synchronous generator has a resistance of 1.5
and synchronous reactance of 15 per phase.
a) The field current is adjusted to obtain the rated terminal voltage at open circuit
i) Determine the excitation voltage E
f
.
ii) If a short circuit is applied across the machine terminals, find the
stator current.
b) The synchronous machine is next connected to an infinite bus. The generator
is made to deliver the rated current at 0.8 power factor lagging.
i) Determine the excitation voltage.
ii) Determine the percentage increase in the field current relative to -
the field current of part (a).

284
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
CONVERSION FACTORS
To Convert from To Multiply by
Btus

Calorie-grams
pounds
hours

Kilowatthours
Wattseconds
251.996
1.054 1010
777.649
0.000393
1054.35
0.000293
1054.35
Centimeters Angstrom units
Inches
Meters
Miles (statute)
Millimeters
1 10
8

0.0328
0.3937
0.01
6.214 10
-6

10
Circular mils Square centimeters
Square inches
5.06710
-6

7.85410
-7

Cubic inches Cubic centimeters
Gallons (U.S. liquid)
16.387
0.00433
Cubic meters Cubic feet 35.315
Days Hours
Minutes
Seconds
24
1440
86,400
Dynes Gallons (U.S. liquid)
Newtons
Pounds
264.172
0.00001
2.24810
-6

Electronvolts 1.60209 10
-12

Ergs centimeters
Electronvolts
pounds

Kilowatthours
1.0
6.242 10
11
7.376 10
-8
1 10
-7
2.777 10
-14

Feet Centimeters
Meters
30.48
0.3048
Foot-candles Lumens/square foot
Lumens/square meter
1.0
10.764
Foot-pounds centimeters
Horsepower-hours

Newton-meters
1.3558 10
7

1.3558 10
7
5.050 10
-7

1.3558
1.3558
285
To Convert from To Multiply by
Gallons (U.S. liquid) Cubic inches
Liters
Ounces

231
3.785
128
8
Gauss Maxwells/square centimeter
Lines/square centimeter
Lines/square inch
1.0
1.0
6.4516
Gilberts mpere-turns 0.7958
Grams Dynes
Ounces
Pounds
980.665
0.0353
0.0022
Horsepower Btus/hour
Ergs/second
pounds/second
Joules/second
Watts
2547.16
7.46 10
9

550.221
746
746
Hours Seconds 3600
Inches Angstrom units
Centimeters
Meters
2.54 10
8

2.54
0.0833
0.0254
Joules
pounds
Horsepower-hours
Kilowatthours
Wattseconds
0.000948
110
7

0.7376
3.72510
-7

2.777 10
-7
1.0
Kilograms Dynes
Ounces
Pounds
980,665
35.2
2.2
Lines Maxwells 1.0
Lines/square centimeter 1.0

Lines/square inch
Webers/square inch
0.1550
1 10
-8

Liters Cubic centimeters
Cubic inches
Gallons (U.S. liquid)
Ounces (U.S. liquid)
Quarts (U.S. liquid)
1000.028
61.025
0.2642
33.815
1.0567
Lumens Candle power (sphere.) 0.0796
Lumens/square centimeter Lamberts 1.0
Lumens/square foot candles 1.0
Maxwells
Webers
1.0
1 10
-8

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Introduction to Electrical Machines

= .The poles are secured to the yoke by means of bolts. In small

in the coil. According Lenzs law, the direction of this voltage is

= for the same field current

= Qflux is same i.e.

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