Final - General EHS Guidelines

Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines
GENERAL EHS GUIDELINES: INTRODUCTION

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Environmental, Health, and Safety
General Guidelines
Introduction
The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are
technical reference documents with general and industry-specific
examples of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP)
1
. When
one or more members of the World Bank Group are involved in a
project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as required by their
respective policies and standards. These General EHS Guidelines
are designed to be used together with the relevant Industry Sector
EHS Guidelines which provide guidance to users on EHS issues in
specific industry sectors. For complex projects, use of multiple
industry-sector guidelines may be necessary. A complete list of
industry-sector guidelines can be found at:
www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines
The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and measures
that are generally considered to be achievable in new facilities by
existing technology at reasonable costs. Application of the EHS
Guidelines to existing facilities may involve the establishment of
site-specific targets, with an appropriate timetable for achieving
them. The applicability of the EHS Guidelines should be tailored to
the hazards and risks established for each project on the basis of
the results of an environmental assessment
2
in which site-specific
variables, such as host country context, assimilative capacity of the
environment, and other project factors, are taken into account. The
applicability of specific technical recommendations should be

1
Defined as the exercise of professional skill, diligence, prudence and foresight that
would be reasonably expected fromskilled and experienced professionals engaged
in the same type of undertaking under the same or similar circumstances globally.
The circumstances that skilled and experienced professionals may find when
evaluating the range of pollution prevention and control techniques available to a
project may include, but are not limited to, varying levels of environmental
degradation and environmental assimilative capacity as well as varying levels of
financial and technical feasibility.
2
For IFC, such assessment is carried out consistent with Performance Standard 1,
and for the World Bank, with Operational Policy 4.01.
based on the professional opinion of qualified and experienced
persons. When host country regulations differ from the levels and
measures presented in the EHS Guidelines, projects are expected
to achieve whichever is more stringent. If less stringent levels or
measures than those provided in these EHS Guidelines are
appropriate, in view of specific project circumstances, a full and
detailed justification for any proposed alternatives is needed as part
of the site-specific environmental assessment. This justification
should demonstrate that the choice for any alternate performance
levels is protective of human health and the environment.
The General EHS Guidelines are organized as follows:
1. Environmental 3
1.1 Air Emissions and Ambient Air Quality 3
1.2 Energy Conservation 17
1.3 Wastewater and Ambient Water Quality 24
1.4 Water Conservation 32
1.5 Hazardous Materials Management 35
1.6 Waste Management 45
1.7 Noise 51
1.8 Contaminated Land 53
2. Occupational Health and Safety 59
2.1 General Facility Design and Operation 60
2.2 Communication and Training 62
2.3 Physical Hazards 64
2.4 Chemical Hazards 68
2.5 Biological Hazards 70
2.6 Radiological Hazards 72
2.7 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 72
2.8 Special Hazard Environments 73
2.9 Monitoring 74
3. Community Health and Safety 77
3.1 Water Quality and Availability 77
3.2 Structural Safety of Project Infrastructure 78
3.3 Life and Fire Safety (L&FS) 79
3.4 Traffic Safety 82
3.5 Transport of Hazardous Materials 82
3.6 Disease Prevention 85
3.7 Emergency Preparedness and Response 86
4. Construction and Decommissioning 89
4.1 Environment 89
4.2 Occupational Health & Safety 92
4.3 Community Health & Safety 94
References and Additional Sources* 96
Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines
GENERAL EHS GUIDELINES: INTRODUCTION

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General Approach to the Management
of EHS Issues at the Facility or Project
Level
Effective management of environmental, health, and safety (EHS)
issues entails the inclusion of EHS considerations into corporate-
and facility-level business processes in an organized, hierarchical
approach that includes the following steps:
Identifying EHS project hazards
3
and associated risks
4
as
early as possible in the facility development or project cycle,
including the incorporation of EHS considerations into the site
selection process, product design process, engineering
planning process for capital requests, engineering work
orders, facility modification authorizations, or layout and
process change plans.
Involving EHS professionals, who have the experience,
competence, and training necessary to assess and manage
EHS impacts and risks, and carry out specialized
environmental management functions including the
preparation of project or activity-specific plans and procedures
that incorporate the technical recommendations presented in
this document that are relevant to the project.
Understanding the likelihood and magnitude of EHS risks,
based on:
o The nature of the project activities, such as whether the
project will generate significant quantities of emissions or
effluents, or involve hazardous materials or processes;
o The potential consequences to workers, communities, or
the environment if hazards are not adequately managed,
which may depend on the proximity of project activities to

3
Defined as threats to humans and what they value (Kates, et al., 1985).
4
Defined as quantitative measures of hazard consequences, usually expressed as
conditional probabilities of experiencing harm (Kates, et. al., 1985)
people or to the environmental resources on which they
depend.
Prioritizing risk management strategies with the objective of
achieving an overall reduction of risk to human health and the
environment, focusing on the prevention of irreversible and / or
significant impacts.
Favoring strategies that eliminate the cause of the hazard at
its source, for example, by selecting less hazardous materials
or processes that avoid the need for EHS controls.
When impact avoidance is not feasible, incorporating
engineering and management controls to reduce or minimize
the possibility and magnitude of undesired consequences, for
example, with the application of pollution controls to reduce
the levels of emitted contaminants to workers or environments.
Preparing workers and nearby communities to respond to
accidents, including providing technical and financial
resources to effectively and safely control such events, and
restoring workplace and community environments to a safe
and healthy condition.
Improving EHS performance through a combination of ongoing
monitoring of facility performance and effective accountability.
GENERAL EHS GUIDELINES: ENVIRONMENTAL
AIR EMISSIONS AND AMBIENT AIR QUALITY

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1.0 Environmental
1.1 Air Emissions and Ambient Air Quality

Applicability and Approach...............................................3
Ambient Air Quality..........................................................4
General Approach....................................................4
Projects Located in Degraded Airsheds or Ecologically
Sensitive Areas........................................................5
Point Sources..................................................................5
Stack Height.............................................................5
Small Combustion Facilities Emissions Guidelines....6
Fugitive Sources..............................................................8
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)........................8
Particulate Matter (PM).............................................8
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).........................9
Mobile Sources Land-based..........................................9
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs).............................................9
Monitoring......................................................................10
Monitoring of Small Combustion Plants Emissions...11

Applicability and Approach
This guideline applies to facilities or projects that generate
emissions to air at any stage of the project life-cycle. It
complements the industry-specific emissions guidance presented
in the Industry Sector Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS)
Guidelines by providing information about common techniques for
emissions management that may be applied to a range of industry
sectors. This guideline provides an approach to the management
of significant sources of emissions, including specific guidance for
assessment and monitoring of impacts. It is also intended to
provide additional information on approaches to emissions
management in projects located in areas of poor air quality, where
it may be necessary to establish project-specific emissions
standards.
Emissions of air pollutants can occur from a wide variety of
activities during the construction, operation, and decommissioning
phases of a project. These activities can be categorized based on
the spatial characteristic of the source including point sources,
fugitive sources, and mobile sources and, further, by process,
such as combustion, materials storage, or other industry sector-
specific processes.
Where possible, facilities and projects should avoid, minimize, and
control adverse impacts to human health, safety, and the
environment from emissions to air. Where this is not possible, the
generation and release of emissions of any type should be
managed through a combination of:
Energy use efficiency
Process modification
Selection of fuels or other materials, the processing of which
may result in less polluting emissions
Application of emissions control techniques
The selected prevention and control techniques may include one
or more methods of treatment depending on:
Regulatory requirements
Significance of the source
Location of the emitting facility relative to other sources
Location of sensitive receptors
Existing ambient air quality, and potential for degradation of
the airshed from a proposed project
Technical feasibility and cost effectiveness of the available
options for prevention, control, and release of emissions

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Ambient Air Quality
General Approach
Projects with significant
5,6
sources of air emissions, and potential
for significant impacts to ambient air quality, should prevent or
minimize impacts by ensuring that:
Emissions do not result in pollutant concentrations that reach
or exceed relevant ambient quality guidelines and standards
9

by applying national legislated standards, or in their absence,
the current WHO Air Quality Guidelines
10
(see Table 1.1.1),
or other internationally recognized sources
11
;
Emissions do not contribute a significant portion to the
attainment of relevant ambient air quality guidelines or
standards. As a general rule, this Guideline suggests 25
percent of the applicable air quality standards to allow

5
Significant sources of point and fugitive emissions are considered to be general
sources which, for example, can contribute a net emissions increase of one or
more of the following pollutants within a given airshed: PM10: 50 tons per year
(tpy); NOx: 500 tpy; SO2: 500 tpy; or as established through national legislation;
and combustion sources with an equivalent heat input of 50 MWth or greater. The
significance of emissions of inorganic and organic pollutants should be established
on a project-specific basis taking into account toxic and other properties of the
pollutant.
6
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Prevention of Significant
Deterioration of Air Quality, 40 CFR Ch. 1 Part 52.21. Other references for
establishing significant emissions include the European Commission. 2000.
Guidance Document for EPER implementation.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ippc/eper/index.htm; and Australian Government.
2004. National Pollutant Inventory Guide.
http://www.npi.gov.au/handbooks/pubs/npiguide.pdf
7
World Health Organization (WHO). Air Quality Guidelines Global Update, 2005.
PM 24-hour value is the 99th percentile.
8
Interimtargets are provided in recognition of the need for a staged approach to
achieving the recommended guidelines.
9
Ambient air quality standards are ambient air quality levels established and
published through national legislative and regulatory processes, and ambient
quality guidelines refer to ambient quality levels primarily developed through
clinical, toxicological, and epidemiological evidence (such as those published by
the World Health Organization).
10
Available at World Health Organization (WHO). http://www.who.int/en
11
For example the United States National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) (http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html) and the relevant European Council
Directives (Council Directive 1999/30/EC of 22 April 1999 / Council Directive
2002/3/EC of February 12 2002).
additional, future sustainable development in the same
airshed.
12

At facility level, impacts should be estimated through qualitative or
quantitative assessments by the use of baseline air quality
assessments and atmospheric dispersion models to assess
potential ground level concentrations. Local atmospheric, climatic,
and air quality data should be applied when modeling dispersion,
protection against atmospheric downwash, wakes, or eddy effects
of the source, nearby
13
structures, and terrain features. The
dispersion model applied should be internationally recognized, or
comparable. Examples of acceptable emission estimation and
dispersion modeling approaches for point and fugitive sources are

12
US EPA Prevention of Significant Deterioration Increments Limits applicable to
non-degraded airsheds.
Table 1.1.1: WHO Ambient Air Quality Guidelines
7
,
8
Averaging
Period
Guideline value in
g/m
3

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 24-hour

10 minute
125 (Interim target-1)
20 (guideline)
500 (guideline)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 1-year
1-hour
40 (guideline)
200 (guideline)
Particulate Matter
PM10

1-year

24-hour

20 (guideline)

50 (guideline)
Particulate Matter
PM2.5

1-year

24-hour
10 (guideline)

37.5 (Interim target-3)
25 (guideline)
Ozone 8-hour daily
maximum
100 (guideline)

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included in Annex 1.1.1. These approaches include screening
models for single source evaluations (SCREEN3 or AIRSCREEN),
as well as more complex and refined models (AERMOD OR
ADMS). Model selection is dependent on the complexity and geo-
morphology of the project site (e.g. mountainous terrain, urban or
rural area).
Projects Located in Degraded Airsheds or
Ecologically Sensitive Areas
Facilities or projects located within poor quality airsheds
14
, and
within or next to areas established as ecologically sensitive (e.g.
national parks), should ensure that any increase in pollution levels
is as small as feasible, and amounts to a fraction of the applicable
short-term and annual average air quality guidelines or standards
as established in the project-specific environmental assessment.
Suitable mitigation measures may also include the relocation of
significant sources of emissions outside the airshed in question,
use of cleaner fuels or technologies, application of comprehensive
pollution control measures, offset activities at installations
controlled by the project sponsor or other facilities within the same
airshed, and buy-down of emissions within the same airshed.
Specific provisions for minimizing emissions and their impacts in
poor air quality or ecologically sensitive airsheds should be
established on a project-by-project or industry-specific basis.
Offset provisions outside the immediate control of the project
sponsor or buy-downs should be monitored and enforced by the
local agency responsible for granting and monitoring emission
permits. Such provisions should be in place prior to final
commissioning of the facility / project.

13
Nearby generally considers an area within a radius of up to 20 times the stack
height.
14
An airshed should be considered as having poor air quality if nationally
legislated air quality standards or WHO Air Quality Guidelines are exceeded
significantly.
Point Sources
Point sources are discrete, stationary, identifiable sources of
emissions that release pollutants to the atmosphere. They are
typically located in manufacturing or production plants. Within a
given point source, there may be several individual emission
points that comprise the point source.
15

Point sources are characterized by the release of air pollutants
typically associated with the combustion of fossil fuels, such as
nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), and particulate matter (PM), as well as other air pollutants
including certain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and metals
that may also be associated with a wide range of industrial
activities.
Emissions from point sources should be avoided and controlled
according to good international industry practice (GIIP) applicable
to the relevant industry sector, depending on ambient conditions,
through the combined application of process modifications and
emissions controls, examples of which are provided in Annex
1.1.2. Additional recommendations regarding stack height and
emissions from small combustion facilities are provided below.
Stack Height
The stack height for all point sources of emissions, whether
significant or not, should be designed according to GIIP (see
Annex 1.1.3) to avoid excessive ground level concentrations due
to downwash, wakes, and eddy effects, and to ensure reasonable
diffusion to minimize impacts. For projects where there are
multiple sources of emissions, stack heights should be established
with due consideration to emissions from all other project sources,
both point and fugitive. Non-significant sources of emissions,

15
Emission points refer to a specific stack, vent, or other discrete point of pollution
release. This termshould not be confused with point source, which is a regulatory
distinction from area and mobile sources. The characterization of point sources
into multiple emissions points is useful for allowing more detailed reporting of
emissions information.

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including small combustion sources,
16
should also use GIIP in
stack design.
Small Combustion Facilities Emissions Guidelines
Small combustion processes are systems designed to deliver
electrical or mechanical power, steam, heat, or any combination of
these, regardless of the fuel type, with a total, rated heat input
capacity of between three Megawatt thermal (MWth) and 50
MWth.
The emissions guidelines in Table 1.1.2 are applicable to small
combustion process installations operating more than 500 hours
per year, and those with an annual capacity utilization of more
than 30 percent. Plants firing a mixture of fuels should compare
emissions performance with these guidelines based on the sum of
the relative contribution of each applied fuel
17
. Lower emission
values may apply if the proposed facility is located in an
ecologically sensitive airshed, or airshed with poor air quality, in
order to address potential cumulative impacts from the installation
of more than one small combustion plant as part of a distributed
generation project.

16
Small combustion sources are those with a total rated heat input capacity of
50MWth or less.
17
The contribution of a fuel is the percentage of heat input (LHV) provided by this
fuel multiplied by its limit value.

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Table 1.1.2 - Small Combustion Facilities Emissions Guidelines (3MWth 50MWth) (in mg/Nm
3
or as indicated)
Combustion Technology /
Fuel
Particulate Matter (PM) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Dry Gas, Excess
O2 Content (%)
Engine
Gas N/A N/A
200 (Spark Ignition)
400 (Dual Fuel)
1,600 (Compression Ignition)
15
Liquid
50 or up to 100 if justified by project specific
considerations (e.g. Economic feasibility of
using lower ash content fuel, or adding
secondary treatment to meet 50, and
available environmental capacity of the site)
1.5 percent Sulfur or up to 3.0 percent Sulfur if
justified by project specific considerations (e.g.
Economic feasibility of using lower S content fuel,
or adding secondary treatment to meet levels of
using 1.5 percent Sulfur, and available
environmental capacity of the site)
If bore size diameter [mm] < 400: 1460
(or up to 1,600 if justified to maintain high
energy efficiency.)

If bore size diameter [mm] > or = 400: 1,850
15
Turbine
Natural Gas
=3MWth to < 15MWth
N/A N/A
42 ppm(Electric generation)
100 ppm(Mechanical drive)
15
Natural Gas
=15MWth to < 50MWth
N/A N/A 25 ppm 15
Fuels other than Natural Gas
=3MWth to < 15MWth
N/A
0.5 percent Sulfur or lower percentSulfur (e.g. 0.2
percent Sulfur) if commercially available without
significant excess fuel cost
96 ppm(Electric generation)
150 ppm(Mechanical drive)
15
Fuels other than Natural Gas
=15MWth to < 50MWth
N/A
0.5%Sor lower %S (0.2%S) if commercially
available without significant excess fuel cost
74 ppm 15
Boiler
Gas N/A N/A 320 3
Liquid
50 or up to 150 if justified by environmental
assessment
2000 460 3
Solid
50 or up to 150 if justified by environmental
assessment
2000 650 6
Notes: -N/A/ - no emissions guideline; Higher performance levels than these in the Table should be applicable to facilities located in urban / industrial areas with degraded airsheds or close to ecologically sensitive areas where more
stringent emissions controls may be needed.; MWth is heat input on HHVbasis; Solid fuels include biomass; Nm
3
is at one atmosphere pressure, 0C.; MWth category is to apply to the entire facility consisting of multiple units that are
reasonably considered to be emitted froma common stack except for NOx and PMlimits for turbines and boilers. Guidelines values apply to facilities operating more than 500 hours per year with an annual capacity utilization factor of
more than 30 percent.

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Fugitive Sources
Fugitive source air emissions refer to emissions that are
distributed spatially over a wide area and not confined to a specific
discharge point. They originate in operations where exhausts are
not captured and passed through a stack. Fugitive emissions have
the potential for much greater ground-level impacts per unit than
stationary source emissions, since they are discharged and
dispersed close to the ground. The two main types of fugitive
emissions are Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and
particulate matter (PM). Other contaminants (NOx, SO2 and CO)
are mainly associated with combustion processes, as described
above. Projects with potentially significant fugitive sources of
emissions should establish the need for ambient quality
assessment and monitoring practices.
Open burning of solid wastes, whether hazardous or non-
hazardous, is not considered good practice and should be
avoided, as the generation of polluting emissions from this type of
source cannot be controlled effectively.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
The most common sources of fugitive VOC emissions are
associated with industrial activities that produce, store, and use
VOC-containing liquids or gases where the material is under
pressure, exposed to a lower vapor pressure, or displaced from an
enclosed space. Typical sources include equipment leaks, open
vats and mixing tanks, storage tanks, unit operations in
wastewater treatment systems, and accidental releases.
Equipment leaks include valves, fittings, and elbows which are
subject to leaks under pressure. The recommended prevention
and control techniques for VOC emissions associated with
equipment leaks include:
Equipment modifications, examples of which are presented in
Annex 1.1.4;
Implementing a leak detection and repair (LDAR) program
that controls fugitive emissions by regularly monitoring to
detect leaks, and implementing repairs within a predefined
time period.
18

For VOC emissions associated with handling of chemicals in open
vats and mixing processes, the recommended prevention and
control techniques include:
Substitution of less volatile substances, such as aqueous
solvents;
Collection of vapors through air extractors and subsequent
treatment of gas stream by removing VOCs with control
devices such as condensers or activated carbon absorption;
Collection of vapors through air extractors and subsequent
treatment with destructive control devices such as:
o Catalytic Incinerators: Used to reduce VOCs from
process exhaust gases exiting paint spray booths,
ovens, and other process operations
o Thermal Incinerators: Used to control VOC levels in a
gas stream by passing the stream through a combustion
chamber where the VOCs are burned in air at
temperatures between 700 C to 1,300 C
o Enclosed Oxidizing Flares: Used to convert VOCs into
CO2 and H2O by way of direct combustion
Use of floating roofs on storage tanks to reduce the
opportunity for volatilization by eliminating the headspace
present in conventional storage tanks.
Particulate Matter (PM)
The most common pollutant involved in fugitive emissions is dust
or particulate matter (PM). This is released during certain
operations, such as transport and open storage of solid materials,
and from exposed soil surfaces, including unpaved roads.

18
For more information, see Leak Detection and Repair Program(LDAR), at:
http://www.ldar.net

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Recommended prevention and control of these emissions sources
include:
Use of dust control methods, such as covers, water
suppression, or increased moisture content for open
materials storage piles, or controls, including air extraction
and treatment through a baghouse or cyclone for material
handling sources, such as conveyors and bins;
Use of water suppression for control of loose materials on
paved or unpaved road surfaces. Oil and oil by-products is
not a recommended method to control road dust. Examples
of additional control options for unpaved roads include those
summarized in Annex 1.1.5.
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
Several chemicals are classified as ozone depleting substances
(ODSs) and are scheduled for phase-out under the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
19
No new
systems or processes should be installed using CFCs, halons,
1,1,1-trichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide or
HBFCs. HCFCs should only be considered as interim/ bridging
alternatives as determined by the host country commitments and
regulations.
20

Mobile Sources Land-based
Similar to other combustion processes, emissions from vehicles
include CO, NOx, SO2, PM and VOCs. Emissions from on-road
and off-road vehicles should comply with national or regional

19
Examples include: chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs); halons; 1,1,1-trichloroethane
(methyl chloroform); carbon tetrachloride; hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs);
hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs); and methyl bromide. They are currently used
in a variety of applications including: domestic, commercial, and process
refrigeration (CFCs and HCFCs); domestic, commercial, and motor vehicle air
conditioning (CFCs and HCFCs); for manufacturing foamproducts (CFCs); for
solvent cleaning applications (CFCs, HCFCs, methyl chloroform, and carbon
tetrachloride); as aerosol propellants (CFCs); in fire protection systems (halons
and HBFCs); and as crop fumigants (methyl bromide).
20
Additional information is available through the Montreal Protocol Secretariat
web site available at: http://ozone.unep.org/
programs. In the absence of these, the following approach should
be considered:
Regardless of the size or type of vehicle, fleet owners /
operators should implement the manufacturer recommended
engine maintenance programs;
Drivers should be instructed on the benefits of driving
practices that reduce both the risk of accidents and fuel
consumption, including measured acceleration and driving
within safe speed limits;
Operators with fleets of 120 or more units of heavy duty
vehicles (buses and trucks), or 540 or more light duty
vehicles
21
(cars and light trucks) within an airshed should
consider additional ways to reduce potential impacts
including:
o Replacing older vehicles with newer, more fuel efficient
alternatives
o Converting high-use vehicles to cleaner fuels, where
feasible
o Installing and maintaining emissions control devices,
such as catalytic converters
o Implementing a regular vehicle maintenance and repair
program
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
Sectors that may have potentially significant emissions of
greenhouse gases (GHGs)
22
include energy, transport, heavy
industry (e.g. cement production, iron / steel manufacturing,
aluminum smelting, petrochemical industries, petroleum refining,
fertilizer manufacturing), agriculture, forestry and waste
management. GHGs may be generated from direct emissions

21
The selected fleet size thresholds are assumed to represent potentially
significant sources of emissions based on individual vehicles traveling 100,000 km
/ yr using average emission factors.
22
The six greenhouse gases that formpart of the Kyoto Protocol to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change include carbon dioxide (C02);
methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O); hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); perfluorocarbons
(PFCs); and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).

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fromfacilities within the physical project boundary and indirect
emissions associated with the off-site production of power used by
the project.
Recommendations for reduction and control of greenhouse gases
include:
Carbon financing;
23

Enhancement of energy efficiency (see section on
Energy Conservation);
Protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of
greenhouse gases;
Promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture and
forestry;
Promotion, development and increased use of
renewable forms of energy;
Carbon capture and storage technologies;
24

Limitation and / or reduction of methane emissions
through recovery and use in waste management, as well
as in the production, transport and distribution of energy
(coal, oil, and gas).
Monitoring
Emissions and air quality monitoring programs provide information
that can be used to assess the effectiveness of emissions
management strategies. A systematic planning process is
recommended to ensure that the data collected are adequate for
their intended purposes (and to avoid collecting unnecessary
data). This process, sometimes referred to as a data quality
objectives process, defines the purpose of collecting the data, the

23
Carbon financing as a carbon emissions reduction strategy may include the host
government-endorsed Clean Development Mechanismor Joint Implementation of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
24
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) isa process consisting of the
separation of CO2 fromindustrial and energy-related sources; transport to a
storage location; and long-termisolation fromthe atmosphere, for example in
geological formations, in the ocean, or in mineral carbonates (reaction of CO2 with
metal oxides in silicate minerals to produce stable carbonates). It is the object of
intensive research worldwide (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), Special Report, Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage(2006).
decisions to be made based on the data and the consequences of
making an incorrect decision, the time and geographic
boundaries, and the quality of data needed to make a correct
decision.
25
The air quality monitoring program should consider
the following elements:
Monitoring parameters: The monitoring parameters selected
should reflect the pollutants of concern associated with
project processes. For combustion processes, indicator
parameters typically include the quality of inputs, such as the
sulfur content of fuel.
Baseline calculations: Before a project is developed, baseline
air quality monitoring at and in the vicinity of the site should
be undertaken to assess background levels of key pollutants,
in order to differentiate between existing ambient conditions
and project-related impacts.
Monitoring type and frequency: Data on emissions and
ambient air quality generated through the monitoring program
should be representative of the emissions discharged by the
project over time. Examples of time-dependent variations in
the manufacturing process include batch process
manufacturing and seasonal process variations. Emissions
from highly variable processes may need to be sampled
more frequently or through composite methods. Emissions
monitoring frequency and duration may also range from
continuous for some combustion process operating
parameters or inputs (e.g. the quality of fuel) to less frequent,
monthly, quarterly or yearly stack tests.
Monitoring locations: Ambient air quality monitoring may
consists of off-site or fence line monitoring either by the
project sponsor, the competent government agency, or by
collaboration between both. The location of ambient air

25
See, for example, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Guidance on
Systematic Planning Using the Data Quality Objectives Process EPA QA/G-4,
EPA/240/B-06/001 February 2006.

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quality monitoring stations should be established based on
the results of scientific methods and mathematical models to
estimate potential impact to the receiving airshed from an
emissions source taking into consideration such aspects as
the location of potentially affected communities and
prevailing wind directions.
Sampling and analysis methods: Monitoring programs should
apply national or international methods for sample collection
and analysis, such as those published by the International
Organization for Standardization,
26
the European Committee
for Standardization,
27
or the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
28
Sampling should be conducted by, or under, the
supervision of trained individuals. Analysis should be
conducted by entities permitted or certified for this purpose.
Sampling and analysis Quality Assurance / Quality Control
(QA/QC) plans should be applied and documented to ensure
that data quality is adequate for the intended data use (e.g.,
method detection limits are below levels of concern).
Monitoring reports should include QA/QC documentation.
Monitoring of Small Combustion Plants Emissions
Additional recommended monitoring approaches for boilers:
Boilers with capacities between =3 MWth and < 20 MWth:
o Annual Stack Emission Testing: SO2, NOx and PM. For
gaseous fuel-fired boilers, only NOx. SO2 can be
calculated based on fuel quality certification if no SO2
control equipment is used.

26
An on-line catalogue of ISO standards relating to the environment, health
protection, and safety is available at:
http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueListPage.CatalogueList?ICS1=13&ICS2=&ICS
3=&scopelist=
27
An on-line catalogue of European Standards is available at:
http://www.cen.eu/catweb/cwen.htm.
28
The National Environmental Methods Index provides a searchable
clearinghouse of U.S. methods and procedures for both regulatory and non-
regulatory monitoring purposes for water, sediment, air and tissues, and is
available at http://www.nemi.gov/.
o If Annual Stack Emission Testing demonstrates results
consistently and significantly better than the required
levels, frequency of Annual Stack Emission Testing can
be reduced from annual to every two or three years.
o Emission Monitoring: None
Boilers with capacities between =20 MWth and < 50 MWth
o Annual Stack Emission Testing: SO2, NOx and PM. For
gaseous fuel-fired boilers, only NOx. SO2 can be
calculated based on fuel quality certification (if no SO2
control equipment is used)
o Emission Monitoring: SO2. Plants with SO2 control
equipment: Continuous. NOx: Continuous monitoring of
either NOx emissions or indicative NOx emissions using
combustion parameters. PM: Continuous monitoring of
either PM emissions, opacity, or indicative PM
emissions using combustion parameters / visual
monitoring.
Additional recommended monitoring approaches for
turbines:
o Annual Stack Emission Testing: NOx and SO2 (NOx
only for gaseous fuel-fired turbines).
o If Annual Stack Emission Testing results show
constantly (3 consecutive years) and significantly (e.g.
less than 75 percent) better than the required levels,
frequency of Annual Stack Emission Testing can be
reduced from annual to every two or three years.
o Emission Monitoring: NOx: Continuous monitoring of
combustion parameters.SO2: Continuous monitoring if
SO2 control equipment is used.
Additional recommended monitoring approaches for
engines:
o Annual Stack Emission Testing: NOx ,SO2 and PM (NOx
only for gaseous fuel-fired diesel engines).

APRIL 30, 2007 12

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o If Annual Stack Emission Testing results show
constantly (3 consecutive years) and significantly (e.g.
less than 75 percent) better than the required levels,
frequency of Annual Stack Emission Testing can be
reduced from annual to every two or three years.
o Emission Monitoring: NOx: Continuous monitoring of
combustion parameters. SO2: Continuous monitoring if
SO2 control equipment is used. PM: Continuous
monitoring of either PM emissions or indicative PM
emissions using operating parameters.


APRIL 30, 2007 13

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Annex 1.1.1 Air Emissions Estimation and Dispersion
Modeling Methods
The following is a partial list of documents to aid in the estimation
of air emissions from various processes and air dispersion
models:
Australian Emission Estimation Technique Manuals
http://www.npi.gov.au/handbooks/
Atmospheric Emission Inventory Guidebook, UN / ECE / EMEP
and the European Environment Agency
http://www.aeat.co.uk/netcen/airqual/TFEI/unece.htm
Emission factors and emission estimation methods, US EPA
Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief
Guidelines on Air Quality Models (Revised), US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), 2005
http://www.epa.gov/scram001/guidance/guide/appw_05.pdf
Frequently Asked Questions, Air Quality Modeling and
Assessment Unit (AQMAU), UK Environment Agency
http://www.environment-
agency.gov.uk/subjects/airquality/236092/?version=1&lang=_e
OECD Database on Use and Release of Industrial Chemicals
http://www.olis.oecd.org/ehs/urchem.nsf/


APRIL 30, 2007 14
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Annex 1.1.2 Illustrative Point Source Air Emissions Prevention and Control Technologies
Principal Sources and Issues General Prevention / Process
Modification Approach
Control Options
Reduction
Efficiency (%)
Gas
Condition
Comments
Particulate Matter (PM)
Fabric Filters 99 - 99.7% Dry gas, temp
<400F
Applicability depends on flue gas properties including temperature, chemical
properties, abrasion and load. Typical air to cloth ratio range of 2.0 to 3.5 cfm/ft
2
Achievable outlet concentrations of 23 mg/Nm
3

Electrostatic
Precipitator (ESP)
97 99% Varies
depending of
particle type
Precondition gas to remove large particles. Efficiency dependent on resistivity of
particle. Achievable outlet concentration of 23 mg/Nm
3

Cyclone 74 95% None Most efficient for large particles. Achievable outlet concentrations of 30 - 40
mg/Nm
3

Main sources are the combustion of fossil
fuels and numerous manufacturing processes
that collect PMthrough air extraction and
ventilation systems. Volcanoes, ocean spray,
forest fires and blowing dust (most prevalent
in dry and semiarid climates) contribute to
background levels.
Fuel switching (e.g. selection of lower sulfur
fuels) or reducing the amount of fine
particulates added to a process.
Wet Scrubber 93 95% None Wet sludge may be a disposal problemdepending on local infrastructure.
Achievable outlet concentrations of 30 - 40 mg/Nm3

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Fuel Switching >90% Alternate fuels may include lowsulfur coal, light diesel or natural gas with
consequent reduction in particulate emissions related to sulfur in the fuel. Fuel
cleaning or beneficiation of fuels prior to combustion is another viable option but
may have economic consequences.
Sorbent Injection 30%- 70% Calciumor lime is injected into the flue gas and the SO2 is adsorbed onto the
sorbent
Dry Flue Gas
Desulfurization
70%-90% Can be regenerable or throwaway.
Mainly produced by the combustion of fuels
such as oil and coal and as a by-product from
some chemical production or wastewater
treatment processes.
Control systemselection is heavily
dependent on the inlet concentration. For
SO2 concentrations in excess of 10%, the
streamis passed through an acid plant not
only to lower the SO2 emissions but also to
generate high grade sulfur for sale. Levels
below10%are not rich enough for this
process and shouldtherefore utilize
absorption or scrubbing, where SO2
molecules are captured into a liquid phase
or adsorption, where SO2

molecules are
captured on the surface of a solid
adsorbent.

Wet Flue Gas
Desulfurization
>90% Produces gypsumas a by-product


APRIL 30, 2007 15
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Annex 1.1.2: Illustrative Point Source Air Emissions Prevention and Control Technologies (continued)
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) Percent Reduction by Fuel Type Comments
Combustion modification
(Illustrative of boilers)
Coal Oil Gas
Low-excess-air firing 1030 1030 1030
Staged Combustion 2050 2050 2050
Flue Gas Recirculation N/A 2050 2050
Water/SteamInjection N/A 1050 N/A.
Low-NOx Burners 3040 3040 3040
These modifications are capable of reducing NOx emissions by 50
to 95%. The method of combustion control used depends on the
type of boiler and the method of firing fuel.
Flue Gas Treatment Coal Oil Gas
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) 6090 6090 6090
Associated with combustion of fuel.
May occur in several forms of nitrogen
oxide; namely nitric oxide (NO),
nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) and nitrous
oxide (N
2
O), which is also a
greenhouse gas. The termNOx
serves as a composite between NO
and NO
2
and emissions are usually
reported as NOx. Here the NOis
multiplied by the ratio of molecular
weights of NO
2
to NOand added to
the NO
2
emissions.
Means of reducing NOx emissions are
based on the modification of operating
conditions such as minimizing the
resident time at peak temperatures,
reducing the peak temperatures by
increasing heat transfer rates or
minimizing the availability of oxygen.

Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
(SNCR)
N/A 3070 3070
Flue gas treatment is more effective in reducing NOx emissions
than are combustion controls. Techniques can be classified as
SCR, SNCR, and adsorption. SCRinvolves the injection of
ammonia as a reducing agent to convert NOx to nitrogen in the
presence of a catalyst in a converter upstreamof the air heater.
Generally, some ammonia slips through and is part of the
emissions. SNCR also involves the injection of ammonia or urea
based products without the presence of a catalyst.

Note: Compiled by IFCbased on inputs fromtechnical experts.


APRIL 30, 2007 16
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Annex 1.1.3 - Good International Industry Practice (GIIP)
Stack Height
(Based on United States 40 CFR, part 51.100 (ii)).

HG = H + 1.5L; where
HG = GEP stack height measured from the ground level
elevation at the base of the stack
H = Height of nearby structure(s) above the base of the
stack.
L = Lesser dimension, height (h) or width (w), of nearby
structures
Nearby structures = Structures within/touching a radius
of 5L but less than 800 m.

Annex 1.1.4 - Examples of VOC Emissions Controls

29 Seal-less equipment can be a large source of emissions in the event of
equipment failure.
30 Actual efficiency of a closed-vent systemdepends on percentage of vapors
collected and efficiency of control device to which the vapors are routed.
31 Control efficiency of closed vent-systems installed on a pressure relief
device may be lower than other closed-vent systems.
Equipment Type Modification
Approximate
Control
Efficiency
(%)
Seal-less design 100
29

Closed-vent system 90
30

Pumps
Dual mechanical seal
with barrier fluid
maintained at a higher
pressure than the
pumped fluid
100
Closed-vent system 90
Compressors
Dual mechanical seal
with barrier fluid
maintained at a higher
pressure than the
compressed gas
100
Closed-vent system Variable
31

Pressure Relief Devices
Rupture disk assembly 100
Valves Seal-less design 100
Connectors Weld together 100
Open-ended Lines
Blind, cap, plug, or
second valve
100
Sampling Connections Closed-loop sampling 100
Note: Examples of technologies are provided for illustrative purposes.
The availability and applicability of any particular technology will vary
depending on manufacturer specifications.
Stack
1.5*L
H
G
h
H

P
r
o
j
e
c
t
e
d

w
i
d
t
h

(
w
)
Maximum 5*L

APRIL 30, 2007 17

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Annex 1.1.5 - Fugitive PM Emissions Controls

Control Type
Control
Efficiency
Chemical Stabilization 0%- 98%
Hygroscopic salts
Bitumens/adhesives
60%- 96%
Surfactants 0%- 68%
Wet Suppression Watering 12%- 98%
Speed Reduction 0%- 80%
Traffic Reduction Not quantified
Paving (Asphalt / Concrete) 85%- 99%
Covering with Gravel, Slag, or "Road
Carpet"
30%- 50%
Vacuum Sweeping 0%- 58%
Water Flushing/Broom Sweeping 0%- 96%
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1.2 Energy Conservation

Applicability and Approach.............................................18
Energy Management Programs...............................18
Energy Efficiency....................................................18
Process Heating.............................................................19
Heating Load Reduction.........................................19
Heat Distribution Systems.......................................19
Energy Conversion System Efficiency Improvements20
Process Cooling.............................................................20
Load Reduction......................................................21
Energy Conversion.................................................21
Refrigerant Compression Efficiency........................23
Refrigeration System Auxiliaries..............................23
Compressed Air Systems...............................................24
Load reduction.......................................................24
Distribution.............................................................24

This guideline applies to facilities or projects that consume
energy in process heating and cooling; process and auxiliary
systems, such as motors, pumps, and fans; compressed air
systems and heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems
(HVAC); and lighting systems. It complements the industry-
specific emissions guidance presented in the Industry Sector
Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines by
providing information about common techniques for energy
conservation that may be applied to a range of industry sectors.
Energy management at the facility level should be viewed in the
context of overall consumption patterns, including those
associated with production processes and supporting utilities, as
well as overall impacts associated with emissions from power
sources. The following section provides guidance on energy
management with a focus on common utility systems often
representing technical and financially feasible opportunities for
improvement in energy conservation. However, operations
should also evaluate energy conservation opportunities arising
from manufacturing process modifications.
Energy Management Programs
Energy management programs should include the following
elements:
Identification, and regular measurement and reporting of
principal energy flows within a facility at unit process level
Preparation of mass and energy balance;
Definition and regular review of energy performance
targets, which are adjusted to account for changes in major
influencing factors on energy use
Regular comparison and monitoring of energy flows with
performance targets to identify where action should be
taken to reduce energy use
Regular review of targets, which may include comparison
with benchmark data, to confirm that targets are set at
appropriate levels
Energy Efficiency
For any energy-using system, a systematic analysis of energy
efficiency improvements and cost reduction opportunities should
include a hierarchical examination of opportunities to:
Demand/Load Side Management by reducing loads on the
energy system
Supply Side Management by:
o Reduce losses in energy distribution
o Improve energy conversion efficiency
o Exploit energy purchasing opportunities
o Use lower-carbon fuels
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Common opportunities in each of these areas are summarized
below.
32

Process Heating
Process heating is vital to many manufacturing processes,
including heating for fluids, calcining, drying, heat treating, metal
heating, melting, melting agglomeration, curing, and forming
33
.
In process heating systems, a system heat and mass balance
will show how much of the systems energy input provides true
process heating, and quantify fuel used to satisfy energy losses
caused by excessive parasitic loads, distribution, or conversion
losses. Examination of savings opportunities should be directed
by the results of the heat and mass balance, though the
following techniques are often valuable and cost-effective.
Heating Load Reduction
Ensure adequate insulation to reduce heat losses through
furnace/oven etc. structure
Recover heat from hot process or exhaust streams to
reduce system loads
In intermittently-heated systems, consider use of low
thermal mass insulation to reduce energy required to heat
the system structure to operating temperature
Control process temperature and other parameters
accurately to avoid, for example, overheating or overdrying
Examine opportunities to use low weight and/or low
thermal mass product carriers, such as heated shapers,
kiln cars etc.

32
Additional guidance on energy efficiency is available fromsources such as
Natural Resources Canada (NRCAN
http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/commercial/financial-assistance/new-
buildings/mnecb.cfm?attr=20); the European Union (EUROPA.
http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/s15004.htm), and United States Department
of Energy (US DOE,
http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/industry/process.html).
33
US DOE. http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/industry/process.html
Review opportunities to schedule work flow to limit the
need for process reheating between stages
Operate furnaces/ovens at slight positive pressure, and
maintain air seals to reduce air in-leakage into the heated
system, thereby reducing the energy required to heat
unnecessary air to system operating temperature
Reduce radiant heat losses by sealing structural openings
and keep viewing ports closed when not in use
Where possible, use the system for long runs close to or at
operating capacity
Consider use of high emissivity coatings of high
temperature insulation, and consequent reduction in
process temperature
Near net weight and shape heat designs
Robust Quality assurance on input material
Robust Scheduled maintenance programs
Heat Distribution Systems
Heat distribution in process heating applications typically takes
place through steam, hot water, or thermal fluid systems.
Losses can be reduced through the following actions:
Promptly repair distribution system leaks
Avoid steam leaks despite a perceived need to get steam
through the turbine. Electricity purchase is usually cheaper
overall, especially when the cost to treat turbine-quality
boiler feed water is included. If the heat-power ratio of the
distribution process is less than that of power systems,
opportunities should be considered to increase the ratio; for
example, by using low-pressure steam to drive absorption
cooling systems rather than using electrically-driven vapor-
compression systems.
Regularly verify correct operation of steam traps in steam
systems, and ensure that traps are not bypassed. Since
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steam traps typically last approximately 5 years, 20%
should be replaced or repaired annually
Insulate distribution system vessels, such as hot wells and
de-aerators, in steam systems and thermal fluid or hot
water storage tanks
Insulate all steam, condensate, hot water and thermal fluid
distribution pipework, down to and including 1 (25 mm)
diameter pipe, in addition to insulating all hot valves and
flanges
In steam systems, return condensate to the boiler house
for re-use, since condensate is expensive boiler-quality
water and valuable beyond its heat content alone
Use flash steam recovery systems to reduce losses due to
evaporation of high-pressure condensate
Consider steam expansion through a back-pressure turbine
rather than reducing valve stations
Eliminate distribution system losses by adopting point-of-
use heating systems
Energy Conversion System Efficiency
Improvements
The following efficiency opportunities should be examined for
process furnaces or ovens, and utility systems, such as boilers
and fluid heaters:
Regularly monitor CO, oxygen or CO2 content of flue
gases to verify that combustion systems are using the
minimum practical excess air volumes
Consider combustion automation using oxygen-trim
controls
Minimize the number of boilers or heaters used to meet
loads. It is typically more efficient to run one boiler at 90%
of capacity than two at 45%. Minimize the number of
boilers kept at hotstandby
Use flue dampers to eliminate ventilation losses from hot
boilers held at standby
Maintain clean heat transfer surfaces; in steam boilers, flue
gases should be no more than 20 K above steam
temperature)
In steam boiler systems, use economizers to recover heat
from flue gases to pre-heat boiler feed water or combustion
air
Consider reverse osmosis or electrodialysis feed water
treatment to minimize the requirement for boiler blowdown
Adopt automatic (continuous) boiler blowdown
Recover heat from blowdown systems through flash steam
recovery or feed-water preheat
Do not supply excessive quantities of steam to the de-
aerator
With fired heaters, consider opportunities to recover heat to
combustion air through the use of recuperative or
regenerative burner systems
For systems operating for extended periods (> 6000
hours/year), cogeneration of electrical power, heat and /or
cooling can be cost effective
Oxy Fuel burners
Oxygen enrichment/injection
Use of turbolators in boilers
Sizing design and use of multiple boilers for different load
configurations
Fuel quality control/fuel blending
Process Cooling
The general methodology outlined above should be applied to
process cooling systems. Commonly used and cost-effective
measures to improve process cooling efficiency are described
below.
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Load Reduction
Ensure adequate insulation to reduce heat gains through
cooling system structure and to below-ambient temperature
refrigerant pipes and vessels
Control process temperature accurately to avoid
overcooling
Operate cooling tunnels at slight positive pressure and
maintain air seals to reduce air in-leakage into the cooled
system, thus reducing the energy required to cool this
unnecessary air to system operating temperature
Examine opportunities to pre-cool using heat recovery to a
process stream requiring heating, or by using a higher
temperature cooling utility
In cold and chill stores, minimize heat gains to the cooled
space by use of air curtains, entrance vestibules, or rapidly
opening/closing doors. Where conveyors carry products
into chilled areas, minimize the area of transfer openings,
for example, by using strip curtains
Quantify and minimize incidental cooling loads, for
example, those due to evaporator fans, other machinery,
defrost systems and lighting in cooled spaces, circulation
fans in cooling tunnels, or secondary refrigerant pumps
(e.g. chilled water, brines, glycols)
Do not use refrigeration for auxiliary cooling duties, such as
compressor cylinder head or oil cooling
While not a thermal load, ensure there is no gas bypass of
the expansion valve since this imposes compressor load
while providing little effective cooling
In the case of air conditioning applications, energy
efficiency techniques include:
o Placing air intakes and air-conditioning units in cool,
shaded locations
o Improving building insulation including seals, vents,
windows, and doors
o Planting trees as thermal shields around buildings
o Installing timers and/or thermostats and/or
enthalpy-based control systems
o Installing ventilation heat recovery systems
34

Energy Conversion
The efficiency of refrigeration service provision is normally
discussed in terms of Coefficient of Performance (COP), which
is the ratio of cooling duty divided by input power. COP is
maximized by effective refrigeration system design and
increased refrigerant compression efficiency, as well as
minimization of the temperature difference through which the
system works and of auxiliary loads (i.e. those in addition to
compressor power demand) used to operate the refrigeration
system.
System Design
If process temperatures are above ambient for all, or part,
of the year, use of ambient cooling systems, such as
provided by cooling towers or dry air coolers, may be
appropriate, perhaps supplemented by refrigeration in
summer conditions.
Most refrigeration systems are electric-motor driven vapor
compression systems using positive displacement or
centrifugal compressors. The remainder of this guideline
relates primarily to vapor-compression systems. However,
when a cheap or free heat source is available (e.g. waste
heat from an engine-driven generatorlow-pressure steam

34
More information on HVAC energy efficiency can be found at the British
Columbia Building Corporation (Woolliams, 2002.
http://www.greenbuildingsbc.com/new_buildings/pdf_files/greenbuild_strategi
es_guide.pdf), NRCANs EnerGuide
(http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/equipment/english/index.cfm?PrintView=N&Text=N)
and NRCANs Energy Star Programs
(http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/energystar/english/consumers/heating.cfm?text=N&pri
ntview=N#AC ), and the US Energy Star Program
(http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=guidelines.download_guidelines).

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APRIL 30, 2007 22

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that has passed through a back-pressure turbine),
absorption refrigeration may be appropriate.
Exploit high cooling temperature range: precooling by
ambient and/or high temperature refrigeration before final
cooling can reduce refrigeration capital and running costs.
High cooling temperature range also provides an
opportunity for countercurrent (cascade) cooling, which
reduces refrigerant flow needs.
Keep hot and cold fluids separate, for example, do not
mix water leaving the chiller with water returning from
cooling circuits.
In low-temperature systems where high temperature
differences are inevitable, consider two-stage or compound
compression, or economized screw compressors, rather
than single-stage compression.
Minimizing Temperature Differences
A vapor-compression refrigeration system raises the
temperature of the refrigerant from somewhat below the lowest
process temperature (the evaporating temperature) to provide
process cooling, to a higher temperature (the condensing
temperature), somewhat above ambient, to facilitate heat
rejection to the air or cooling water systems. Increasing
evaporating temperature typically increases compressor cooling
capacity without greatly affecting power consumption. Reducing
condensing temperature increases evaporator cooling capacity
and substantially reduces compressor power consumption.
Elevating Evaporating Temperature
Select a large evaporator to permit relatively low
temperature differences between process and evaporating
temperatures. Ensure that energy use of auxiliaries (e.g.
evaporator fans) does not outweigh compression savings.
In air-cooling applications, a design temperature difference
of 6-10 K between leaving air temperature and evaporating
temperature is indicative of an appropriately sized
evaporator. When cooling liquids, 2K between leaving
liquid and evaporating temperatures can be achieved,
though a 4K difference is generally indicative of a
generously-sized evaporator.
Keep the evaporator clean. When cooling air, ensure
correct defrost operation. In liquid cooling, monitor
refrigerant/process temperature differences and compare
with design expectations to be alert to heat exchanger
contamination by scale or oil.
Ensure oil is regularly removed from the evaporator, and
that oil additions and removals balance.
Avoid the use of back-pressure valves.
Adjust expansion valves to minimize suction superheat
consistent with avoidance of liquid carry-over to
compressors.
Ensure that an appropriate refrigerant charge volume is
present.
Reducing Condensing Temperature
Consider whether to use air-cooled or evaporation-based
cooling (e.g. evaporative or water cooled condensers and
cooling towers). Air-cooled evaporators usually have
higher condensing temperatures, hence higher compressor
energy use, and auxiliary power consumption, especially in
low humidity climates. If a wet system is used, ensure
adequate treatment to prevent growth of legionella
bacteria.
Whichever basic system is chosen, select a relatively large
condenser to minimize differences between condensing
and the heat sink temperatures. Condensing temperatures
with air cooled or evaporative condensers should not be
more than 10K above design ambient condition, and a 4K
approach in a liquid-cooled condenser is possible.
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Avoid accumulation of non-condensable gases in the
condenser system. Consider the installation of refrigerated
non-condensable purgers, particularly for systems
operating below atmospheric pressure.
Keep condensers clean and free from scale. Monitor
refrigerant/ambient temperature differences and compare
with design expectations to be alert to heat exchanger
contamination.
Avoid liquid backup, which restricts heat transfer area in
condensers. This can be caused by installation errors such
as concentric reducers in horizontal liquid refrigerant pipes,
or up and over liquid lines leading from condensers.
In multiple condenser applications, refrigerant liquid lines
should be connected via drop-leg traps to the main liquid
refrigerant line to ensure that hot gases flow to all
condensers.
Avoid head pressure control to the extent possible. Head
pressure control maintains condensing temperature at, or
near, design levels. It therefore prevents reduction in
compressor power consumption, which accompanies
reduced condensing temperature, by restricting condenser
capacity (usually by switching off the condenser, or cooling
tower fans, or restricting cooling water flow) under
conditions of less severe than design load or ambient
temperature conditions. Head pressure is often kept higher
than necessary to facilitate hot gas defrost or adequate
liquid refrigerant circulation. Use of electronic rather than
thermostatic expansion valves, and liquid refrigerant
pumps can permit effective refrigerant circulation at much
reduced condensing temperatures.
Site condensers and cooling towers with adequate spacing
so as to prevent recirculation of hot air into the tower.
Refrigerant Compression Efficiency
Some refrigerant compressors and chillers are more
efficient than others offered for the same duty. Before
purchase, identify the operating conditions under which the
compressor or chiller is likely to operate for substantial
parts of its annual cycle. Check operating efficiency under
these conditions, and ask for estimates of annual running
cost. Note that refrigeration and HVAC systems rarely run
for extended periods at design conditions, which are
deliberately extreme. Operational efficiency under the most
commonly occurring off-design conditions is likely to be
most important.
Compressors lose efficiency when unloaded. Avoid
operation of multiple compressors at part-load conditions.
Note that package chillers can gain coefficient of
performance (COP) when slightly unloaded, as loss of
compressor efficiency can be outweighed by the benefits of
reduced condensing and elevated evaporating
temperature. However, it is unlikely to be energy efficient
to operate a single compressor-chiller at less than 50% of
capacity.
Consider turndown efficiency when specifying chillers.
Variable speed control or multiple compressor chillers can
be highly efficient at part loads.
Use of thermal storage systems (e.g., ice storage) can
avoid the need for close load-tracking and, hence, can
avoid part-loaded compressor operation.
Refrigeration System Auxiliaries
Many refrigeration system auxiliaries (e.g. evaporator fans and
chilled water pumps) contribute to refrigeration system load, so
reductions in their energy use have a double benefit. General
energy saving techniques for pumps and fans, listed in the next
section of these guidelines, should be applied to refrigeration
auxiliaries.
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Additionally, auxiliary use can be reduced by avoidance of part-
load operation and in plant selection (e.g. axial fan evaporative
condensers generally use less energy than equivalent
centrifugal fan towers).
Under extreme off-design conditions, reduction in duty of cooling
system fans and pumps can be worthwhile, usually when the
lowest possible condensing pressure has been achieved.
Compressed Air Systems
Compressed air is the most commonly found utility service in
industry, yet in many compressed air systems, the energy
contained in compressed air delivered to the user is often 10%
or less of energy used in air compression. Savings are often
possible through the following techniques:
Load reduction
Examine each true user of compressed air to identify the
air volume needed and the pressure at which this should
be delivered.
Do not mix high volume low pressure and low volume high
pressure loads. Decentralize low volume high-pressure
applications or provide dedicated low-pressure utilities, for
example, by using fans rather than compressed air.
Review air use reduction opportunities, for example:
o Use air amplifier nozzles rather than simple open-pipe
compressed air jets
o Consider whether compressed air is needed at all
o Where air jets are required intermittently (e.g. to
propel product), consider operating the jet via a
process-related solenoid valve, which opens only
when air is required
o Use manual or automatically operated valves to
isolate air supply to individual machines or zones that
are not in continuous use
o Implement systems for systematic identification and
repair of leaks
o All condensate drain points should be trapped. Do not
leave drain valves continuously cracked open
o Train workers never to direct compressed air against
their bodies or clothing to dust or cool themselves
down.
Distribution
Monitor pressure losses in filters and replace as
appropriate
Use adequately sized distribution pipework designed to
minimize pressure losses
WASTEWATER AND AMBIENT WATER QUALITY

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1.3 Wastewater and Ambient Water Quality

Applicability and Approach......................................25
General Liquid Effluent Quality.......................................26
Discharge to Surface Water....................................26
Discharge to Sanitary Sewer Systems.....................26
Land Application of Treated Effluent........................27
Septic Systems......................................................27
Wastewater Management...............................................27
Industrial Wastewater.............................................27
Sanitary Wastewater..............................................29
Emissions from Wastewater Treatment Operations.30
Residuals from Wastewater Treatment Operations..30
Occupational Health and Safety Issues in Wastewater
Treatment Operations.............................................30
Monitoring......................................................................30

This guideline applies to projects that have either direct or indirect
discharge of process wastewater, wastewater from utility
operations or stormwater to the environment. These guidelines
are also applicable to industrial discharges to sanitary sewers that
discharge to the environment without any treatment. Process
wastewater may include contaminated wastewater from utility
operations, stormwater, and sanitary sewage. It provides
information on common techniques for wastewater management,
water conservation, and reuse that can be applied to a wide range
of industry sectors. This guideline is meant to be complemented
by the industry-specific effluent guidelines presented in the
Industry Sector Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS)
Guidelines. Projects with the potential to generate process
wastewater, sanitary (domestic) sewage, or stormwater should
incorporate the necessary precautions to avoid, minimize, and
control adverse impacts to human health, safety, or the
environment.
In the context of their overall ESHS management system, facilities
should:
Understand the quality, quantity, frequency and sources of
liquid effluents in its installations. This includes knowledge
about the locations, routes and integrity of internal drainage
systems and discharge points
Plan and implement the segregation of liquid effluents
principally along industrial, utility, sanitary, and stormwater
categories, in order to limit the volume of water requiring
specialized treatment. Characteristics of individual streams
may also be used for source segregation.
Identify opportunities to prevent or reduce wastewater
pollution through such measures as recycle/reuse within their
facility, input substitution, or process modification (e.g.
change of technology or operating conditions/modes).
Assess compliance of their wastewater discharges with the
applicable: (i) discharge standard (if the wastewater is
discharged to a surface water or sewer), and (ii) water quality
standard for a specific reuse (e.g. if the wastewater is reused
for irrigation).
Additionally, the generation and discharge of wastewater of any
type should be managed through a combination of:
Water use efficiency to reduce the amount of wastewater
generation
Process modification, including waste minimization, and
reducing the use of hazardous materials to reduce the load of
pollutants requiring treatment
If needed, application of wastewater treatment techniques to
further reduce the load of contaminants prior to discharge,
taking into consideration potential impacts of cross-media
transfer of contaminants during treatment (e.g., from water to
air or land)

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When wastewater treatment is required prior to discharge, the
level of treatment should be based on:
Whether wastewater is being discharged to a sanitary sewer
system, or to surface waters
National and local standards as reflected in permit
requirements and sewer system capacity to convey and treat
wastewater if discharge is to sanitary sewer
Assimilative capacity of the receiving water for the load of
contaminant being discharged wastewater if discharge is to
surface water
Intended use of the receiving water body (e.g. as a source of
drinking water, recreation, irrigation, navigation, or other)
Presence of sensitive receptors (e.g., endangered species)
or habitats
Good International Industry Practice (GIIP) for the relevant
industry sector
General Liquid Effluent Quality
Discharge to Surface Water
Discharges of process wastewater, sanitary wastewater,
wastewater from utility operations or stormwater to surface water
should not result in contaminant concentrations in excess of local
ambient water quality criteria or, in the absence of local criteria,
other sources of ambient water quality.
35
Receiving water use
36

and assimilative capacity
37
, taking other sources of discharges to

35
An example is the US EPA National Recommended Water Quality Criteria
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/wqcriteria.html
36
Examples of receiving water uses as may be designated by local authorities
include: drinking water (with some level of treatment), recreation, aquaculture,
irrigation, general aquatic life, ornamental, and navigation. Examples of health-
based guideline values for receiving waters include World Health Organization
(WHO) guidelines for recreational use
(http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/guidelines/en/index.html)
37
The assimilative capacity of the receiving water body depends on numerous
factors including, but not limited to, the total volume of water, flow rate, flushing
rate of the water body and the loading of pollutants fromother effluent sources in
the receiving water into consideration, should also influence the
acceptable pollution loadings and effluent discharge quality.
Additional considerations that should be included in the setting of
project-specific performance levels for wastewater effluents
include:
Process wastewater treatment standards consistent with
applicable Industry Sector EHS Guidelines. Projects for
which there are no industry-specific guidelines should
reference the effluent quality guidelines of an industry sector
with suitably analogous processes and effluents;
Compliance with national or local standards for sanitary
wastewater discharges or, in their absence, the indicative
guideline values applicable to sanitary wastewater
discharges shown in Table 1.3.1 below;
Temperature of wastewater prior to discharge does not result
in an increase greater than 3C of ambient temperature at
the edge of a scientifically established mixing zone which
takes into account ambient water quality, receiving water use
and assimilative capacity among other considerations.
Discharge to Sanitary Sewer Systems
Discharges of industrial wastewater, sanitary wastewater,
wastewater from utility operations or stormwater into public or
private wastewater treatment systems should:
Meet the pretreatment and monitoring requirements of the
sewer treatment system into which it discharges.
Not interfere, directly or indirectly, with the operation and
maintenance of the collection and treatment systems, or
pose a risk to worker health and safety, or adversely impact

the area or region. A seasonally representative baseline assessment of ambient
water quality may be required for use with established scientific methods and
mathematical models to estimate potential impact to the receiving water froman
effluent source.

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characteristics of residuals from wastewater treatment
operations.
Be discharged into municipal or centralized wastewater
treatment systems that have adequate capacity to meet local
regulatory requirements for treatment of wastewater
generated from the project. Pretreatment of wastewater to
meet regulatory requirements before discharge from the
project site is required if the municipal or centralized
wastewater treatment system receiving wastewater from the
project does not have adequate capacity to maintain
regulatory compliance.
Land Application of Treated Effluent
The quality of treated process wastewater, wastewater from utility
operations or stormwater discharged on land, including wetlands,
should be established based on local regulatory requirements. .
Where land is used as part of the treatment system and the
ultimate receptor is surface water, water quality guidelines for
surface water discharges specific to the industry sector process
should apply.
38
Potential impact on soil, groundwater, and surface
water, in the context of protection, conservation and long term
sustainability of water and land resources should be assessed
when land is used as part of any wastewater treatment system.
Septic Systems
Septic systems are commonly used for treatment and disposal of
domestic sanitary sewage in areas with no sewerage collection
networks, Septic systems should only be used for treatment of
sanitary sewage, and unsuitable for industrial wastewater
treatment. When septic systems are the selected form of
wastewater disposal and treatment, they should be:

38
Additional guidance on water quality considerations for land application is
available in the WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and
Greywater. Volume 2: Wastewater Use in Agriculture
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuweg2/en/index.html

Properly designed and installed in accordance with local
regulations and guidance to prevent any hazard to public
health or contamination of land, surface or groundwater.
Well maintained to allow effective operation.
Installed in areas with sufficient soil percolation for the design
wastewater loading rate.
Installed in areas of stable soils that are nearly level, well
drained, and permeable, with enough separation between the
drain field and the groundwater table or other receiving
waters.
Wastewater Management
Wastewater management includes water conservation,
wastewater treatment, stormwater management, and wastewater
and water quality monitoring.
Industrial Wastewater
Industrial wastewater generated from industrial operations
includes process wastewater, wastewater from utility operations,,
runoff from process and materials staging areas, and
miscellaneous activities including wastewater from laboratories,
equipment maintenance shops, etc.. The pollutants in an industrial
wastewater may include acids or bases (exhibited as low or high
pH), soluble organic chemicals causing depletion of dissolved
oxygen, suspended solids, nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen),
heavy metals (e.g. cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury,
nickel, zinc), cyanide, toxic organic chemicals, oily materials, and
volatile materials. , as well as from thermal characteristics of the
discharge (e.g., elevated temperature). Transfer of pollutants to
another phase, such as air, soil, or the sub-surface, should be
minimized through process and engineering controls.
Process Wastewater Examples of treatment approaches
typically used in the treatment of industrial wastewater are
summarized in Annex 1.3.1. While the choice of treatment

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technology is driven by wastewater characteristics, the actual
performance of this technology depends largely on the adequacy
of its design, equipment selection, as well as operation and
maintenance of its installed facilities. Adequate resources are
required for proper operation and maintenance of a treatment
facility, and performance is strongly dependent on the technical
ability and training of its operational staff. One or more treatment
technologies may be used to achieve the desired discharge
quality and to maintain consistent compliance with regulatory
requirements. The design and operation of the selected
wastewater treatment technologies should avoid uncontrolled air
emissions of volatile chemicals from wastewaters. Residuals from
industrial wastewater treatment operations should be disposed in
compliance with local regulatory requirements, in the absence of
which disposal has to be consistent with protection of public health
and safety, and conservation and long term sustainability of water
and land resources.
Wastewater from Utilities Operations - Utility operations such
as cooling towers and demineralization systems may result in high
rates of water consumption, as well as the potential release of
high temperature water containing high dissolved solids, residues
of biocides, residues of other cooling system anti-fouling agents,
etc. Recommended water management strategies for utility
operations include:
Adoption of water conservation opportunities for facility
cooling systems as provided in the Water Conservation
section below;
Use of heat recovery methods (also energy efficiency
improvements) or other cooling methods to reduce the
temperature of heated water prior to discharge to ensure the
discharge water temperature does not result in an increase
greater than 3C of ambient temperature at the edge of a
scientifically established mixing zone which takes into
account ambient water quality, receiving water use, potential
receptors and assimilative capacity among other
considerations;
Minimizing use of antifouling and corrosion inhibiting
chemicals by ensuring appropriate depth of water intake and
use of screens. Least hazardous alternatives should be used
with regards to toxicity, biodegradability, bioavailability, and
bioaccumulation potential. Dose applied should accord with
local regulatory requirements and manufacturer
recommendations;
Testing for residual biocides and other pollutants of concern
should be conducted to determine the need for dose
adjustments or treatment of cooling water prior to discharge.
Stormwater Management - Stormwater includes any surface
runoff and flows resulting from precipitation, drainage or other
sources. Typically stormwater runoff contains suspended
sediments, metals, petroleum hydrocarbons, Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAHs), coliform, etc. Rapid runoff, even of
uncontaminated stormwater, also degrades the quality of the
receiving water by eroding stream beds and banks. In order to
reduce the need for stormwater treatment, the following principles
should be applied:
Stormwater should be separated from process and sanitary
wastewater streams in order to reduce the volume of
wastewater to be treated prior to discharge
Surface runoff from process areas or potential sources of
contamination should be prevented
Where this approach is not practical, runoff from process and
storage areas should be segregated from potentially less
contaminated runoff
Runoff from areas without potential sources of contamination
should be minimized (e.g. by minimizing the area of
impermeable surfaces) and the peak discharge rate should

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be reduced (e.g. by using vegetated swales and retention
ponds);
Where stormwater treatment is deemed necessary to protect
the quality of receiving water bodies, priority should be given
to managing and treating the first flush of stormwater runoff
where the majority of potential contaminants tend to be
present;
When water quality criteria allow, stormwater should be
managed as a resource, either for groundwater recharge or
for meeting water needs at the facility;
Oil water separators and grease traps should be installed
and maintained as appropriate at refueling facilities,
workshops, parking areas, fuel storage and containment
areas.
Sludge from stormwater catchments or collection and
treatment systems may contain elevated levels of pollutants
and should be disposed in compliance with local regulatory
requirements, in the absence of which disposal has to be
consistent with protection of public health and safety, and
conservation and long term sustainability of water and land
resources.
Sanitary Wastewater
Sanitary wastewater from industrial facilities may include effluents
from domestic sewage, food service, and laundry facilities serving
site employees. Miscellaneous wastewater from laboratories,
medical infirmaries, water softening etc. may also be discharged
to the sanitary wastewater treatment system. Recommended
sanitary wastewater management strategies include:
Segregation of wastewater streams to ensure compatibility
with selected treatment option (e.g. septic system which can
only accept domestic sewage);
Segregation and pretreatment of oil and grease containing
effluents (e.g. use of a grease trap) prior to discharge into
sewer systems;
If sewage from the industrial facility is to be discharged to
surface water, treatment to meet national or local standards
for sanitary wastewater discharges or, in their absence, the
indicative guideline values applicable to sanitary wastewater
discharges shown in Table 1.3.1;
If sewage from the industrial facility is to be discharged to
either a septic system, or where land is used as part of the
treatment system, treatment to meet applicable national or
local standards for sanitary wastewater discharges is
required.
Sludge from sanitary wastewater treatment systems should
be disposed in compliance with local regulatory
requirements, in the absence of which disposal has to be
consistent with protection of public health and safety, and
conservation and long term sustainability of water and land
resources.

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Emissions from Wastewater Treatment Operations
Air emissions from wastewater treatment operations may include
hydrogen sulfide, methane, ozone (in the case of ozone
disinfection), volatile organic compounds (e.g., chloroform
generated from chlorination activities and other volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) from industrial wastewater), gaseous or
volatile chemicals used for disinfection processes (e.g., chlorine
and ammonia), and bioaerosols. Odors from treatment facilities
can also be a nuisance to workers and the surrounding
community. Recommendations for the management of emissions
are presented in the Air Emissions and Ambient Air Quality
section of this document and in the EHS Guidelines for Water and
Sanitation.
Residuals from Wastewater Treatment Operations
Sludge from a waste treatment plant needs to be evaluated on a
case-by-case basis to establish whether it constitutes a hazardous
or a non-hazardous waste and managed accordingly as described
in the Waste Management section of this document.
Occupational Health and Safety Issues in
Wastewater Treatment Operations
Wastewater treatment facility operators may be exposed to
physical, chemical, and biological hazards depending on the
design of the facilities and the types of wastewater effluents
managed. Examples of these hazards include the potential for
trips and falls into tanks, confined space entries for maintenance
operations, and inhalation of VOCs, bioaerosols, and methane,
contact with pathogens and vectors, and use of potentially
hazardous chemicals, including chlorine, sodium and calcium
hypochlorite, and ammonia. Detailed recommendations for the
management of occupational health and safety issues are
presented in the relevant section of this document. Additional
guidance specifically applicable to wastewater treatment systems
is provided in the EHS Guidelines for Water and Sanitation.
Monitoring
A wastewater and water quality monitoring program with adequate
resources and management oversight should be developed and
implemented to meet the objective(s) of the monitoring program.
The wastewater and water quality monitoring program should
consider the following elements:
Monitoring parameters: The parameters selected for
monitoring should be indicative of the pollutants of concern
from the process, and should include parameters that are
regulated under compliance requirements;
Monitoring type and frequency: Wastewater monitoring
should take into consideration the discharge characteristics
from the process over time. Monitoring of discharges from
processes with batch manufacturing or seasonal process
variations should take into consideration of time-dependent
Table 1.3.1 Indicative Values for Treated
Sanitary Sewage Discharges
a
Pollutants Units Guideline Value
pH pH 6 9
BOD mg/l 30
COD mg/l 125
Total nitrogen mg/l 10
Total phosphorus mg/l 2
Oil and grease mg/l 10
Total suspended solids mg/l 50
Total coliform bacteria MPN
b
/ 100 ml 400
a

Notes:
a
Not applicable to centralized, municipal, wastewater treatment systems
which are included in EHS Guidelines for Water and Sanitation.
b
MPN = Most Probable Number

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variations in discharges and, therefore, is more complex than
monitoring of continuous discharges. Effluents from highly
variable processes may need to be sampled more frequently
or through composite methods. Grab samples or, if
automated equipment permits, composite samples may offer
more insight on average concentrations of pollutants over a
24-hour period. Composite samplers may not be appropriate
where analytes of concern are short-lived (e.g., quickly
degraded or volatile).
Monitoring locations: The monitoring location should be
selected with the objective of providing representative
monitoring data. Effluent sampling stations may be located
at the final discharge, as well as at strategic upstream points
prior to merging of different discharges. Process discharges
should not be diluted prior or after treatment with the
objective of meeting the discharge or ambient water quality
standards.
Data quality: Monitoring programs should apply
internationally approved methods for sample collection,
preservation and analysis. Sampling should be conducted by
or under the supervision of trained individuals. Analysis
should be conducted by entities permitted or certified for this
purpose. Sampling and Analysis Quality Assurance/Quality
Control (QA/QC) plans should be prepared and,
implemented. QA/QC documentation should be included in
monitoring reports.

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Annex 1.3.1 - Examples of Industrial Wastewater Treatment Approaches

Pollutant/Parameter Control Options / Principle Common End of Pipe Control Technology
pH Chemical, Equalization Acid/Base addition, Flow equalization
Oil and Grease / TPH Phase separation Dissolved Air Floatation, oil water separator, grease trap
TSS - Settleable Settling, Size Exclusion Sedimentation basin, clarifier, centrifuge, screens
TSS - Non-Settleable
Floatation, Filtration - traditional and
tangential
Dissolved air floatation, Multimedia filter, sand filter, fabric filter,
ultrafiltration, microfiltration
Hi - BOD (> 2 Kg/m
3
) Biological - Anaerobic Suspended growth, attached growth, hybrid
Lo - BOD (< 2 Kg/m
3
) Biological - Aerobic, Facultative Suspended growth, attached growth, hybrid
COD - Non-Biodegradable
Oxidation, Adsorption, Size
Exclusion
Chemical oxidation, Thermal oxidation, Activated Carbon, Membranes
Metals - Particulate and
Soluble
Coagulation, flocculation,
precipitation, size exclusion
Flash mix with settling, filtration - traditional and tangential
Inorganics / Non-metals
Coagulation, flocculation,
precipitation, size exclusion,
Oxidation, Adsorption
Flash mix with settling, filtration - traditional and tangential, Chemical
oxidation, Thermal oxidation, Activated Carbon, Reverse Osmosis,
Evaporation
Organics - VOCs and SVOCs
Biological - Aerobic, Anaerobic,
Facultative; Adsorption, Oxidation
Biological : Suspended growth, attached growth, hybrid; Chemical
oxidation, Thermal oxidation, Activated Carbon
Emissions Odors and
VOCs
Capture Active or Passive;
Biological; Adsorption, Oxidation
Biological : Attached growth; Chemical oxidation, Thermal oxidation,
Activated Carbon
Nutrients
Biological Nutrient Removal,
Chemical, Physical, Adsorption
Aerobic/Anoxic biological treatment, chemical hydrolysis and air
stripping, chlorination, ion exchange
Color
Biological - Aerobic, Anaerobic,
Facultative; Adsorption, Oxidation
Biological Aerobic, Chemical oxidation, Activated Carbon
Temperature Evaporative Cooling Surface Aerators, Flow Equalization
TDS Concentration, Size Exclusion Evaporation, crystallization, Reverse Osmosis
Active Ingredients/Emerging
Contaminants
Adsorption, Oxidation, Size
Exclusion, Concentration
Chemical oxidation, Thermal oxidation, Activated Carbon, Ion
Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Evaporation, Crystallization
Radionuclides
Adsorption,Size Exclusion,
Concentration
Ion Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Evaporation, Crystallization
Pathogens Disinfection, Sterilization Chlorine, Ozone, Peroxide, UV, Thermal
Toxicity
Adsorption, Oxidation, Size
Exclusion, Concentration
Chemical oxidation, Thermal oxidation, Activated Carbon, Evaporation,
crystallization, Reverse Osmosis
WATER CONSERVATION

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1.4 Water Conservation

Water Monitoring and Management................................33
Process Water Reuse and Recycling..............................33
Building Facility Operations............................................34
Cooling Systems............................................................34
Heating Systems............................................................34

Water conservation programs should be implemented
commensurate with the magnitude and cost of water use.
These programs should promote the continuous reduction in
water consumption and achieve savings in the water
pumping, treatment and disposal costs. Water conservation
measures may include water monitoring/management
techniques; process and cooling/heating water recycling,
reuse, and other techniques; and sanitary water conservation
techniques.
General recommendations include:
Storm/Rainwater harvesting and use
Zero discharge design/Use of treated waste water to be
included in project design processes
Use of localized recirculation systems in
plant/facility/shops (as opposed to centralized
recirculation system), with provision only for makeup
water
Use of dry process technologies e.g. dry quenching
Process water system pressure management
Project design to have measures for adequate water
collection, spill control and leakage control system
Water Monitoring and Management
The essential elements of a water management program
involve:
Identification, regular measurement, and recording of
principal flows within a facility;
Definition and regular review of performance targets, which
are adjusted to account for changes in major factors
affecting water use (e.g. industrial production rate);
Regular comparison of water flows with performance
targets to identify where action should be taken to reduce
water use.
Water measurement (metering) should emphasize areas of
greatest water use. Based on review of metering data,
unaccounted useindicating major leaks at industrial facilities
could be identified.
Process Water Reuse and Recycling
Opportunities for water savings in industrial processes are
highly industry-specific. However, the following techniques have
all been used successfully, and should be considered in
conjunction with the development of the metering system
described above.
Washing Machines: Many washing machines use large
quantities of hot water. Use can increase as nozzles
become enlarged due to repeated cleaning and /or wear.
Monitor machine water use, compare with specification,
and replace nozzles when water and heat use reaches
levels warranting such work.
Water reuse: Common water reuse applications include
countercurrent rinsing, for example in multi-stage washing
WATER CONSERVATION

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and rinsing processes, or reusing waste water from one
process for another with less exacting water
requirements. For example, using bleaching rinse water
for textile washing, or bottle-washer rinse water for
bottle crate washing, or even washing the floor. More
sophisticated reuse projects requiring treatment of water
before reuse are also sometimes practical.
Water jets/sprays: If processes use water jets or sprays
(e.g. to keep conveyors clean or to cool product) review
the accuracy of the spray pattern to prevent
unnecessary water loss.
Flow control optimization: Industrial processes
sometimes require the use of tanks, which are refilled to
control losses. It is often possible to reduce the rate of
water supply to such tanks, and sometimes to reduce
tank levels to reduce spillage. If the process uses water
cooling sprays, it may be possible to reduce flow while
maintaining cooling performance. Testing can
determine the optimum balance.
o If hoses are used in cleaning, use flow controls to
restrict wasteful water flow
o Consider the use of high pressure, low volume
cleaning systems rather than using large volumes
of water sprayed from hosepipes
o Using flow timers and limit switches to control
water use
o Using clean-up practices rather than hosing down
Building Facility Operations
Consumption of building and sanitary water is typically less
than that used in industrial processes. However, savings can
readily be identified, as outlined below:
Compare daily water use per employee to existing
benchmarks taking into consideration the primary use at
the facility, whether sanitary or including other activities
such as showering or catering
Regularly maintain plumbing, and identify and repair leaks
Shut off water to unused areas
Install self-closing taps, automatic shut-off valves, spray
nozzles, pressure reducing valves, and water conserving
fixtures (e.g. low flow shower heads, faucets, toilets,
urinals; and spring loaded or sensored faucets)
Operate dishwashers and laundries on full loads, and only
when needed
Install water-saving equipment in lavatories, such as low-
flow toilets
Cooling Systems
Water conservation opportunities in cooling systems include:
Use of closed circuit cooling systems with cooling
towers rather than once-through cooling systems
Limiting condenser or cooling tower blowdown to the
minimum required to prevent unacceptable
accumulation of dissolved solids
Use of air cooling rather than evaporative cooling,
although this may increase electricity use in the
cooling system
Use of treated waste water for cooling towers
Reusing/recycling cooling tower blowdown
Heating Systems
Heating systems based on the circulation of low or medium
pressure hot water (which do not consume water) should be
closed. If they do consume water, regular maintenance should
be conducted to check for leaks. However, large quantities of
water may be used by steam systems, and this can be reduced
by the following measures:
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Repair of steam and condensate leaks, and repair
of all failed steam traps
Return of condensate to the boilerhouse, and use
of heat exchangers (with condensate return) rather
than direct steam injection where process permits
Flash steam recovery
Minimizing boiler blowdown consistent with
maintaining acceptably low dissolved solids in
boiler water. Use of reverse osmosis boiler feed
water treatment substantially reduces the need for
boiler blowdown
Minimizing deaerator heating
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS MANAGEMENT

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1.5 Hazardous Materials Management

General Hazardous Materials Management....................37
Hazard Assessment ...............................................37
Management Actions..............................................37
Release Prevention and Control Planning............38
Occupational Health and Safety...........................38
Process Knowledge and Documentation..............39
Preventive Measures..............................................39
Hazardous Materials Transfer..............................39
Overfill Protection................................................39
Reaction, Fire, and Explosion Prevention.............40
Control Measures...................................................40
Secondary Containment (Liquids)........................40
Storage Tank and Piping Leak Detection..............41
Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) ....................41
Management of Major Hazards.......................................42
Management Actions..............................................42
Preventive Measures..............................................43
Emergency Preparedness and Response...............44
Community Involvement and Awareness.................44

These guidelines apply to projects that use, store, or handle any
quantity of hazardous materials (Hazmats), defined as materials
that represent a risk to human health, property, or the environment
due to their physical or chemical characteristics. Hazmats can be
classified according to the hazard as explosives; compressed
gases, including toxic or flammable gases; flammable liquids;
flammable solids; oxidizing substances; toxic materials;
radioactive material; and corrosive substances. Guidance on the
transport of hazardous materials is covered in Section 3 of this
document.

When a hazardous material is no longer usable for its original
purpose and is intended for disposal, but still has hazardous
properties, it is considered a hazardous waste (see Section 1.4).
This guidance is intended to be applied in conjunction with
traditional occupational health and safety and emergency
preparedness programs which are included in Section 2.0 on
Occupational Health and Safety Management, and Section 3.7 on
Emergency Preparedness and Response. Guidance on the
Transport of Hazardous Materials is provided in Section 3.5.
This section is divided into two main subsections:
General Hazardous Materials Management: Guidance applicable
to all projects or facilities that handle or store any quantity of
hazardous materials.
Management of Major Hazards: Additional guidance for projects or
facilities that store or handle hazardous materials at, or above,
threshold quantities
39
, and thus require special treatment to
prevent accidents such as fire, explosions, leaks or spills, and to
prepare and respond to emergencies.
The overall objective of hazardous materials management is to
avoid or, when avoidance is not feasible, minimize uncontrolled
releases of hazardous materials or accidents (including explosion
and fire) during their production, handling, storage and use. This
objective can be achieved by:

39
For examples, threshold quantities should be those established for emergency
planning purposes such as provided in the US Environmental Protection Agency.
Protection of Environment (Title Threshold quantities are provided in the US
Environmental Protection Agency. Protection of Environment (Title 40 CFR Parts
68, 112, and 355).

APRIL 30, 2007 37

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Establishing hazardous materials management priorities
based on hazard analysis of risky operations identified
through Social and Environmental Assessment;
Where practicable, avoiding or minimizing the use of
hazardous materials. For example, non-hazardous materials
have been found to substitute asbestos in building materials,
PCBs in electrical equipment, persistent organic pollutants
(POPs) in pesticides formulations, and ozone depleting
substances in refrigeration systems;
Preventing uncontrolled releases of hazardous materials to
the environment or uncontrolled reactions that might result in
fire or explosion;
Using engineering controls (containment, automatic alarms,
and shut-off systems) commensurate with the nature of
hazard;
Implementing management controls (procedures,
inspections, communications, training, and drills) to address
residual risks that have not been prevented or controlled
through engineering measures.
General Hazardous Materials Management
Projects which manufacture, handle, use, or store hazardous
materials should establish management programs that are
commensurate with the potential risks present. The main
objectives of projects involving hazardous materials should be the
protection of the workforce and the prevention and control of
releases and accidents. These objectives should be addressed
by integrating prevention and control measures, management
actions, and procedures into day-to-day business activities.
Potentially applicable elements of a management program include
the following:
Hazard Assessment
The level of risk should be established through an on-going
assessment process based on:
The types and amounts of hazardous materials present in the
project. This information should be recorded and should
include a summary table with the following information:
o Name and description (e.g. composition of a mixture) of
the Hazmat
o Classification (e.g. code, class or division) of the
Hazmat
o Internationally accepted regulatory reporting threshold
quantity or national equivalent
40
of the Hazmat
o Quantity of Hazmat used per month
o Characteristic(s) that make(s) the Hazmat hazardous
(e.g. flammability, toxicity)
Analysis of potential spill and release scenarios using
available industry statistics on spills and accidents where
available
Analysis of the potential for uncontrolled reactions such as
fire and explosions
Analysis of potential consequences based on the physical-
geographical characteristics of the project site, including
aspects such as its distance to settlements, water resources,
and other environmentally sensitive areas
Hazard assessment should be performed by specialized
professionals using internationally-accepted methodologies such
as Hazardous Operations Analysis (HAZOP), Failure Mode and
Effects Analysis (FMEA), and Hazard Identification (HAZID).

Management Actions
The management actions to be included in a Hazardous Materials
Management Plan should be commensurate with the level of

40
Threshold quantities are provided in the US Environmental Protection Agency.
Protection of Environment (Title 40 CFR Parts 68, 112, and 355).

APRIL 30, 2007 38

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potential risks associated with the production, handling, storage,
and use of hazardous materials.

Release Prevention and Control Planning
Where there is risk of a spill of uncontrolled hazardous materials,
facilities should prepare a spill control, prevention, and
countermeasure plan as a specific component of their Emergency
Preparedness and Response Plan (described in more detail in
Section 3.7). The plan should be tailored to the hazards
associated with the project, and include:
Training of operators on release prevention, including drills
specific to hazardous materials as part of emergency
preparedness response training
Implementation of inspection programs to maintain the
mechanical integrity and operability of pressure vessels,
tanks, piping systems, relief and vent valve systems,
containment infrastructure, emergency shutdown systems,
controls and pumps, and associated process equipment
Preparation of written Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs) for filling USTs, ASTs or other containers or
equipment as well as for transfer operations by personnel
trained in the safe transfer and filling of the hazardous
material, and in spill prevention and response
SOPs for the management of secondary containment
structures, specifically the removal of any accumulated fluid,
such as rainfall, to ensure that the intent of the system is not
accidentally or willfully defeated
Identification of locations of hazardous materials and
associated activities on an emergency plan site map
Documentation of availability of specific personal protective
equipment and training needed to respond to an emergency
Documentation of availability of spill response equipment
sufficient to handle at least initial stages of a spill and a list of
external resources for equipment and personnel, if
necessary, to supplement internal resources
Description of response activities in the event of a spill,
release, or other chemical emergency including:
o Internal and external notification procedures
o Specific responsibilities of individuals or groups
o Decision process for assessing severity of the release,
and determining appropriate actions
o Facility evacuation routes
o Post-event activities such as clean-up and disposal,
incident investigation, employee re-entry, and
restoration of spill response equipment.
Occupational Health and Safety
The Hazardous Materials Management Plan should address
applicable, essential elements of occupational health and safety
management as described in Section 2.0 on Occupational Health
and Safety, including:
Job safety analysis to identify specific potential occupational
hazards and industrial hygiene surveys, as appropriate, to
monitor and verify chemical exposure levels, and compare
with applicable occupational exposure standards
41

Hazard communication and training programs to prepare
workers to recognize and respond to workplace chemical
hazards. Programs should include aspects of hazard
identification, safe operating and materials handling
procedures, safe work practices, basic emergency
procedures, and special hazards unique to their jobs.

41
Including: Threshold Limit Value (TLV) occupational exposure guidelines and
Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs), American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), http://www.acgih.org/TLV/; U.S. National Institute
for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH), http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/;
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA),
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARD
S&p_id=9992; Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values, European Union,
http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/; and other similar sources.

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Training should incorporate information from Material Safety
Data Sheets
42
(MSDSs) for hazardous materials being
handled. MSDSs should be readily accessible to employees
in their local language.
Definition and implementation of permitted maintenance
activities, such as hot work or confined space entries
Provision of suitable personal protection equipment (PPE)
(footwear, masks, protective clothing and goggles in
appropriate areas), emergency eyewash and shower
stations, ventilation systems, and sanitary facilities
Monitoring and record-keeping activities, including audit
procedures designed to verify and record the effectiveness of
prevention and control of exposure to occupational hazards,
and maintaining accident and incident investigation reports
on file for a period of at least five years
Process Knowledge and Documentation
The Hazardous Materials Management Plan should be
incorporated into, and consistent with, the other elements of the
facility ES/OHS MS and include:
Written process safety parameters (i.e., hazards of the
chemical substances, safety equipment specifications, safe
operation ranges for temperature, pressure, and other
applicable parameters, evaluation of the consequences of
deviations, etc.)
Written operating procedures
Compliance audit procedures

42
MSDSs are produced by the manufacturer, but might not be prepared for
chemical intermediates that are not distributed in commerce. In these cases,
employers still need to provide workers with equivalent information.
Preventive Measures
Hazardous Materials Transfer
Uncontrolled releases of hazardous materials may result from
small cumulative events, or from more significant equipment
failure associated with events such as manual or mechanical
transfer between storage systems or process equipment.
Recommended practices to prevent hazardous material releases
from processes include:
Use of dedicated fittings, pipes, and hoses specific to
materials in tanks (e.g., all acids use one type of connection,
all caustics use another), and maintaining procedures to
prevent addition of hazardous materials to incorrect tanks
Use of transfer equipment that is compatible and suitable for
the characteristics of the materials transferred and designed
to ensure safe transfer
Regular inspection, maintenance and repair of fittings, pipes
and hoses
Provision of secondary containment, drip trays or other
overflow and drip containment measures, for hazardous
materials containers at connection points or other possible
overflow points.
Overfill Protection
Overfills of vessels and tanks should be prevented as they are
among the most common causes of spills resulting in soil and
water contamination, and among the easiest to prevent.
Recommended overfill protection measures include:
Prepare written procedures for transfer operations that
includes a checklist of measures to follow during filling
operations and the use of filling operators trained in these
procedures
Installation of gauges on tanks to measure volume inside
Use of dripless hose connections for vehicle tank and fixed
connections with storage tanks

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Provision of automatic fill shutoff valves on storage tanks to
prevent overfilling
Use of a catch basin around the fill pipe to collect spills
Use of piping connections with automatic overfill protection
(float valve)
Pumping less volume than available capacity into the tank or
vessel by ordering less material than its available capacity
Provision of overfill or over pressure vents that allow
controlled release to a capture point
Reaction, Fire, and Explosion Prevention
Reactive, flammable, and explosive materials should also be
managed to avoid uncontrolled reactions or conditions resulting in
fire or explosion. Recommended prevention practices include:
Storage of incompatible materials (acids, bases, flammables,
oxidizers, reactive chemicals) in separate areas, and with
containment facilities separating material storage areas
Provision of material-specific storage for extremely
hazardous or reactive materials
Use of flame arresting devices on vents from flammable
storage containers
Provision of grounding and lightning protection for tank
farms, transfer stations, and other equipment that handles
flammable materials
Selection of materials of construction compatible with
products stored for all parts of storage and delivery systems,
and avoiding reuse of tanks for different products without
checking material compatibility
Storage of hazardous materials in an area of the facility
separated from the main production works. Where proximity
is unavoidable, physical separation should be provided using
structures designed to prevent fire, explosion, spill, and other
emergency situations from affecting facility operations
Prohibition of all sources of ignition from areas near
flammable storage tanks
Control Measures
Secondary Containment (Liquids)
A critical aspect for controlling accidental releases of liquid
hazardous materials during storage and transfer is the provision of
secondary containment. It is not necessary for secondary
containment methods to meet long term material compatibility as
with primary storage and piping, but their design and construction
should hold released materials effectively until they can be
detected and safely recovered. Appropriate secondary
containment structures consist of berms, dikes, or walls capable of
containing the larger of 110 percent of the largest tank or 25%
percent of the combined tank volumes in areas with above-ground
tanks with a total storage volume equal or greater than 1,000 liters
and will be made of impervious, chemically resistant material.
Secondary containment design should also consider means to
prevent contact between incompatible materials in the event of a
release.
Other secondary containment measures that should be applied
depending on site-specific conditions include:
Transfer of hazardous materials from vehicle tanks to storage
in areas with surfaces sufficiently impervious to avoid loss to
the environment and sloped to a collection or a containment
structure not connected to municipal wastewater/stormwater
collection system
Where it is not practical to provide permanent, dedicated
containment structures for transfer operations, one or more
alternative forms of spill containment should be provided,
such as portable drain covers (which can be deployed for the
duration of the operations), automatic shut-off valves on
storm water basins, or shut off valves in drainage or sewer
facilities, combined with oil-water separators

APRIL 30, 2007 41

WORLDBANK GROUP
Storage of drummed hazardous materials with a total volume
equal or greater than 1,000 liters in areas with impervious
surfaces that are sloped or bermed to contain a minimum of
25 percent of the total storage volume
Provision of secondary containment for components (tanks,
pipes) of the hazardous material storage system, to the
extent feasible
Conducting periodic (e.g. daily or weekly) reconciliation of
tank contents, and inspection of visible portions of tanks and
piping for leaks;
Use of double-walled, composite, or specially coated storage
and piping systems particularly in the use of underground
storage tanks (USTs) and underground piping. If double-
walled systems are used, they should provide a means of
detecting leaks between the two walls.
Storage Tank and Piping Leak Detection
Leak detection may be used in conjunction with secondary
containment, particularly in high-risk locations
43
. Leak detection is
especially important in situations where secondary containment is
not feasible or practicable, such as in long pipe runs. Acceptable
leak detection methods include:
Use of automatic pressure loss detectors on pressurized or
long distance piping
Use of approved or certified integrity testing methods on
piping or tank systems, at regular intervals
Considering the use of SCADA
44
if financially feasible

43
High-risk locations are places where the release of product fromthe storage
systemcould result in the contamination of drinking water source or those located
in water resource protection areas as designated by local authorities.
44
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Underground Storage Tanks (USTs)
45

Although there are many environmental and safety advantages of
underground storage of hazardous materials, including reduced
risk of fire or explosion, and lower vapor losses into the
atmosphere, leaks of hazardous materials can go undetected for
long periods of time with potential for soil and groundwater
contamination. Examples of techniques to manage these risks
include:
Avoiding use of USTs for storage of highly soluble organic
materials
Assessing local soil corrosion potential, and installing and
maintaining cathodic protection (or equivalent rust protection)
for steel tanks
For new installations, installing impermeable liners or
structures (e.g., concrete vaults) under and around tanks and
lines that direct any leaked product to monitoring ports at the
lowest point of the liner or structure
Monitoring the surface above any tank for indications of soil
movement
Reconciling tank contents by measuring the volume in store
with the expected volume, given the stored quantity at last
stocking, and deliveries to and withdrawals fromthe store
Testing integrity by volumetric, vacuum, acoustic, tracers, or
other means on all tanks at regular intervals
Considering the monitoring groundwater of quality down
gradient of locations where multiple USTs are in use
Evaluating the risk of existing UST in newly acquired facilities
to determine if upgrades are required for USTs that will be
continued to be used, including replacement with new
systems or permanent closure of abandoned USTs.
Ensuring that new USTs are sited away from wells,

45
Additional details on the management of USTs is provided in the EHS
Guidelines for Retail PetroleumStations.

APRIL 30, 2007 42

WORLDBANK GROUP
reservoirs and other source water protection areas and
floodplains, and maintained so as to prevent corrosion.
Management of Major Hazards
In addition to the application of the above-referenced guidance on
prevention and control of releases of hazardous materials,
projects involving production, handling, and storage of hazardous
materials at or above threshold limits
46
should prepare a
Hazardous Materials Risk Management Plan, in the context of its
overall ES/OHS MS, containing all of the elements presented
below.
47
The objective of this guidance is the prevention and
control of catastrophic releases of toxic, reactive, flammable, or
explosive chemicals that may result in toxic, fire, or explosion
hazards.
48

Management Actions
Management of Change: These procedures should address:
o The technical basis for changes in processes and
operations
o The impact of changes on health and safety
o Modification to operating procedures
o Authorization requirements
o Employees affected
o Training needs
Compliance Audit: A compliance audit is a way to evaluate
compliance with the prevention program requirements for
each process. A compliance audit covering each element of

46
Threshold quantities should be those established for emergency planning
purposes such as provided in the US Environmental Protection Agency. Protection
of Environment (Title 40 CFR Parts 300-399 and 700 to 789).
47
For further information and guidance, please refer to International Finance
Corporation (IFC) Hazardous Materials Risk Management Manual. Washington,
D.C. December 2000.
48
The approach to the management of major hazards is largely based on an
approach to Process Safety Management developed by the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers.
the prevention measures (see below) should be conducted at
least every three years and should include:
o Preparation of a report of the findings
o Determination and documentation of the appropriate
response to each finding
o Documentation that any deficiency has been corrected
Incident Investigation: Incidents can provide valuable
information about site hazards and the steps needed to
prevent accidental releases. An incident investigation
mechanism should include procedures for:
o Initiation of the investigation promptly
o Summarizing the investigation in a report
o Addressing the report findings and recommendations
o A review of the report with staff and contractors
Employee Participation: A written plan of action should
describe an active employee participation program for the
prevention of accidents.
Contractors: There should be a mechanism for contractor
control which should include a requirement for them to
develop hazard materials management procedures that meet
the requirements of the hazardous materials management
plan. Their procedures should be consistent with those of
the contracting company and the contractor workforce should
undergo the same training. Additionally, procedures should
require that contractors are:
o Provided with safety performance procedures and safety
and hazard information
o Observe safety practices
o Act responsibly
o Have access to appropriate training for their employees
o Ensure that their employees know process hazards and
applicable emergency actions

APRIL 30, 2007 43

WORLDBANK GROUP
o Prepare and submit training records for their employees
to the contracting company
o Inform their employees about the hazards presented by
their work
o Assess trends of repeated similar incidents
o Develop and implement procedures to manage repeated
similar incidents
Training: Project employees should be provided training on
Hazmat management. The training program should include:
o A list of employees to be trained
o Specific training objectives
o Mechanisms to achieve the objectives (i.e., hands-on
workshops, videos, etc.)
o The means to determine whether the training program is
effective
o Training procedures for new hires and refresher courses
for existing employees
Preventive Measures
The purpose of preventive measures is to ensure that safety-
related aspects of the process and equipment are considered,
limits to be placed on the operations are well known, and
accepted standards and codes are adopted, where they apply.
Process Safety Information: Procedures should be prepared
for each hazardous materials and include:
o Compilation of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
o Identification of maximum intended inventories and safe
upper/lower parameters
o Documentation of equipment specifications and of
codes and standards used to design, build and operate
the process
Operating Procedures: SOPs should be prepared for each
step of all processes or operations within the project (e.g.
initial startup, normal operations, temporary operations,
emergency shutdown, emergency operations, normal
shutdown, and start-up following a normal or emergency
shutdown or major change). These SOPs should include
special considerations for Mazmats used in the process or
operations (e.g. temperature control to prevent emissions of
a volatile hazardous chemical; diversion of gaseous
discharges of hazardous pollutants from the process to a
temporary storage tank in case of emergency).
Other procedures to be developed include impacts of
deviations, steps to avoid deviations, prevention of chemical
exposure, exposure control measures, and equipment
inspections.
Mechanical Integrity of process equipment, piping and
instrumentation: Inspection and maintenance procedures
should be developed and documented to ensure mechanical
integrity of equipment, piping, and instrumentation and
prevent uncontrolled releases of hazardous materials from
the project. These procedures should be included as part of
the project SOPs. The specific process components of major
interest include pressure vessels and storage tanks, piping
systems, relief and vent systems and devices, emergency
shutdown systems, controls, and pumps. Recommended
aspects of the inspection and maintenance program include:
o Developing inspection and maintenance procedures
o Establishing a quality assurance plan for equipment,
maintenance materials, and spare parts
o Conducting employee training on the inspection and
maintenance procedures
o Conducting equipment, piping, and instrumentation
inspections and maintenance
o Identifying and correcting identified deficiencies

APRIL 30, 2007 44

WORLDBANK GROUP
o Evaluating the inspection and maintenance results and,
if necessary, updating the inspection and maintenance
procedures
o Reporting the results to management.

Hot Work Permit: Hot work operations such as brazing,
torch-cutting, grinding, soldering, and welding are
associated with potential health, safety, and property hazards
resulting from the fumes, gases, sparks, and hot metal and
radiant energy produced during hot work. Hot work permit is
required for any operation involving open flames or producing
heat and/or sparks. The section of SOPs on hot work should
include the responsibility for hot work permitting, personal
protection equipment (PPE), hot work procedures, personnel
training, and recordkeeping.
Pre-Start Review: Procedures should be prepared to carry
out pre-start reviews when a modification is significant
enough to require a change in safety information under the
management of change procedure. The procedures should:
o Confirm that the new or modified construction and/or
equipment meet design specifications
o Ensure that procedures for safety, operation,
maintenance, and emergency are adequate
o Include a process hazard assessment, and resolve or
implement recommendations for new process
o Ensure that training for all affected employees is being
conducted
Emergency Preparedness and Response
When handling hazardous materials, procedures and practices
should be developed allowing for quick and efficient responses to
accidents that could result in human injury or damage to the
environment. An Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan,
incorporated into and consistent with, the facilitys overall ES/OHS
MS, should be prepared to cover the following:
49

Planning Coordination: Procedures should be prepared for:
o Informing the public and emergency response agencies
o Documenting first aid and emergency medical treatment
o Taking emergency response actions
o Reviewing and updating the emergency response plan
to reflect changes, and ensuring that employees are
informed of such changes
Emergency Equipment: Procedures should be prepared for
using, inspecting, testing, and maintaining the emergency
response equipment.
Training: Employees and contractors should be trained on
emergency response procedures.
Community Involvement and Awareness
When hazardous materials are in use above threshold quantities,
the management plan should include a system for community
awareness, notification and involvement that should be
commensurate with the potential risks identified for the project
during the hazard assessment studies. This should include
mechanisms for sharing the results of hazard and risk assessment
studies in a timely, understandable and culturally sensitive manner
with potentially affected communities that provides a means for
public feedback. Community involvement activities should include:
Availability of general information to the potentially affected
community on the nature and extent of project operations,
and the prevention and control measures in place to ensure
no effects to human health

49
For a comprehensive treatment of the development of emergency response
plans in conjunction with communities refer to the Awareness and Preparedness
for Emergencies at Local Level (APELL) Guidelines available at:
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/apell/publications/handbooks.html

APRIL 30, 2007 45

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The potential for off-site effects to human health or the
environment following an accident at planned or existing
hazardous installations
Specific and timely information on appropriate behavior and
safety measures to be adopted in the event of an accident
including practice drills in locations with higher risks
Access to information necessary to understand the nature of
the possible effect of an accident and an opportunity to
contribute effectively, as appropriate, to decisions concerning
hazardous installations and the development of community
emergency preparedness plans.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

APRIL 30, 2007 46

WORLDBANK GROUP
1.6 Waste Management
General Waste Management..........................................47
Waste Management Planning.................................47
Waste Prevention...................................................47
Recycling and Reuse..............................................48
Treatment and Disposal..........................................48
Hazardous Waste Management......................................48
Waste Storage.......................................................48
Transportation........................................................49
Treatment and Disposal..........................................49
Commercial or Government Waste Contractors....49
Small Quantities of Hazardous Waste..................50
Monitoring..............................................................50

These guidelines apply to projects that generate, store, or
handle any quantity of waste across a range of industry
sectors. It is not intended to apply to projects or facilities
where the primary business is the collection, transportation,
treatment, or disposal of wastes. Specific guidance for these
types of facilities is presented in the Environmental Health
and Safety (EHS) Guidelines for Waste Management
Facilities.
Awaste is any solid, liquid, or contained gaseous material
that is being discarded by disposal, recycling, burning or
incineration. It can be byproduct of a manufacturing process
or an obsolete commercial product that can no longer be
used for intended purpose and requires disposal.
Solid (non-hazardous) wastes generally include any garbage,
refuse. Examples of such waste include domestic trash and
garbage; inert construction / demolition materials; refuse,
such as metal scrap and empty containers (except those
previously used to contain hazardous materials which should,
in principle, be managed as a hazardous waste); and
residual waste from industrial operations, such as boiler slag,
clinker, and fly ash.
Hazardous waste shares the properties of a hazardous
material (e.g. ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity), or
other physical, chemical, or biological characteristics that
may pose a potential risk to human health or the environment
if improperly managed. Wastes may also be defined as
hazardous by local regulations or international conventions,
based on the origin of the waste and its inclusion on
hazardous waste lists, or based on its characteristics.
Sludge from a waste treatment plant, water supply treatment
plant, or air pollution control facility, and other discarded
material, including solid, liquid, semisolid, or contained
gaseous material resulting from industrial operations needs
to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to establish whether
it constitutes a hazardous or a non-hazardous waste.
Facilities that generate and store wastes should practice the
following:
Establishing waste management priorities at the outset
of activities based on an understanding of potential
Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) risks and
impacts and considering waste generation and its
consequences
Establishing a waste management hierarchy that
considers prevention, reduction, reuse, recovery,
recycling, removal and finally disposal of wastes.
Avoiding or minimizing the generation waste materials,
as far as practicable
Where waste generation cannot be avoided but has
been minimized, recovering and reusing waste
WASTE MANAGEMENT

APRIL 30, 2007 47

WORLDBANK GROUP
Where waste can not be recovered or reused, treating,
destroying, and disposing of it in an environmentally
sound manner
General Waste Management
The following guidance applies to the management of non-
hazardous and hazardous waste. Additional guidance
specifically applicable to hazardous wastes is presented
below. Waste management should be addressed through a
Waste management system that addresses issues linked to
waste minimization, generation, transport, disposal, and
monitoring.
Waste Management Planning
Facilities that generate waste should characterize their waste
according to composition, source, types of wastes produced,
generation rates, or according to local regulatory
requirements. Effective planning and implementation of
waste management strategies should include:
Review of new waste sources during planning, siting,
and design activities, including during equipment
modifications and process alterations, to identify
expected waste generation, pollution prevention
opportunities, and necessary treatment, storage, and
disposal infrastructure
Collection of data and information about the process
and waste streams in existing facilities, including
characterization of waste streams by type, quantities,
and potential use/disposition
Establishment of priorities based on a risk analysis that
takes into account the potential EHS risks during the
waste cycle and the availability of infrastructure to
manage the waste in an environmentally sound manner
Definition of opportunities for source reduction, as well
as reuse and recycling
Definition of procedures and operational controls for on-
site storage
Definition of options / procedures / operational controls
for treatment and final disposal
Waste Prevention
Processes should be designed and operated to prevent, or
minimize, the quantities of wastes generated and hazards
associated with the wastes generated in accordance with the
following strategy:
Substituting raw materials or inputs with less hazardous
or toxic materials, or with those where processing
generates lower waste volumes
Applying manufacturing process that convert materials
efficiently, providing higher product output yields,
including modification of design of the production
process, operating conditions, and process controls
50

Instituting good housekeeping and operating practices,
including inventory control to reduce the amount of
waste resulting from materials that are out-of-date, off-
specification, contaminated, damaged, or excess to
plant needs
Instituting procurement measures that recognize
opportunities to return usable materials such as
containers and which prevents the over ordering of
materials
Minimizing hazardous waste generation by
implementing stringent waste segregation to prevent the
commingling of non-hazardous and hazardous waste to
be managed

50
Examples of waste prevention strategies include the concept of Lean
Manufacturing found at
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/minimize/lean.htm
WASTE MANAGEMENT

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Recycling and Reuse
In addition to the implementation of waste prevention
strategies, the total amount of waste may be significantly
reduced through the implementation of recycling plans, which
should consider the following elements:
Evaluation of waste production processes and
identification of potentially recyclable materials
Identification and recycling of products that can be
reintroduced into the manufacturing process or industry
activity at the site
Investigation of external markets for recycling by other
industrial processing operations located in the
neighborhood or region of the facility (e.g., waste
exchange)
Establishing recycling objectives and formal tracking of
waste generation and recycling rates
Providing training and incentives to employees in order
to meet objectives
Treatment and Disposal
If waste materials are still generated after the implementation
of feasible waste prevention, reduction, reuse, recovery and
recycling measures, waste materials should be treated and
disposed of and all measures should be taken to avoid
potential impacts to human health and the environment.
Selected management approaches should be consistent with
the characteristics of the waste and local regulations, and
may include one or more of the following:
On-site or off-site biological, chemical, or physical
treatment of the waste material to render it non-
hazardous prior to final disposal
Treatment or disposal at permitted facilities specially
designed to receive the waste. Examples include:
composting operations for organic non-hazardous
wastes; properly designed, permitted and operated
landfills or incinerators designed for the respective type
of waste; or other methods known to be effective in the
safe, final disposal of waste materials such as
bioremediation.
Hazardous Waste Management
Hazardous wastes should always be segregated from non-
hazardous wastes. If generation of hazardous waste can not
be prevented through the implementation of the above
general waste management practices, its management
should focus on the prevention of harm to health, safety, and
the environment, according to the following additional
principles:
Understanding potential impacts and risks associated
with the management of any generated hazardous
waste during its complete life cycle
Ensuring that contractors handling, treating, and
disposing of hazardous waste are reputable and
legitimate enterprises, licensed by the relevant
regulatory agencies and following good international
industry practice for the waste being handled
Ensuring compliance with applicable local and
international regulations
51

Waste Storage
Hazardous waste should be stored so as to prevent or
control accidental releases to air, soil, and water resources in
area location where:

51
International requirements may include host-country commitments
under the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Waste and their disposal (http://www.basel.int/) and Rotterdam
Convention on the prior InformConsent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade(http://www.pic.int/)

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Waste is stored in a manner that prevents the
commingling or contact between incompatible wastes,
and allows for inspection between containers to monitor
leaks or spills. Examples include sufficient space
between incompatibles or physical separation such as
walls or containment curbs
Store in closed containers away from direct sunlight,
wind and rain
Secondary containment systems should be constructed
with materials appropriate for the wastes being
contained and adequate to prevent loss to the
environment
Secondary containment is included wherever liquid
wastes are stored in volumes greater than 220 liters.
The available volume of secondary containment should
be at least 110 percent of the largest storage container,
or 25 percent of the total storage capacity (whichever is
greater), in that specific location
Provide adequate ventilation where volatile wastes are
stored.
Hazardous waste storage activities should also be subject to
special management actions, conducted by employees who
have received specific training in handling and storage of
hazardous wastes:
Provision of readily available information on chemical
compatibility to employees, including labeling each
container to identify its contents
Limiting access to hazardous waste storage areas to
employees who have received proper training
Clearly identifying (label) and demarcating the area,
including documentation of its location on a facility map
or site plan
Conducting periodic inspections of waste storage areas
and documenting the findings
Preparing and implementing spill response and
emergency plans to address their accidental release
(additional information on Emergency Plans in provided
in Section 3 of this document)
Avoiding underground storage tanks and underground
piping of hazardous waste
Transportation
On-site and Off-site transportation of waste should be
conducted so as to prevent or minimize spills, releases, and
exposures to employees and the public. All waste
containers designated for off-site shipment should be
secured and labeled with the contents and associated
hazards, be properly loaded on the transport vehicles before
leaving the site, and be accompanied by a shipping paper
(i.e., manifest) that describes the load and its associated
hazards, consistent with the guidance provided in Section 3.4
on the Transport of Hazardous Materials.
Treatment and Disposal
In addition to the recommendations for treatment and
disposal applicable to general wastes, the following issues
specific to hazardous wastes should be considered:
Commercial or Government Waste Contractors
In the absence of qualified commercial or government-owned
waste vendors (taking into consideration proximity and
transportation requirements), facilities generating waste
should consider using:
Have the technical capability to manage the waste in a
manner that reduces immediate and future impact to the
environment
Have all required permits, certifications, and approvals,
of applicable government authorities
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Have been secured through the use of formal
procurement agreements
In the absence of qualified commercial or government-owned
waste disposal operators (taking into consideration proximity
and transportation requirements), project sponsors should
consider using:
Installing on-site waste treatment or recycling
processes
As a final option, constructing facilities that will provide
for the environmental sound long-term storage of
wastes on-site (as described elsewhere in the General
EHS Guidelines) or at an alternative appropriate
location up until external commercial options become
available
Small Quantities of Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste materials are frequently generated in small
quantities by many projects through a variety of activities
such as equipment and building maintenance activities.
Examples of these types of wastes include: spent solvents
and oily rags, empty paint cans, chemical containers; used
lubricating oil; used batteries (such as nickel-cadmium or
lead acid); and lighting equipment, such as lamps or lamp
ballasts. These wastes should be managed following the
guidance provided in the above sections.
Monitoring
Monitoring activities associated with the management of
hazardous and non-hazardous waste should include:
Regular visual inspection of all waste storage collection
and storage areas for evidence of accidental releases
and to verify that wastes are properly labeled and
stored. When significant quantities of hazardous wastes
are generated and stored on site, monitoring activities
should include:
o Inspection of vessels for leaks, drips or other
indications of loss
o Identification of cracks, corrosion, or damage to
tanks, protective equipment, or floors
o Verification of locks, emergency valves, and other
safety devices for easy operation (lubricating if
required and employing the practice of keeping
locks and safety equipment in standby position
when the area is not occupied)
o Checking the operability of emergency systems
o Documenting results of testing for integrity,
emissions, or monitoring stations (air, soil vapor, or
groundwater)
o Documenting any changes to the storage facility,
and any significant changes in the quantity of
materials in storage
Regular audits of waste segregation and collection
practices
Tracking of waste generation trends by type and amount
of waste generated, preferably by facility departments
Characterizing waste at the beginning of generation of a
new waste stream, and periodically documenting the
characteristics and proper management of the waste,
especially hazardous wastes
Keeping manifests or other records that document the
amount of waste generated and its destination
Periodic auditing of third party treatment, and disposal
services including re-use and recycling facilities when
significant quantities of hazardous wastes are managed
by third parties. Whenever possible, audits should
include site visits to the treatment storage and disposal
location
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Regular monitoring of groundwater quality in cases of
Hazardous Waste on site storage and/or pretreatment
and disposal
Monitoring records for hazardous waste collected,
stored, or shipped should include:
o Name and identification number of the material(s)
composing the hazardous waste
o Physical state (i.e., solid, liquid, gaseous or a
combination of one, or more, of these)
o Quantity (e.g., kilograms or liters, number of
containers)
o Waste shipment tracking documentation to include,
quantity and type, date dispatched, date
transported and date received, record of the
originator, the receiver and the transporter
o Method and date of storing, repacking, treating, or
disposing at the facility, cross-referenced to
specific manifest document numbers applicable to
the hazardous waste
o Location of each hazardous waste within the
facility, and the quantity at each location

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1.7 Noise
Applicability
This section addresses impacts of noise beyond the property
boundary of the facilities. Worker exposure to noise is
covered in Section 2.0 on Occupational Health and Safety.
Prevention and Control
Noise prevention and mitigation measures should be applied
where predicted or measured noise impacts from a project
facility or operations exceed the applicable noise level
guideline at the most sensitive point of reception.
52
The
preferred method for controlling noise from stationary
sources is to implement noise control measures at source.
53

Methods for prevention and control of sources of noise
emissions depend on the source and proximity of receptors.
Noise reduction options that should be considered include:
Selecting equipment with lower sound power levels
Installing silencers for fans
Installing suitable mufflers on engine exhausts and
compressor components
Installing acoustic enclosures for equipment casing
radiating noise
Improving the acoustic performance of constructed
buildings, apply sound insulation
Installing acoustic barriers without gaps and with a
continuous minimum surface density of 10 kg/m
2
in
order to minimize the transmission of sound through the

52
A point of reception or receptor may be defined as any point on the
premises occupied by persons where extraneous noise and/or vibration are
received. Examples of receptor locations may include: permanent or
seasonal residences; hotels / motels; schools and daycares; hospitals and
nursing homes; places of worship; and parks and campgrounds.
53
At the design stage of a project, equipment manufacturers should provide
design or construction specifications in the formof Insertion Loss
Performance for silencers and mufflers, and Transmission Loss
Performance for acoustic enclosures and upgraded building construction.
barrier. Barriers should be located as close to the
source or to the receptor location to be effective
Installing vibration isolation for mechanical equipment
Limiting the hours of operation for specific pieces of
equipment or operations, especially mobile sources
operating through community areas
Re-locating noise sources to less sensitive areas to take
advantage of distance and shielding
Siting permanent facilities away from community areas if
possible
Taking advantage of the natural topography as a noise
buffer during facility design
Reducing project traffic routing through community
areas wherever possible
Planning flight routes, timing and altitude for aircraft
(airplane and helicopter) flying over community areas
Developing a mechanism to record and respond to
complaints
Noise Level Guidelines
Noise impacts should not exceed the levels presented in
Table 1.7.1, or result in a maximum increase in background
levels of 3 dBat the nearest receptor location off-site.

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Highly intrusive noises, such as noise from aircraft flyovers
and passing trains, should not be included when establishing
background noise levels.
Monitoring
Noise monitoring
56
may be carried out for the purposes of
establishing the existing ambient noise levels in the area of
the proposed or existing facility, or for verifying operational
phase noise levels.
Noise monitoring programs should be designed and
conducted by trained specialists. Typical monitoring periods
should be sufficient for statistical analysis and may last 48
hours with the use of noise monitors that should be capable
of logging data continuously over this time period, or hourly,
or more frequently, as appropriate (or else cover differing
time periods within several days, including weekday and
weekend workdays). The type of acoustic indices recorded
depends on the type of noise being monitored, as
established by a noise expert. Monitors should be located
approximately 1.5 m above the ground and no closer than 3

54
Guidelines values are for noise levels measured out of doors. Source:
Guidelines for Community Noise, World Health Organization (WHO), 1999.
55
For acceptable indoor noise levels for residential, institutional, and
educational settings refer to WHO (1999).
56
Noise monitoring should be carried out using a Type 1 or 2 sound level
meter meeting all appropriate IEC standards.
m to any reflecting surface (e.g., wall). In general, the noise
level limit is represented by the background or ambient noise
levels that would be present in the absence of the facility or
noise source(s) under investigation.

Table 1.7.1- Noise Level Guidelines
54

One Hour LAeq (dBA)
Receptor Daytime
07:00 - 22:00
Nighttime
22:00 - 07:00
Residential; institutional;
educational
55

55 45
Industrial; commercial 70 70
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1.8 Contaminated Land

This section provides a summary of management
approaches for land contamination due to anthropogenic
releases of hazardous materials, wastes, or oil, including
naturally occurring substances. Releases of these materials
may be the result of historic or current site activities,
including, but not limited to, accidents during their handling
and storage, or due to their poor management or disposal.
Land is considered contaminated when it contains hazardous
materials or oil concentrations above background or naturally
occurring levels.
Contaminated lands may involve surficial soils or subsurface
soils that, through leaching and transport, may affect
groundwater, surface water, and adjacent sites. Where
subsurface contaminant sources include volatile substances,
soil vapor may also become a transport and exposure
medium, and create potential for contaminant infiltration of
indoor air spaces of buildings.
Contaminated land is a concern because of:
The potential risks to human health and ecology (e.g.
risk of cancer or other human health effects, loss of
ecology);
The liability that it may pose to the polluter/business
owners (e.g., cost of remediation, damage of business
reputation and/or business-community relations) or
affected parties (e.g. workers at the site, nearby property
owners).
Contamination of land should be avoided by preventing or
controlling the release of hazardous materials, hazardous
wastes, or oil to the environment. When contamination of land is
suspected or confirmed during any project phase, the cause of
the uncontrolled release should be identified and corrected to
avoid further releases and associated adverse impacts.
Contaminated lands should be managed to avoid the risk to
human health and ecological receptors. The preferred strategy
for land decontamination is to reduce the level of contamination
at the site while preventing the human exposure to
contamination.
To determine whether risk management actions are warranted,
the following assessment approach should be applied to
establish whether the three risk factors of Contaminants,
Receptors, and Exposure Pathways co-exist, or are likely to
co-exist, at the project site under current or possible future land
use:
Contaminant(s): Presence of hazardous materials, waste,
or oil in any environmental media at potentially hazardous
concentrations
Receptor(s): Actual or likely contact of humans, wildlife,
plants, and other living organisms with the contaminants of
concern
Exposure pathway(s): A combination of the route of
migration of the contaminant from its point of release (e.g.,
leaching into potable groundwater) and exposure routes
Risk Screening..............................................................55
Interim Risk Management ..............................................56
Detailed Risk Assessment..............................................56
Permanent Risk Reduction Measures.............................57
Occupational Health and Safety Considerations..............59

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(e.g., ingestion, transdermal absorption), which would
allow receptor(s) to come into actual contact with
contaminants

FIGURE 1.8.1: Inter-Relationship of Contaminant
Risk Factors
When the three risk factors are considered to be present (in
spite of limited data) under current or foreseeable future
conditions, the following steps should be followed (as
described in the remaining parts of this section):
1) Risk screening;
2) Interim risk management;
3) Detailed quantitative risk assessment; and
4) Permanent risk reduction measures.
Risk Screening
This step is also known as problem formulation for
environmental risk assessment. Where there is potential
evidence of contamination at a site, the following steps are
recommended:
Identification of the location of suspected highest level of
contamination through a combination of visual and
historical operational information;
Sampling and testing of the contaminated media (soils or
water) according to established technical methods
applicable to suspected type of contaminant
57,58
;
Evaluation of the analytical results against the local and
national contaminated sites regulations. In the absence of
such regulations or environmental standards, other sources
of risk-based standards or guidelines should be consulted
to obtain comprehensive criteria for screening soil
concentrations of pollutants.
59

Verification of the potential human and/or ecological
receptors and exposure pathways relevant to the site in
question
The outcome of risk-screening may reveal that there is no
overlap between the three risk-factors as the contaminant levels
identified are below those considered to pose a risk to human
health or the environment. Alternatively, interim or permanent

57
BC MOE. http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/epd/epdpa/contam_sites/guidance
58
Massachusetts Department of Environment.
http://www.mass.gov/dep/cleanup
59
These may include the USEPA Region 3 Risk-Based Concentrations (RBCs).
http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/risk/human/index.htm. These RBCs are
considered acceptable for specific land use and contaminant exposure
scenarios as they have been developed by governments using risk assessment
techniques for use as general targets in the site remediation. Separate PRGs
have been developed or adopted for soil, sediment or groundwater, and often a
distinction is made between land uses (as noted earlier) because of the need for
more stringent guidelines for residential and agricultural versus
commercial/industrial landuse. The RBC Tables contains Reference Doses
(RfDs) and Cancer Slope Factors (CSFs) for about 400 chemicals. These
toxicity factors have been combined with standard exposure scenarios to
calculate RBCs--chemical concentrations corresponding to fixed levels of risk
(i.e., a Hazard Quotient (HQ) of 1, or lifetime cancer risk of 1E-6, whichever
occurs at a lower concentration) in water, air, fish tissue, and soil for individual
chemical substances. The primary use of RBCs is for chemical screening during
baseline risk assessment (see EPA Regional Guidance EPA/903/R-93-001,
Selecting Exposure Routes and Contaminants of Concern by Risk-Based
Screening). Additional useful soil quality guidelines can also be obtained from
Lijzen et al. 2001.
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risk reduction measures may need to be taken with, or
without, more detailed risk assessment activities, as
described below.

Interim Risk Management
Interim risk management actions should be implemented at
any phase of the project life cycle if the presence of land
contamination poses an imminent hazard, i.e., representing
an immediate risk to human health and the environment if
contamination were allowed to continue, even a short period
of time. Examples of situations considered to involve
imminent hazards include, but are not restricted to:
Presence of an explosive atmosphere caused by
contaminated land
Accessible and excessive contamination for which short-
term exposure and potency of contaminants could result
in acute toxicity, irreversible long term effects,
sensitization, or accumulation of persistent
biocumulative and toxic substances
Concentrations of pollutants at concentrations above the
Risk Based Concentrations (RBCs
60
) or drinking water
standards in potable water at the point of abstraction
Appropriate risk reduction should be implemented as soon as
practicable to remove the condition posing the imminent
hazard.
Detailed Risk Assessment
As an alternative to complying with numerical standards or
preliminary remediation goals, and depending on local
regulatory requirements, a detailed site-specific,
environmental risk assessment may be used to develop

60
For example, USEPA Region 3 Risk-Based Concentrations (RBCs).
http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/risk/human/index.htm.
strategies that yield acceptable health risks, while achieving low
level contamination on-site. An assessment of contaminant
risks needs to be considered in the context of current and future
land use, and development scenarios (e.g., residential,
commercial, industrial, and urban parkland or wilderness use).
A detailed quantitative risk assessment builds on risk screening
(problem formulation). It involves first, a detailed site
investigation to identify the scope of contamination.
61
Site
investigation programs should apply quality assurance/quality
control (QA/QC) measures to ensure that data quality is
adequate for the intended data use (e.g., method detection
limits are below levels of concern). The site investigation in turn
should be used to develop a conceptual site model of how and
where contaminants exist, how they are transported, and where
routes of exposure occur to organisms and humans. The risk
factors and conceptual site model provide a framework for
assessing contaminant risks.
Human or ecological risk assessments facilitate risk
management decisions at contaminated sites. Specific risk
assessment objectives include:
Identifying relevant human and ecological receptors
(e.g., children, adults, fish, wildlife)
Determining if contaminants are present at levels that pose
potential human health and/or ecological concerns (e.g.,
levels above applicable regulatory criteria based on health
or environmental risk considerations)
Determining how human or ecological receptors are
exposed to the contaminants (e.g., ingestions of soil,
dermal contact, inhalation of dust)

61
Examples include processes defined by the American Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM) Phase II ESA Process; the British Columbia Ministry of
Environment Canada (BC MOE)
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/epd/epdpa/contam_sites/guidance); and the
Massachusetts Department of Environment http://www.mass.gov/dep/cleanup.
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Identifying the types of adverse effects that might result
from exposure to the contaminants (e.g., effect on target
organ, cancer, impaired growth or reproduction) in the
absence of regulatory standards
Quantifying the magnitude of health risks to human and
ecological receptors based on a quantitative analysis of
contaminant exposure and toxicity (e.g. calculate
lifetime cancer risk or ratios of estimated exposure rates
compared to safe exposure rates)
Determining how current and proposed future land use
influence the predicted risks (e.g. change of land use
from industrial to residential with more sensitive
receptors such as children)
Quantifying the potential environmental and/or human
health risks from off-site contaminant migration (e.g.,
consider if leaching and groundwater transport, or
surface water transport results in exposure at adjacent
lands/receptors)
Determining if the risk is likely to remain stable,
increase, or decrease with time in the absence of any
remediation (e.g., consider if the contaminant is
reasonably degradable and likely to remain in place, or
be transported to other media)
62

Addressing these objectives provides a basis to develop and
implement risk reduction measures (e.g., clean-up, on-site
controls) at the site. If such a need exists, the following
additional objectives become relevant:
Determining where, and in what conceptual manner, risk
reduction measures should be implemented

62
An example of a simplified quantitative risk assessment method is the
ASTME1739-95(2002) Standard Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action
Applied at PetroleumRelease Sites and the ASTME2081-00(2004)e1
Standard Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action (at chemical release sites).
Identifying the preferred technologies (including
engineering controls) needed to implement the conceptual
risk reduction measures
Developing a monitoring plan to ascertain whether risk
reduction measures are effective
Considering the need and appropriateness for institutional
controls (e.g. deed restriction, land use restrictions) as part
of a comprehensive approach
Permanent Risk Reduction Measures
The risk factors and conceptual site model within the
contaminant risk approach described also provide a basis to
manage and mitigate environmental contaminant health risks.
The underlying principle is to reduce, eliminate, or control any or
all of the three risk factors illustrated in Figure 1.8.1. A short list
of examples of risk mitigation strategies is provided below,
although actual strategies should be developed based on site-
specific conditions, and the practicality of prevailing factors and
site constraints. Regardless of the management options
selected, the action plan should include, whenever possible,
contaminant source reduction (i.e., net improvement of the site)
as part of the overall strategy towards managing health risks at
contaminated sites, as this alone provides for improved
environmental quality.
Figure 1.8.2 presents a schematic of the inter-relationship of risk
factors and example strategies to mitigate contaminant health
risk by modifying the conditions of one or more risk factors to
ultimately reduce contaminant exposure to the receptor. The
selected approach should take into consideration the technical
and financial feasibility (e.g. operability of a selected technology
given the local availability of technical expertise and equipment
and its associated costs).
Example risk mitigation strategies for contaminant source and
exposure concentrations include:
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Soil, sediment, and sludge:
o In situ biological treatment (aerobic or anaerobic)
o In situ physical/chemical treatment (e.g., soil vapor
extraction with off-gas treatment, chemical
oxidation)
o In situ thermal treatment (e.g., steam injection, 6-
phase heating)
o Ex situ biological treatment (e.g., excavation and
composting)
o Ex situ physical/chemical treatment (e.g.,
excavation and stabilization)
o Ex situ thermal treatment (e.g., excavation and
thermal desorption or incineration)
o Containment (e.g. landfill)
o Natural attenuation
o Other treatment processes
Groundwater, surface water, and leachate:
o In situ biological treatment (aerobic and/or aerobic)
o In situ physical/chemical treatment (e.g., air
sparging, zero-valent iron permeable reactive
barrier)
o Ex situ biological, physical, and or chemical
treatment (i.e., groundwater extraction and
treatment)
o Containment (e.g., slurry wall or sheet pile barrier)
o Natural attenuation
o Other treatment processes
Soil vapor intrusion:
o Soil vapor extraction to reduce VOC contaminant
source in soil
o Installation of a sub-slab depressurization system
to prevent migration of soil vapor into the building
o Creating a positive pressure condition in buildings
o Installation (during building construction) of an
impermeable barrier below the building and/or an
alternative flow pathway for soil vapor beneath
building foundations (e.g., porous media and
ventilation to shunt vapors away from building)
Example risk mitigation strategies for receptors include:
Limiting or preventing access to contaminant by receptors
(actions targeted at the receptor may include signage with
instructions, fencing, or site security)
Imposing health advisory or prohibiting certain practices
leading to exposure such as fishing, crab trapping, shellfish
collection
Educating receptors (people) to modify behavior in order to
reduce exposure (e.g., improved work practices, and use of
protective clothing and equipment)
Example risk mitigation strategies for exposure pathways
include:
Providing an alternative water supply to replace, for
example, a contaminated groundwater supply well
Capping contaminated soil with at least 1m of clean soil to
prevent human contact, as well as plant root or small
mammal penetration into contaminated soils
Paving over contaminated soil as an interim measure to
negate the pathway of direct contact or dust generation
and inhalation
Using an interception trench and pump, and treat
technologies to prevent contaminated groundwater from
discharging into fish streams
The above-reference containment measures should also be
considered for immediate implementation in situations where
source reduction measures are expected to take time.
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Occupational Health and Safety
Considerations
Investigation and remediation of contaminated lands requires
that workers be mindful of the occupational exposures that
could arise from working in close contact with contaminated
soil or other environmental media (e.g., groundwater,
wastewater, sediments, and soil vapor). Occupational health
and safety precautions should be exercised to minimize
exposure, as described in Section 2 on Occupational Health
and Safety. In addition, workers on contaminated sites
should receive special health and safety training specific to
contaminated site investigation and remediation activities.
63

FIGURE 1.8.2: Inter-Relationship of Risk Factors
and Management Options

63
For example, US Occupational Safety and Health Agency (OSHA)
regulations found at 40 CFR 1910.120.
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STAN
DARDS&p_id=9765
GENERAL EHS GUIDELINES: OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

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2.0 Occupational Health and Safety

2.1 General Facility Design and Operation......................61
Integrity of Workplace Structures..........................61
Severe Weather and Facility Shutdown................61
Workspace and Exit.............................................61
Fire Precautions..................................................62
Lavatories and Showers.......................................62
Potable Water Supply..........................................62
Clean Eating Area...............................................62
Lighting...............................................................62
Safe Access........................................................62
First Aid...............................................................63
Air Supply............................................................63
Work Environment Temperature...........................63
2.2 Communication and Training....................................63
OHS Training......................................................63
Visitor Orientation................................................63
New Task Employee and Contractor Training.......63
Basic OHS Training.............................................64
Area Signage......................................................64
Labeling of Equipment.........................................64
Communicate Hazard Codes...............................64
2.3 Physical Hazards.....................................................64
Rotating and Moving Equipment...........................65
Noise..................................................................65
Vibration..............................................................65
Electrical .............................................................66
Eye Hazards........................................................67
Welding / Hot Work..............................................67
Industrial Vehicle Driving and Site Traffic..............67
Working Environment Temperature......................68
Ergonomics, Repetitive Motion, Manual Handling.68
Working at Heights..............................................68
Illumination..........................................................69
2.4 Chemical Hazards....................................................69
Air Quality...........................................................70
Fire and Explosions.............................................70
Corrosive, oxidizing, and reactive chemicals.........71
Asbestos Containing Materials (ACM)..................71
2.5 Biological Hazards....................................................71
2.6 Radiological Hazards................................................73
2.7 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).......................73
2.8 Special Hazard Environments...................................74
Confined Space...................................................74
Lone and Isolated Workers..................................75
2.9 Monitoring................................................................75
Accidents and Diseases monitoring......................76

Employers and supervisors are obliged to implement all
reasonable precautions to protect the health and safety of
workers. This section provides guidance and examples of
reasonable precautions to implement in managing principal risks
to occupational health and safety. Although the focus is placed on
the operational phase of projects, much of the guidance also
applies to construction and decommissioning activities.
Companies should hire contractors that have the technical
capability to manage the occupational health and safety issues of
their employees, extending the application of the hazard
management activities through formal procurement agreements.
Preventive and protective measures should be introduced
according to the following order of priority:
Eliminating the hazard by removing the activity from the work
process. Examples include substitution with less hazardous
chemicals, using different manufacturing processes, etc;
Controlling the hazard at its source through use of
engineering controls. Examples include local exhaust
ventilation, isolation rooms, machine guarding, acoustic
insulating, etc;
Minimizing the hazard through design of safe work systems
and administrative or institutional control measures.
Examples include job rotation, training safe work procedures,
lock-out and tag-out, workplace monitoring, limiting exposure
or work duration, etc.
Providing appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) in
conjunction with training, use, and maintenance of the PPE.
The application of prevention and control measures to
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safety or job hazard analyses. The results of these analyses
should be prioritized as part of an action plan based on the
likelihood and severity of the consequence of exposure to the
identified hazards. An example of a qualitative risk ranking or
analysis matrix to help identify priorities is described in Table
2.1.1.
2.1 General Facility Design and
Operation
Integrity of Workplace Structures
Permanent and recurrent places of work should be designed and
equipped to protect OHS:
Surfaces, structures and installations should be easy to clean
and maintain, and not allow for accumulation of hazardous
compounds.
Buildings should be structurally safe, provide appropriate
protection against the climate, and have acceptable light and
noise conditions.
Fire resistant, noise-absorbing materials should, to the extent
feasible, be used for cladding on ceilings and walls.
Floors should be level, even, and non-skid.
Heavy oscillating, rotating or alternating equipment should be
located in dedicated buildings or structurally isolated
sections.
Severe Weather and Facility Shutdown
Work place structures should be designed and constructed to
withstand the expected elements for the region and have an
area designated for safe refuge, if appropriate.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) should be developed
for project or process shut-down, including an evacuation
plan. Drills to practice the procedure and plan should also be
undertaken annually.
Workspace and Exit
The space provided for each worker, and in total, should be
adequate for safe execution of all activities, including
transport and interim storage of materials and products.
Passages to emergency exits should be unobstructed at all
times. Exits should be clearly marked to be visible in total
darkness. The number and capacity of emergency exits
should be sufficient for safe and orderly evacuation of the
greatest number of people present at any time, and there
should be a minimum two exits from any work area.
Table 2.1.1. Risk Ranking Table to Classify Worker
Scenarios Based on Likelihood and Consequence
Consequences
Likelihood
Insignificant
1
Minor
2
Moderate
3
Major
4
Catas-
trophic
5
A. Almost
certain
L M E E E
B. Likely
L M H E E
C.
Moderate
L M H E E
D. Unlikely
L L M H E
E. Rare
L L M H H
Legend
E: extreme risk; immediate action required
H: high risk; senior management attention needed
M: moderate risk; management responsibility should be specified
L: low risk; manage by routine procedures

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Facilities also should be designed and built taking into
account the needs of disabled persons.
Fire Precautions
The workplace should be designed to prevent the start of fires
through the implementation of fire codes applicable to industrial
settings. Other essential measures include:
Equipping facilities with fire detectors, alarm systems, and
fire-fighting equipment. The equipment should be maintained
in good working order and be readily accessible. It should be
adequate for the dimensions and use of the premises,
equipment installed, physical and chemical properties of
substances present, and the maximum number of people
present.
Provision of manual firefighting equipment that is easily
accessible and simple to use
Fire and emergency alarm systems that are both audible and
visible
The IFC Life and Fire Safety Guideline should apply to buildings
accessible to the public (See Section 3.3).
Lavatories and Showers
Adequate lavatory facilities (toilets and washing areas)
should be provided for the number of people expected to
work in the facility and allowances made for segregated
facilities, or for indicating whether the toilet facility is In Use
or Vacant. Toilet facilities should also be provided with
adequate supplies of hot and cold running water, soap, and
hand drying devices.
Where workers may be exposed to substances poisonous by
ingestion and skin contamination may occur, facilities for
showering and changing into and out of street and work
clothes should be provided.
Potable Water Supply
Adequate supplies of potable drinking water should be
provided from a fountain with an upward jet or with a sanitary
means of collecting the water for the purposes of drinking
Water supplied to areas of food preparation or for the
purpose of personal hygiene (washing or bathing) should
meet drinking water quality standards
Clean Eating Area
Where there is potential for exposure to substances
poisonous by ingestion, suitable arrangements are to be
made for provision of clean eating areas where workers are
not exposed to the hazardous or noxious substances
Lighting
Workplaces should, to the degree feasible, receive natural
light and be supplemented with sufficient artificial illumination
to promote workers safety and health, and enable safe
equipment operation. Supplemental task lighting may be
required where specific visual acuity requirements should be
met.
Emergency lighting of adequate intensity should be installed
and automatically activated upon failure of the principal
artificial light source to ensure safe shut-down, evacuation,
etc.
Safe Access
Passageways for pedestrians and vehicles within and outside
buildings should be segregated and provide for easy, safe,
and appropriate access
Equipment and installations requiring servicing, inspection,
and/or cleaning should have unobstructed, unrestricted, and
ready access
Hand, knee and foot railings should be installed on stairs,
fixed ladders, platforms, permanent and interim floor
openings, loading bays, ramps, etc.

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Openings should be sealed by gates or removable chains
Covers should, if feasible, be installed to protect against
falling items
Measures to prevent unauthorized access to dangerous
areas should be in place
First Aid
The employer should ensure that qualified first-aid can be
provided at all times. Appropriately equipped first-aid stations
should be easily accessible throughout the place of work
Eye-wash stations and/or emergency showers should be
provided close to all workstations where immediate flushing
with water is the recommended first-aid response
Where the scale of work or the type of activity being carried
out so requires, dedicated and appropriately equipped first-
aid room(s) should be provided. First aid stations and rooms
should be equipped with gloves, gowns, and masks for
protection against direct contact with blood and other body
fluids
Remote sites should have written emergency procedures in
place for dealing with cases of trauma or serious illness up to
the point at which patient care can be transferred to an
appropriate medical facility.
Air Supply
Sufficient fresh air should be supplied for indoor and confined
work spaces. Factors to be considered in ventilation design
include physical activity, substances in use, and process-
related emissions. Air distribution systems should be
designed so as not to expose workers to draughts
Mechanical ventilation systems should be maintained in good
working order. Point-source exhaust systems required for
maintaining a safe ambient environment should have local
indicators of correct functioning.
Re-circulation of contaminated air is not acceptable. Air inlet
filters should be kept clean and free of dust and
microorganisms. Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
(HVAC) and industrial evaporative cooling systems should be
equipped, maintained and operated so as to prevent growth
and spreading of disease agents (e.g. Legionnella
pneumophilia) or breeding of vectors (e.g. mosquitoes and
flies) of public health concern.
Work Environment Temperature
The temperature in work, rest room and other welfare
facilities should, during service hours, be maintained at a
level appropriate for the purpose of the facility.
2.2 Communication and Training
OHS Training
Provisions should be made to provide OHS orientation
training to all new employees to ensure they are apprised of
the basic site rules of work at / on the site and of personal
protection and preventing injury to fellow employees.
Training should consist of basic hazard awareness, site-
specific hazards, safe work practices, and emergency
procedures for fire, evacuation, and natural disaster, as
appropriate. Any site-specific hazard or color coding in use
should be thoroughly reviewed as part of orientation training.
Visitor Orientation
If visitors to the site can gain access to areas where
hazardous conditions or substances may be present, a visitor
orientation and control program should be established to
ensure visitors do not enter hazard areas unescorted.
New Task Employee and Contractor Training
The employer should ensure that workers and contractors,
prior to commencement of new assignments, have received
adequate training and information enabling them to

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understand work hazards and to protect their health from
hazardous ambient factors that may be present.
The training should adequately cover:
o Knowledge of materials, equipment, and tools
o Known hazards in the operations and how they are
controlled
o Potential risks to health
o Precautions to prevent exposure
o Hygiene requirements
o Wearing and use of protective equipment and clothing
o Appropriate response to operation extremes, incidents
and accidents
Basic OHS Training
A basic occupational training program and specialty courses
should be provided, as needed, to ensure that workers are
oriented to the specific hazards of individual work
assignments. Training should generally be provided to
management, supervisors, workers, and occasional visitors
to areas of risks and hazards.
Workers with rescue and first-aid duties should receive
dedicated training so as not to inadvertently aggravate
exposures and health hazards to themselves or their co-
workers. Training would include the risks of becoming
infected with bloodborne pathogens through contact with
bodily fluids and tissue.
Through appropriate contract specifications and monitoring,
the employer should ensure that service providers, as well as
contracted and subcontracted labor, are trained adequately
before assignments begin.
Area Signage
Hazardous areas (electrical rooms, compressor rooms, etc),
installations, materials, safety measures, and emergency
exits, etc. should be marked appropriately.
Signage should be in accordance with international
standards and be well known to, and easily understood by
workers, visitors and the general public as appropriate.
Labeling of Equipment
All vessels that may contain substances that are hazardous
as a result of chemical or toxicological properties, or
temperature or pressure, should be labeled as to the
contents and hazard, or appropriately color coded.
Similarly, piping systems that contain hazardous substances
should be labeled with the direction of flow and contents of
the pipe, or color coded whenever the pipe passing through a
wall or floor is interrupted by a valve or junction device.
Communicate Hazard Codes
Copies of the hazard coding system should be posted
outside the facility at emergency entrance doors and fire
emergency connection systems where they are likely to
come to the attention of emergency services personnel.
Information regarding the types of hazardous materials
stored, handled or used at the facility, including typical
maximum inventories and storage locations, should be
shared proactively with emergency services and security
personnel to expedite emergency response when needed.
Representatives of local emergency and security services
should be invited to participate in periodic (annual)
orientation tours and site inspections to ensure familiarity
with potential hazards present.
2.3 Physical Hazards
Physical hazards represent potential for accident or injury or
illness due to repetitive exposure to mechanical action or work
activity. Single exposure to physical hazards may result in a wide
range of injuries, from minor and medical aid only, to disabling,
catastrophic, and/or fatal. Multiple exposures over prolonged

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periods can result in disabling injuries of comparable significance
and consequence.
Rotating and Moving Equipment
Injury or death can occur from being trapped, entangled, or struck
by machinery parts due to unexpected starting of equipment or
unobvious movement during operations. Recommended
protective measures include:
Designing machines to eliminate trap hazards and ensuring
that extremities are kept out of harms way under normal
operating conditions. Examples of proper design
considerations include two-hand operated machines to
prevent amputations or the availability of emergency stops
dedicated to the machine and placed in strategic locations.
Where a machine or equipment has an exposed moving part
or exposed pinch point that may endanger the safety of any
worker, the machine or equipment should be equipped with,
and protected by, a guard or other device that prevents
access to the moving part or pinch point. Guards should be
designed and installed in conformance with appropriate
machine safety standards.
64

Turning off, disconnecting, isolating, and de-energizing
(Locked Out and Tagged Out) machinery with exposed or
guarded moving parts, or in which energy can be stored (e.g.
compressed air, electrical components) during servicing or
maintenance, in conformance with a standard such as CSA
Z460 Lockout or equivalent ISO or ANSI standard
Designing and installing equipment, where feasible, to enable
routine service, such as lubrication, without removal of the
guarding devices or mechanisms

64
For example: CSA Z432.04 Safe Guarding of Machinery, CSA Z434 Robot
Safety, ISO 11161 Safety of Machinery Integrated Manufacturing Systems or
ISO 14121 Safety of Machinery Principals of Risk Management or equivalent
ANSI standard.
Noise
Noise limits for different working environments are provided in
Table 2.3.1.
No employee should be exposed to a noise level greater than
85 dB(A) for a duration of more than 8 hours per day without
hearing protection. In addition, no unprotected ear should be
exposed to a peak sound pressure level (instantaneous) of
more than 140 dB(C).
The use of hearing protection should be enforced actively
when the equivalent sound level over 8 hours reaches 85
dB(A), the peak sound levels reach 140 dB(C), or the
average maximum sound level reaches 110dB(A). Hearing
protective devices provided should be capable of reducing
sound levels at the ear to at least 85 dB(A).
Although hearing protection is preferred for any period of
noise exposure in excess of 85 dB(A), an equivalent level of
protection can be obtained, but less easily managed, by
limiting the duration of noise exposure. For every 3 dB(A)
increase in sound levels, the allowed exposure period or
duration should be reduced by 50 percent.
65

Prior to the issuance of hearing protective devices as the
final control mechanism, use of acoustic insulating materials,
isolation of the noise source, and other engineering controls
should be investigated and implemented, where feasible
Periodic medical hearing checks should be performed on
workers exposed to high noise levels
Vibration
Exposure to hand-arm vibration from equipment such as hand and
power tools, or whole-body vibrations from surfaces on which the
worker stands or sits, should be controlled through choice of
equipment, installation of vibration dampening pads or devices,
and limiting the duration of exposure. Limits for vibration and

65
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 2006

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action values, (i.e. the level of exposure at which remediation
should be initiated) are provided by the ACGIH
66
. Exposure levels
should be checked on the basis of daily exposure time and data
provided by equipment manufacturers.
Electrical
Exposed or faulty electrical devices, such as circuit breakers,
panels, cables, cords and hand tools, can pose a serious risk to
workers. Overhead wires can be struck by metal devices, such as
poles or ladders, and by vehicles with metal booms. Vehicles or
grounded metal objects brought into close proximity with overhead
wires can result in arcing between the wires and the object,
without actual contact. Recommended actions include:

66
ACGIH, 2005
Marking all energized electrical devices and lines with
warning signs
Locking out (de-charging and leaving open with a controlled
locking device) and tagging-out (warning sign placed on the
lock) devices during service or maintenance
Checking all electrical cords, cables, and hand power tools
for frayed or exposed cords and following manufacturer
recommendations for maximum permitted operating voltage
of the portable hand tools
Double insulating / grounding all electrical equipment used in
environments that are, or may become, wet; using equipment
with ground fault interrupter (GFI) protected circuits
Protecting power cords and extension cords against damage
from traffic by shielding or suspending above traffic areas
Appropriate labeling of service rooms housing high voltage
equipment (electrical hazard) and where entry is controlled
or prohibited (see also Section 3 on Planning, Siting, and
Design);
Establishing No Approach zones around or under high
voltage power lines in conformance with Table 2.3.2
Rubber tired construction or other vehicles that come into
direct contact with, or arcing between, high voltage wires
may need to be taken out of service for periods of 48 hours
and have the tires replaced to prevent catastrophic tire and
wheel assembly failure, potentially causing serious injury or
death;
Conducting detailed identification and marking of all buried
electrical wiring prior to any excavation work
Table 2.3.1. Noise Limits for Various Working
Environments
Location
/activity
Equivalent level
LAeq,8h
Maximum
LAmax,fast
Heavy Industry (no
demand for oral
communication)
85 dB(A) 110 dB(A)
Light industry
(decreasing
demand for oral
communication)
50-65 dB(A) 110 dB(A)
Open offices,
control rooms,
service counters or
similar
45-50 dB(A) -
Individual offices
(no disturbing
noise)
40-45 dB(A) -
Classrooms,
lecture halls
35-40 dB(A) -
Hospitals
30-35 dB(A) 40 dB(A)

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Eye Hazards
Solid particles from a wide variety of industrial operations, and / or
a liquid chemical spray may strike a worker in the eye causing an
eye injury or permanent blindness. Recommended measures
include:
Use of machine guards or splash shields and/or face and eye
protection devices, such as safety glasses with side shields,
goggles, and/or a full face shield. Specific Safe Operating
Procedures (SOPs) may be required for use of sanding and
grinding tools and/or when working around liquid chemicals.
Frequent checks of these types of equipment prior to use to
ensure mechanical integrity is also good practice. Machine
and equipment guarding should conform to standards
published by organizations such as CSA, ANSI and ISO (see
also Section 2.3 on Rotating and Moving Equipment and 2.7
on Personal Protective Equipment).
Moving areas where the discharge of solid fragments, liquid,
or gaseous emissions can reasonably be predicted (e.g.
discharge of sparks from a metal cutting station, pressure
relief valve discharge) away from places expected to be
occupied or transited by workers or visitors. Where machine
or work fragments could present a hazard to transient
workers or passers-by, extra area guarding or proximity
restricting systems should be implemented, or PPE required
for transients and visitors.
Provisions should be made for persons who have to wear
prescription glasses either through the use overglasses or
prescription hardened glasses.
Welding / Hot Work
Welding creates an extremely bright and intense light that may
seriously injur a workers eyesight. In extreme cases, blindness
may result. Additionally, welding may produce noxious fumes to
which prolonged exposure can cause serious chronic diseases.
Recommended measures include:
Provision of proper eye protection such as welder goggles
and/or a full-face eye shield for all personnel involved in, or
assisting, welding operations. Additional methods may
include the use of welding barrier screens around the specific
work station (a solid piece of light metal, canvas, or plywood
designed to block welding light from others). Devices to
extract and remove noxious fumes at the source may also be
required.
Special hot work and fire prevention precautions and
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) should be
implemented if welding or hot cutting is undertaken outside
established welding work stations, including Hot Work
Permits, stand-by fire extinguishers, stand-by fire watch, and
maintaining the fire watch for up to one hour after welding or
hot cutting has terminated. Special procedures are required
for hotwork on tanks or vessels that have contained
flammable materials.
Industrial Vehicle Driving and Site Traffic
Poorly trained or inexperienced industrial vehicle drivers have
increased risk of accident with other vehicles, pedestrians, and
equipment. Industrial vehicles and delivery vehicles, as well as
private vehicles on-site, also represent potential collision
scenarios. Industrial vehicle driving and site traffic safety
practices include:
Table 2.3.2. No Approach Zones for
High Voltage Power Lines
Nominal phase-to-phase voltage rating
Minimum
distance
750 or more volts, but no more than 150,000 volts 3 meters
More than 150,000 volts, but no more than 250,000
volts
4.5 meters
More than 250,000 volts 6 meters

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Training and licensing industrial vehicle operators in the safe
operation of specialized vehicles such as forklifts, including
safe loading/unloading, load limits
Ensuring drivers undergo medical surveillance
Ensuring moving equipment with restricted rear visibility is
outfitted with audible back-up alarms
Establishing rights-of-way, site speed limits, vehicle
inspection requirements, operating rules and procedures
(e.g. prohibiting operation of forklifts with forks in down
position), and control of traffic patterns or direction
Restricting the circulation of delivery and private vehicles to
defined routes and areas, giving preference to one-way
circulation, where appropriate
Working Environment Temperature
Exposure to hot or cold working conditions in indoor or outdoor
environments can result temperature stress-related injury or
death. Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect
against other occupational hazards can accentuate and aggravate
heat-related illnesses. Extreme temperatures in permanent work
environments should be avoided through implementation of
engineering controls and ventilation. Where this is not possible,
such as during short-term outdoor work, temperature-related
stress management procedures should be implemented which
include:
Monitoring weather forecasts for outdoor work to provide
advance warning of extreme weather and scheduling work
accordingly
Adjustment of work and rest periods according to
temperature stress management procedures provided by
ACGIH
67
, depending on the temperature and workloads
Providing temporary shelters to protect against the elements
during working activities or for use as rest areas

67
ACGIH, 2005
Use of protective clothing
Providing easy access to adequate hydration such as
drinking water or electrolyte drinks, and avoiding
consumption of alcoholic beverages
Ergonomics, Repetitive Motion, Manual Handling
Injuries due to ergonomic factors, such as repetitive motion, over-
exertion, and manual handling, take prolonged and repeated
exposures to develop, and typically require periods of weeks to
months for recovery. These OHS problems should be minimized
or eliminated to maintain a productive workplace. Controls may
include:
Facility and workstation design with 5th to 95th percentile
operational and maintenance workers in mind
Use of mechanical assists to eliminate or reduce exertions
required to lift materials, hold tools and work objects, and
requiring multi-person lifts if weights exceed thresholds
Selecting and designing tools that reduce force requirements
and holding times, and improve postures
Providing user adjustable work stations
Incorporating rest and stretch breaks into work processes,
and conducting job rotation
Implementing quality control and maintenance programs that
reduce unnecessary forces and exertions
Taking into consideration additional special conditions such
as left handed persons
Working at Heights
Fall prevention and protection measures should be implemented
whenever a worker is exposed to the hazard of falling more than
two meters; into operating machinery; into water or other liquid;
into hazardous substances; or through an opening in a work
surface. Fall prevention / protection measures may also be
warranted on a case-specific basis when there are risks of falling
from lesser heights. Fall prevention may include:

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Installation of guardrails with mid-rails and toe boards at the
edge of any fall hazard area
Proper use of ladders and scaffolds by trained employees
Use of fall prevention devices, including safety belt and
lanyard travel limiting devices to prevent access to fall hazard
area, or fall protection devices such as full body harnesses
used in conjunction with shock absorbing lanyards or self-
retracting inertial fall arrest devices attached to fixed anchor
point or horizontal life-lines
Appropriate training in use, serviceability, and integrity of the
necessary PPE
Inclusion of rescue and/or recovery plans, and equipment to
respond to workers after an arrested fall
Illumination
Work area light intensity should be adequate for the general
purpose of the location and type of activity, and should be
supplemented with dedicated work station illumination, as needed.
The minimum limits for illumination intensity for a range of
locations/activities appear in Table 2.3.3.
Controls should include:
Use of energy efficient light sources with minimum heat
emission
Undertaking measures to eliminate glare / reflections and
flickering of lights
Taking precautions to minimize and control optical radiation
including direct sunlight. Exposure to high intensity UV and
IR radiation and high intensity visible light should also be
controlled
Controlling laser hazards in accordance with equipment
specifications, certifications, and recognized safety
standards. The lowest feasible class Laser should be applied
to minimize risks.
2.4 Chemical Hazards
Chemical hazards represent potential for illness or injury due to
single acute exposure or chronic repetitive exposure to toxic,
corrosive, sensitizing or oxidative substances. They also
represent a risk of uncontrolled reaction, including the risk of fire
and explosion, if incompatible chemicals are inadvertently mixed.
Chemical hazards can most effectively be prevented through a
hierarchical approach that includes:
Replacement of the hazardous substance with a less
hazardous substitute
Implementation of engineering and administrative control
measures to avoid or minimize the release of hazardous
substances into the work environment keeping the level of
exposure below internationally established or recognized
limits
Keeping the number of employees exposed, or likely to
become exposed, to a minimum
Table 2.3.3. Minimum Limits For Workplace
Illumination Intensity
Location / Activity Light Intensity
Emergency light 10 lux
Outdoor non working areas 20 lux
Simple orientation and temporary visits (machine
storage, garage, warehouse)
50 lux
Workspace with occasional visual tasks only
(corridors, stairways, lobby, elevator, auditorium, etc.)
100 lux
Medium precision work (simple assembly, rough
machine works, welding, packing, etc.)
200 lux
Precision work (reading, moderately difficult
assembly, sorting, checking, medium bench and
machine works, etc.), offices.
500 lux
High precision work (difficult assembly, sewing, color
inspection, fine sorting etc.)
1,000 3,000
lux

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Communicating chemical hazards to workers through
labeling and marking according to national and internationally
recognized requirements and standards, including the
International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSC), Materials Safety
Data Sheets (MSDS), or equivalent. Any means of written
communication should be in an easily understood language
and be readily available to exposed workers and first-aid
personnel
Training workers in the use of the available information (such
as MSDSs), safe work practices, and appropriate use of PPE
Air Quality
Poor air quality due to the release of contaminants into the work
place can result in possible respiratory irritation, discomfort, or
illness to workers. Employers should take appropriate measures
to maintain air quality in the work area. These include:
Maintaining levels of contaminant dusts, vapors and gases in
the work environment at concentrations below those
recommended by the ACGIH
68
as TWA-TLVs (threshold limit
value)concentrations to which most workers can be
exposed repeatedly (8 hours/day, 40 hrs/week, week-after-
week), without sustaining adverse health effects.
Developing and implementing work practices to minimize
release of contaminants into the work environment including:
o Direct piping of liquid and gaseous materials
o Minimized handling of dry powdered materials;
o Enclosed operations
o Local exhaust ventilation at emission / release points
o Vacuum transfer of dry material rather than mechanical
or pneumatic conveyance
o Indoor secure storage, and sealed containers rather
than loose storage

68
ACGIH, 2005
Where ambient air contains several materials that have
similar effects on the same body organs (additive effects),
taking into account combined exposures using calculations
recommended by the ACGIH
69

Where work shifts extend beyond eight (8) hours, calculating
adjusted workplace exposure criteria recommended by the
ACGIH
70

Fire and Explosions
Fires and or explosions resulting from ignition of flammable
materials or gases can lead to loss of property as well as possible
injury or fatalities to project workers. Prevention and control
strategies include:
Storing flammables away from ignition sources and oxidizing
materials. Further, flammables storage area should be:
o Remote from entry and exit points into buildings
o Away from facility ventilation intakes or vents
o Have natural or passive floor and ceiling level ventilation
and explosion venting
o Use spark-proof fixtures
o Be equipped with fire extinguishing devices and self-
closing doors, and constructed of materials made to
withstand flame impingement for a moderate period of
time
Providing bonding and grounding of, and between,
containers and additional mechanical floor level ventilation if
materials are being, or could be, dispensed in the storage
area
Where the flammable material is mainly comprised of dust,
providing electrical grounding, spark detection, and, if
needed, quenching systems

69
ACGIH, 2005.
70
ACGIH, 2005.

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Defining and labeling fire hazards areas to warn of special
rules (e.g. prohibition in use of smoking materials, cellular
phones, or other potential spark generating equipment)
Providing specific worker training in handling of flammable
materials, and in fire prevention or suppression
Corrosive, oxidizing, and reactive chemicals
Corrosive, oxidizing, and reactive chemicals present similar
hazards and require similar control measures as flammable
materials. However, the added hazard of these chemicals is that
inadvertent mixing or intermixing may cause serious adverse
reactions. This can lead to the release of flammable or toxic
materials and gases, and may lead directly to fires and
explosions. These types of substances have the additional hazard
of causing significant personal injury upon direct contact,
regardless of any intermixing issues. The following controls
should be observed in the work environment when handling such
chemicals:
Corrosive, oxidizing and reactive chemicals should be
segregated from flammable materials and from other
chemicals of incompatible class (acids vs. bases, oxidizers
vs. reducers, water sensitive vs. water based, etc.), stored in
ventilated areas and in containers with appropriate
secondary containment to minimize intermixing during spills
Workers who are required to handle corrosive, oxidizing, or
reactive chemicals should be provided with specialized
training and provided with, and wear, appropriate PPE
(gloves, apron, splash suits, face shield or goggles, etc).
Where corrosive, oxidizing, or reactive chemicals are used,
handled, or stored, qualified first-aid should be ensured at all
times. Appropriately equipped first-aid stations should be
easily accessible throughout the place of work, and eye-wash
stations and/or emergency showers should be provided close
to all workstations where the recommended first-aid
response is immediate flushing with water
Asbestos Containing Materials (ACM)
The use of asbestos containing materials (ACM) should be
avoided in new buildings or as a new material in remodeling or
renovation activities. Existing facilities with ACM should develop
an asbestos management plan which clearly identifies the
locations where the ACM is present, its condition (e.g. whether it
is in friable form with the potential to release fibers), procedures
for monitoring its condition, procedures to access the locations
where ACM is present to avoid damage, and training of staff who
can potentially come into contact with the material to avoid
damage and prevent exposure. The plan should be made
available to all persons involved in operations and maintenance
activities. Repair or removal and disposal of existing ACM in
buildings should only be performed by specially trained
personnel
71
following host country requirements, or in their
absence, internationally recognized procedures.
72

2.5 Biological Hazards
Biological agents represent potential for illness or injury due to
single acute exposure or chronic repetitive exposure. Biological
hazards can be prevented most effectively by implementing the
following measures:
If the nature of the activity permits, use of any harmful
biological agents should be avoided and replaced with an
agent that, under normal conditions of use, is not dangerous
or less dangerous to workers. If use of harmful agents can
not be avoided, precautions should be taken to keep the risk
of exposure as low as possible and maintained below
internationally established and recognized exposure limits.

71
Training of specialized personnel and the maintenance and removal methods
applied should be equivalent to those required under applicable regulations in the
United States and Europe (examples of North American training standards are
available at: http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/asbestos/training.html)
72
Examples include the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E
1368 - Standard Practice for Visual Inspection of Asbestos Abatement Projects; E
2356 - Standard Practice for Comprehensive Building Asbestos Surveys; and E
2394 - Standard Practice for Maintenance, Renovation and Repair of Installed
Asbestos Cement Products.

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Work processes, engineering, and administrative controls
should be designed, maintained, and operated to avoid or
minimize release of biological agents into the working
environment. The number of employees exposed or likely to
become exposed should be kept at a minimum.
The employer should review and assess known and
suspected presence of biological agents at the place of work
and implement appropriate safety measures, monitoring,
training, and training verification programs.
Measures to eliminate and control hazards from known and
suspected biological agents at the place of work should be
designed, implemented and maintained in close co-operation
with the local health authorities and according to recognized
international standards.
Biological agents should be classified into four groups
73
:
Group 1: Biological agents unlikely to cause human disease,
and consequently only require controls similar to those
required for hazardous or reactive chemical substances;
Group 2: Biological agents that can cause human disease
and are thereby likely to require additional controls, but are
unlikely to spread to the community;
Group 3: Biological agents that can cause severe human
disease, present a serious hazard to workers, and may
present a risk of spreading to the community, for which there
usually is effective prophylaxis or treatment available and are
thereby likely to require extensive additional controls;
Group 4: Biological agents that can cause severe human
disease, are a serious hazard to workers, and present a high
risk of spreading to the community, for which there is usually
no effective prophylaxis or treatment available and are
thereby likely to require very extensive additional controls.

73
World Health Organization (WHO) Classification of Infective Microorganisms by
Risk Group (2004).
The employer should at all times encourage and enforce the
highest level of hygiene and personal protection, especially for
activities employing biological agents of Groups 3 and 4 above.
Work involving agents in Groups 3 and 4 should be restricted only
to those persons who have received specific verifiable training in
working with and controlling such materials.

Areas used for the handling of Groups 3 and 4 biological agents
should be designed to enable their full segregation and isolation in
emergency circumstances, include independent ventilation
systems, and be subject to SOPs requiring routine disinfection
and sterilization of the work surfaces.

HVAC systems serving areas handling Groups 3 and 4 biological
agents should be equipped with High Efficiency Particulate Air
(HEPA) filtration systems. Equipment should readily enable their
disinfection and sterilization, and maintained and operated so as
to prevent growth and spreading of disease agents, amplification
of the biological agents, or breeding of vectors e.g. mosquitoes
and flies of public health concern.

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2.6 Radiological Hazards
Radiation exposure can lead to potential discomfort, injury or
serious illness to workers. Prevention and control strategies
include:
Places of work involving occupational and/or natural
exposure to ionizing radiation should be established and
operated in accordance with recognized international safety
standards and guidelines.
74
The acceptable effective dose
limits appear Table 2.6.1.
Exposure to non-ionizing radiation (including static magnetic
fields; sub-radio frequency magnetic fields; static electric
fields; radio frequency and microwave radiation; light and
near-infrared radiation; and ultraviolet radiation) should be
controlled to internationally recommended limits
75
.

74
International Basic Safety Standard for protection against Ionizing Radiation and
for the Safety of Radiation Sources and its three interrelated Safety Guides.
IAEA. http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/documents/default.asp?sub=160
75
For example ACGIH (2005) and International Commission for Non-Ionizing
Radiation (ICNIRP).
In the case of both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, the
preferred method for controlling exposure is shielding and
limiting the radiation source. Personal protective equipment
is supplemental only or for emergency use. Personal
protective equipment for near-infrared, visible and ultraviolet
range radiation can include appropriate sun block creams,
with or without appropriate screening clothing.
2.7 Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE)
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) provides additional
protection to workers exposed to workplace hazards in
conjunction with other facility controls and safety systems.
PPE is considered to be a last resort that is above and beyond the
other facility controls and provides the worker with an extra level
of personal protection. Table 2.7.1 presents general examples of
occupational hazards and types of PPE available for different
purposes. Recommended measures for use of PPE in the
workplace include:
Active use of PPE if alternative technologies, work plans or
procedures cannot eliminate, or sufficiently reduce, a hazard
or exposure
Identification and provision of appropriate PPE that offers
adequate protection to the worker, co-workers, and
occasional visitors, without incurring unnecessary
inconvenience to the individual
Proper maintenance of PPE, including cleaning when dirty
and replacement when damaged or worn out. Proper use of
PPE should be part of the recurrent training programs for
employees
Table 2.6.1. Acceptable Effective Dose Limits for
Workplace Radiological Hazards
Exposure
Workers
(min.19 years of
age)
Apprentices
and
students
(16-18 years
of age)
Five consecutive year average
effective dose
20 mSv/year
Single year exposure
effective dose
50 mSv/year 6 mSv/year
Equivalent dose to the lens of
the eye
150 mSv/year 50 mSv/year
Equivalent dose to the
extremities (hands, feet) or the
skin
500 mSv/year
150
mSv/year

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Selection of PPE should be based on the hazard and risk
ranking described earlier in this section, and selected
according to criteria on performance and testing established
by recognized organizations
76
.
2.8 Special Hazard Environments
Special hazard environments are work situations where all of the
previously described hazards may exist under unique or especially
hazardous circumstances. Accordingly, extra precautions or rigor
in application of precautions is required.
Confined Space
A confined space is defined as a wholly or partially enclosed
space not designed or intended for human occupancy and in
which a hazardous atmosphere could develop as a result of the
contents, location or construction of the confined space or due to
work done in or around the confined space. A permit-required
confined space is one that also contains physical or atmospheric
hazards that could trap or engulf the person.
77

Confined spaces can occur in enclosed or open structures or
locations. Serious injury or fatality can result from inadequate
preparation to enter a confined space or in attempting a rescue
from a confined space. Recommended management approaches
include:
Engineering measures should be implemented to eliminate,
to the degree feasible, the existence and adverse character
of confined spaces.
Permit-required confined spaces should be provided with
permanent safety measures for venting, monitoring, and
rescue operations, to the extent possible. The area adjoining
an access to a confined space should provide ample room
for emergency and rescue operations.

76
Examples include the American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
http://www.ansi.org/; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
76

(NIOSH), http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/homepage.html; Canadian Standards
Association
76
(CSA), http://www.csa.ca/Default.asp?language=english; Mine
Safety and Health Administration
76
(MSHA), http://www.msha.gov.

77
US OSHA CFR 1910.146
Table 2.7.1. Summary of Recommended Personal
Protective Equipment
According to Hazard
Objective Workplace Hazards Suggested PPE
Eye and
face
protection
Flying particles, molten
metal, liquid chemicals,
gases or vapors, light
radiation.
Safety Glasses with side-shields,
protective shades, etc.
Head
protection
Falling objects, inadequate
height clearance, and
overhead power cords.
Plastic Helmets with top and side
impact protection.
Hearing
protection
Noise, ultra-sound. Hearing protectors (ear plugs or
ear muffs).
Foot
protection
Falling or rolling objects,
pointed objects. Corrosive
or hot liquids.
Safety shoes and boots for
protection against moving &
falling objects, liquids and
chemicals.
Hand
protection
Hazardous materials, cuts
or lacerations, vibrations,
extreme temperatures.
Gloves made of rubber or
synthetic materials (Neoprene),
leather, steel, insulating
materials, etc.
Dust, fogs, fumes, mists,
gases, smokes, vapors.

Facemasks with appropriate
filters for dust removal and air
purification (chemicals, mists,
vapors and gases). Single or
multi-gas personal monitors, if
available.
Respiratory
protection
Oxygen deficiency Portable or supplied air (fixed
lines).
On-site rescue equipment.
Body/leg
protection
Extreme temperatures,
hazardous materials,
biological agents, cutting
and laceration.
Insulating clothing, body suits,
aprons etc. of appropriate
materials.

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Access hatches should accommodate 90% of the worker
population with adjustments for tools and protective clothing.
The most current ISO and EN standards should be consulted
for design specifications;
Prior to entry into a permit-required confined space:
o Process or feed lines into the space should be
disconnected or drained, and blanked and locked-out.
o Mechanical equipment in the space should be
disconnected, de-energized, locked-out, and braced, as
appropriate.
o The atmosphere within the confined space should be
tested to assure the oxygen content is between 19.5
percent and 23 percent, and that the presence of any
flammable gas or vapor does not exceed 25 percent of
its respective Lower Explosive Limit (LEL).
o If the atmospheric conditions are not met, the confined
space should be ventilated until the target safe
atmosphere is achieved, or entry is only to be
undertaken with appropriate and additional PPE.
Safety precautions should include Self Contained Breathing
Apparatus (SCBA), life lines, and safety watch workers
stationed outside the confined space, with rescue and first
aid equipment readily available.
Before workers are required to enter a permit-required
confined space, adequate and appropriate training in
confined space hazard control, atmospheric testing, use of
the necessary PPE, as well as the serviceability and integrity
of the PPE should be verified. Further, adequate and
appropriate rescue and / or recovery plans and equipment
should be in place before the worker enters the confined
space.
Lone and Isolated Workers
A lone and isolated worker is a worker out of verbal and line of
sight communication with a supervisor, other workers, or other
persons capable of providing aid and assistance, for continuous
periods exceeding one hour. The worker is therefore at increased
risk should an accident or injury occur.
Where workers may be required to perform work under lone
or isolated circumstances, Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs) should be developed and implemented to ensure all
PPE and safety measures are in place before the worker
starts work. SOPs should establish, at a minimum, verbal
contact with the worker at least once every hour, and ensure
the worker has a capability for summoning emergency aid.
If the worker is potentially exposed to highly toxic or corrosive
chemicals, emergency eye-wash and shower facilities should
be equipped with audible and visible alarms to summon aid
whenever the eye-wash or shower is activated by the worker
and without intervention by the worker.
2.9 Monitoring
Occupational health and safety monitoring programs should verify
the effectiveness of prevention and control strategies. The
selected indicators should be representative of the most
significant occupational, health, and safety hazards, and the
implementation of prevention and control strategies. The
occupational health and safety monitoring program should include:
Safety inspection, testing and calibration: This should include
regular inspection and testing of all safety features and
hazard control measures focusing on engineering and
personal protective features, work procedures, places of
work, installations, equipment, and tools used. The
inspection should verify that issued PPE continues to provide
adequate protection and is being worn as required. All
instruments installed or used for monitoring and recording of
working environment parameters should be regularly tested
and calibrated, and the respective records maintained.
Surveillance of the working environment: Employers should
document compliance using an appropriate combination of

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portable and stationary sampling and monitoring instruments.
Monitoring and analyses should be conducted according to
internationally recognized methods and standards.
Monitoring methodology, locations, frequencies, and
parameters should be established individually for each
project following a review of the hazards. Generally,
monitoring should be performed during commissioning of
facilities or equipment and at the end of the defect and
liability period, and otherwise repeated according to the
monitoring plan.
Surveillance of workers health: When extraordinary
protective measures are required (for example, against
biological agents Groups 3 and 4, and/or hazardous
compounds), workers should be provided appropriate and
relevant health surveillance prior to first exposure, and at
regular intervals thereafter. The surveillance should, if
deemed necessary, be continued after termination of the
employment.
Training: Training activities for employees and visitors should
be adequately monitored and documented (curriculum,
duration, and participants). Emergency exercises, including
fire drills, should be documented adequately. Service
providers and contractors should be contractually required to
submit to the employer adequate training documentation
before start of their assignment.
Accidents and Diseases monitoring
The employer should establish procedures and systems for
reporting and recording:
o Occupational accidents and diseases
o Dangerous occurrences and incidents
These systems should enable workers to report immediately
to their immediate supervisor any situation they believe
presents a serious danger to life or health.
The systems and the employer should further enable and
encourage workers to report to management all:
o Occupational injuries and near misses
o Suspected cases of occupational disease
o Dangerous occurrences and incidents
All reported occupational accidents, occupational diseases,
dangerous occurrences, and incidents together with near
misses should be investigated with the assistance of a
person knowledgeable/competent in occupational safety. The
investigation should:
o Establish what happened
o Determine the cause of what happened
o Identify measures necessary to prevent a recurrence
Occupational accidents and diseases should, at a minimum,
be classified according to Table 2.10.1. Distinction is made
between fatal and non-fatal injuries. The two main categories
are divided into three sub-categories according to time of
death or duration of the incapacity to work. The total work
hours during the specified reporting period should be
reported to the appropriate regulatory agency.

78
The day on which an incident occurs is not included in b.2 and b.3.
Table 2.9.1. Occupational Accident Reporting

a. Fatalities
(number)
b. Non-fatal
injuries
(number)
78

c. Total time lost
non-fatal injuries
(days)
a.1 Immediate
b.1 Less than one
day

a.2 Within a month b.2 Up to 3 days c.1 Category b.2
a.3 Within a year
b.3 More than 3
days
c.2 Category b.3
GENERAL EHS GUIDELINES: COMMUNITY HEALTH AND SAFETY

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3.0 Community Health and Safety
3.1 Water Quality and Availability...................................77
Water Quality.........................................................77
Water Availability....................................................77
3.2 Structural Safety of Project Infrastructure..................78
3.3 Life and Fire Safety (L&FS) ......................................79
Specific Requirements for New Buildings................79
L&FS Master Plan Review and Approval.................80
Specific Requirements for Existing Buildings...........81
Other Hazards........................................................81
3.4 Traffic Safety............................................................81
3.5 Transport of Hazardous Materials.............................82
General Hazardous Materials Transport..................82
Major Transportation Hazards.................................83
3.6 Disease Prevention..................................................85
Communicable Diseases........................................85
Vector-Borne Diseases...........................................85
3.7 Emergency Preparedness and Response.................86
Communication Systems........................................86
Emergency Resources...........................................87
Training and Updating............................................87
Business Continuity and Contingency.....................88

This section complements the guidance provided in the preceding
environmental and occupational health and safety sections,
specifically addressing some aspects of project activities taking
place outside of the traditional project boundaries, but nonetheless
related to the project operations, as may be applicable on a
project basis. These issues may arise at any stage of a project life
cycle and can have an impact beyond the life of the project.
3.1 Water Quality and Availability
Groundwater and surface water represent essential sources of
drinking and irrigation water in developing countries, particularly in
rural areas where piped water supply may be limited or
unavailable and where available resources are collected by the
consumer with little or no treatment. Project activities involving
wastewater discharges, water extraction, diversion or
impoundment should prevent adverse impacts to the quality and
availability of groundwater and surface water resources.
Water Quality
Drinking water sources, whether public or private, should at all
times be protected so that they meet or exceed applicable national
acceptability standards or in their absence the current edition of
WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Air emissions,
wastewater effluents, oil and hazardous materials, and wastes
should be managed according to the guidance provided in the
respective sections of the General EHS Guidelines with the
objective of protecting soil and water resources.
Where the project includes the delivery of water to the community
or to users of facility infrastructure (such as hotel hosts and
hospital patients), where water may be used for drinking, cooking,
washing, and bathing, water quality should comply with national
acceptability standards or in their absence the current edition of
with WHO Drinking Water Guidelines. Water quality for more
sensitive well-being-related demands such as water used in health
care facilities or food production may require more stringent,
industry-specific guidelines or standards, as applicable. Any
dependency factors associated with the deliver of water to the
local community should be planned for and managed to ensure
the sustainability of the water supply by involving the community in
its management to minimize the dependency in the long-term.
Water Availability
The potential effect of groundwater or surface water abstraction
for project activities should be properly assessed through a
combination of field testing and modeling techniques, accounting
for seasonal variability and projected changes in demand in the
project area.

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Project activities should not compromise the availability of water
for personal hygiene needs and should take account of potential
future increases in demand. The overall target should be the
availability of 100 liters per person per day although lower levels
may be used to meet basic health requirements.
79
Water volume
requirements for well-being-related demands such as water use in
health care facilities may need to be higher.
3.2 Structural Safety of Project
Infrastructure
Hazards posed to the public while accessing project facilities may
include:
Physical trauma associated with failure of building structures
Burns and smoke inhalation from fires
Injuries suffered as a consequence of falls or contact with
heavy equipment
Respiratory distress from dust, fumes, or noxious odors
Exposure to hazardous materials
Reduction of potential hazards is best accomplished during the
design phase when the structural design, layout and site
modifications can be adapted more easily. The following issues
should be considered and incorporated as appropriate into the
planning, siting, and design phases of a project:
Inclusion of buffer strips or other methods of physical
separation around project sites to protect the public from
major hazards associated with hazardous materials incidents
or process failure, as well as nuisance issues related to
noise, odors, or other emissions
Incorporation of siting and safety engineering criteria to
prevent failures due to natural risks posed by earthquakes,
tsunamis, wind, flooding, landslides and fire. To this end, all

79
World Health Organization (WHO) defines 100 liters/capita/day as the amount
required to meet all consumption and hygiene needs. Additional information on
lower service levels and potential impacts on health are described in Domestic
Water Quantity, Service Level and Health 2003.
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/wsh0302/en/index.html
project structures should be designed in accordance with
engineering and design criteria mandated by site-specific
risks, including but not limited to seismic activity, slope
stability, wind loading, and other dynamic loads
Application of locally regulated or internationally recognized
building codes
80
to ensure structures are designed and
constructed in accordance with sound architectural and
engineering practice, including aspects of fire prevention and
response
Engineers and architects responsible for designing and
constructing facilities, building, plants and other structures
should certify the applicability and appropriateness of the
structural criteria employed.
International codes, such as those compiled by the International
Code Council (ICC)
81
, are intended to regulate the design,
construction, and maintenance of a built environment and contain
detailed guidance on all aspects of building safety, encompassing
methodology, best practices, and documenting compliance.
Depending on the nature of a project, guidance provided in the
ICC or comparable codes should be followed, as appropriate, with
respect to:
Existing structures
Soils and foundations
Site grading
Structural design
Specific requirements based on intended use and occupancy
Accessibility and means of egress
Types of construction
Roof design and construction
Fire-resistant construction
Flood-resistant construction

80
ILO-OSH, 2001. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/
safework/cops/english/download/e000013.pdf
81
ICC, 2006.

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Construction materials
Interior environment
Mechanical, plumbing and electrical systems
Elevators and conveying systems
Fire safety systems
Safeguards during construction
Encroachments into public right-of-way
Although major design changes may not be feasible during the
operation phase of a project, hazard analysis can be undertaken
to identify opportunities to reduce the consequences of a failure or
accident. Illustrative management actions, applicable to
hazardous materials storage and use, include:
Reducing inventories of hazardous materials through
inventory management and process changes to greatly
reduce or eliminate the potential off-site consequences of a
release
Modifying process or storage conditions to reduce the
potential consequences of an accidental off-site release
Improving shut-down and secondary containment to reduce
the amount of material escaping from containment and to
reduce the release duration
Reducing the probability that releases will occur through
improved site operations and control, and through
improvements in maintenance and inspection
Reducing off-site impacts of releases through measures
intended to contain explosions and fires, alert the public,
provide for evacuation of surrounding areas, establish safety
zones around a site, and ensure the provision of emergency
medical services to the public
3.3 Life and Fire Safety (L&FS)
All new buildings accessible to the public should be designed,
constructed, and operated in full compliance with local building
codes, local fire department regulations, local legal/insurance
requirements, and in accordance with an internationally accepted
life and fire safety (L&FS) standard. The Life Safety Code
82
, which
provides extensive documentation on life and fire safety
provisions, is one example of an internationally accepted standard
and may be used to document compliance with the Life and Fire
Safety objectives outlined in these guidelines. With regard to
these objectives:
Project sponsors architects and professional consulting
engineers should demonstrate that affected buildings meet
these life and fire safety objectives.
Life and fire safety systems and equipment should be
designed and installed using appropriate prescriptive
standards and/or performance based design, and sound
engineering practices.
Life and fire safety design criteria for all existing buildings
should incorporate all local building codes and fire
department regulations.
These guidelines apply to buildings that are accessible to the
public. Examples of such buildings include:
Health and education facilities
Hotels, convention centers, and leisure facilities
Retail and commercial facilities
Airports, other public transport terminals, transfer facilities
Specific Requirements for New Buildings
The nature and extent of life and fire safety systems required will
depend on the building type, structure, construction, occupancy,
and exposures. Sponsors should prepare a Life and Fire Safety
Master Plan identifying major fire risks, applicable codes,
standards and regulations, and mitigation measures. The Master

82
US NFPA.
http://www.nfpa.org/catalog/product.asp?category%5Fname=&pid=10106&target%
5Fpid=10106&src%5Fpid=&link%5Ftype=search

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Plan should be prepared by a suitably qualified professional, and
adequately cover, but not be limited to, the issues addressed
briefly in the following points. The suitably qualified professional
selected to prepare the Master Plan is responsible for a detailed
treatment of the following illustrative, and all other required,
issues.
Fire Prevention
Fire prevention addresses the identification of fire risks and
ignition sources, and measures needed to limit fast fire and smoke
development. These issues include:
Fuel load and control of combustibles
Ignition sources
Interior finish flame spread characteristics
Interior finish smoke production characteristics
Human acts, and housekeeping and maintenance
Means of Egress
Means of Egress includes all design measures that facilitate a
safe evacuation by residents and/or occupants in case of fire or
other emergency, such as:
Clear, unimpeded escape routes
Accessibility to the impaired/handicapped
Marking and signing
Emergency lighting
Detection and Alarm Systems
These systems encompass all measures, including
communication and public address systems needed to detect a
fire and alert:
Building staff
Emergency response teams
Occupants
Civil defense
Compartmentation
Compartmentation involves all measures to prevent or slow the
spread of fire and smoke, including:
Separations
Fire walls
Floors
Doors
Dampers
Smoke control systems
Fire Suppression and Control
Fire suppression and control includes all automatic and manual
fire protection installations, such as:
Automatic sprinkler systems
Manual portable extinguishers
Fire hose reels
Emergency Response Plan
An Emergency Response Plan is a set of scenariobased
procedures to assist staff and emergency response teams during
real life emergency and training exercises. This chapter of the Fire
and Life Safety Master Plan should include an assessment of local
fire prevention and suppression capabilities.
Operation and Maintenance
Operation and Maintenance involves preparing schedules for
mandatory regular maintenance and testing of life and fire safety
features to ensure that mechanical, electrical, and civil structures
and systems are at all times in conformance with life and fire
safety design criteria and required operational readiness.
L&FS Master Plan Review and Approval
A suitably qualified professional prepares and submits a Life
and Fire Safety (L&FS) Master Plan, including preliminary
drawings and specifications, and certifies that the design

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meets the requirements of these L&FS guidelines. The
findings and recommendations of the review are then used to
establish the conditions of a Corrective Action Plan and a
time frame for implementing the changes.
The suitably qualified professional conducts a review as part
of the project completion test at the time of life and fire safety
systems testing and commissioning, and certifies that
construction of these systems has been carried out in
accordance with the accepted design. The findings and
recommendations of the review are used as the basis for
establishing project completion or to establish the conditions
of a Pre-Completion Corrective Action Plan and a time frame
for implementing the changes.
Specific Requirements for Existing
Buildings
All life and fire safety guideline requirements for new
buildings apply to existing buildings programmed for
renovation. A suitably qualified professional conducts a
complete life and fire safety review of existing buildings
slated for renovation. The findings and recommendations of
the review are used as the basis to establish the scope of
work of a Corrective Action Plan and a time frame for
implementing the changes.
If it becomes apparent that life and fire safety conditions are
deficient in an existing building that is not part of the project
or that has not been programmed for renovation, a life and
fire safety review of the building may be conducted by a
suitably qualified professional. The findings and
recommendations of the review are used as the basis to
establish the scope of work of a Corrective Action Plan and a
time frame for implementing the changes.
Other Hazards
Facilities, buildings, plants, and structures should be situated
to minimize potential risks from forces of nature (e.g.
earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, windstorms, and fires from
surrounding areas).
All such structures should be designed in accordance with
the criteria mandated by situation-, climatic-, and geology-
specific location risks (e.g. seismic activity, wind loading, and
other dynamic loads).
Structural engineers and architects responsible for facilities,
buildings, plants and structures should certify the applicability
and appropriateness of the design criteria employed.
National or regional building regulations typically contain fire
safety codes and standards
83
or these standards are found in
separate Fire Codes.
84,85
Generally, such codes and
regulations incorporate further compliance requirements with
respect to methodology, practice, testing, and other codes
and standards
86
. Such nationally referenced material
constitutes the acceptable fire life safety code.
3.4 Traffic Safety
Traffic accidents have become one of the most significant causes
of injuries and fatalities among members of the public worldwide.
Traffic safety should be promoted by all project personnel during
displacement to and from the workplace, and during operation of
project equipment on private or public roads. Prevention and
control of traffic related injuries and fatalities should include the
adoption of safety measures that are protective of project workers
and of road users, including those who are most vulnerable to
road traffic accidents
87
. Road safety initiatives proportional to the
scope and nature of project activities should include:

83
For example, Australia, Canada, South Africa, United Kingdom
84
Rglementation Incendie [des ERP]
85
USA NFPA, 2006.
86
Prepared by National Institutes and Authorities such as American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM), British Standards (BS), German Institute of
Standardization (DIN), and French Standards (NF)
87
Additional information on vulnerable users of public roads in developing
countries is provided by Peden et al., 2004.

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Adoption of best transport safety practices across all aspects
of project operations with the goal of preventing traffic
accidents and minimizing injuries suffered by project
personnel and the public. Measures should include:
o Emphasizing safety aspects among drivers
o Improving driving skills and requiring licensing of drivers
o Adopting limits for trip duration and arranging driver
rosters to avoid overtiredness
o Avoiding dangerous routes and times of day to reduce
the risk of accidents
o Use of speed control devices (governors) on trucks, and
remote monitoring of driver actions
Regular maintenance of vehicles and use of manufacturer
approved parts to minimize potentially serious accidents
caused by equipment malfunction or premature failure.
Where the project may contribute to a significant increase in traffic
along existing roads, or where road transport is a significant
component of a project, recommended measures include:
Minimizing pedestrian interaction with construction vehicles
Collaboration with local communities and responsible
authorities to improve signage, visibility and overall safety of
roads, particularly along stretches located near schools or
other locations where children may be present. Collaborating
with local communities on education about traffic and
pedestrian safety (e.g. school education campaigns)
88

Coordination with emergency responders to ensure that
appropriate first aid is provided in the event of accidents
Using locally sourced materials, whenever possible, to
minimize transport distances. Locating associated facilities
such as worker camps close to project sites and arranging
worker bus transport to minimizing external traffic

88
Additional sources of information for implementation of road safety measures is
available at WHO, 1989, Ross et al., 1991, Tsunokawa and Hoban, 1997, and
OECD, 1999
Employing safe traffic control measures, including road signs
and flag persons to warn of dangerous conditions
3.5 Transport of Hazardous Materials
General Hazardous Materials Transport
Projects should have procedures in place that ensure
compliance with local laws and international requirements
applicable to the transport of hazardous materials, including:
o IATA requirements
89
for air transport
o IMDG Code
90
sea transport
o UN Model Regulations
91
of other international standards
as well as local requirements for land transport
o Host-country commitments under the Basel Convention
on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Waste and their disposal and Rotterdam
Convention on the prior Inform Consent Procedure for
Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in
International Trade, if applicable to the project activities
The procedures for transportation of hazardous materials
(Hazmats) should include:
o Proper labeling of containers, including the identify and
quantity of the contents, hazards, and shipper contact
information
o Providing a shipping document (e.g. shipping manifest)
that describes the contents of the load and its
associated hazards in addition to the labeling of the
containers. The shipping document should establish a
chain-of-custody using multiple signed copies to show
that the waste was properly shipped, transported and
received by the recycling or treatment/disposal facility

89
IATA, 2005. www.iata.org
90
IMO. www.imo.org/safety
91
United Nations. Transport of Dangerous Goods - Model Regulations. 14th
Revised Edition. Geneva 2005.
http://www.unece.org/trans/danger/publi/unrec/rev14/14files_e.html

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o Ensuring that the volume, nature, integrity and
protection of packaging and containers used for
transport are appropriate for the type and quantity of
hazardous material and modes of transport involved
o Ensuring adequate transport vehicle specifications
o Training employees involved in the transportation of
hazardous materials regarding proper shipping
procedures and emergency procedures
o Using labeling and placarding (external signs on
transport vehicles), as required
o Providing the necessary means for emergency response
on call 24 hours/day
Major Transportation Hazards
Guidance related to major transportation hazards should be
implemented in addition to measures presented in the preceding
section for preventing or minimizing the consequences of
catastrophic releases of hazardous materials, which may result in
toxic, fire, explosion, or other hazards during transportation.
In addition to these aforementioned procedures, projects which
transport hazardous materials at or above the threshold
quantities
92
should prepare a Hazardous Materials Transportation
Plan containing all of the elements presented below
93
.
Hazard Assessment
The hazard assessment should identify the potential hazard
involved in the transportation of hazardous materials by reviewing:
The hazard characteristics of the substances identified during
the screening stage
The history of accidents, both by the company and its
contractors, involving hazardous materials transportation

92
Threshold quantities for the transport of hazardous materials are found in the UN
Transport of Dangerous Goods Model Regulations cited above.
93
For further information and guidance, please refer to International Finance
Corporation (IFC) Hazardous Materials Transportation Manual. Washington,
D.C. December 2000.
The existing criteria for the safe transportation of hazardous
materials, including environmental management systems
used by the company and its contractors
This review should cover the management actions, preventive
measures and emergency response procedures described below.
The hazard assessment helps to determine what additional
measures may be required to complete the plan.
Management Actions
Management of Change: These procedures should address:
o The technical basis for changes in hazardous materials
offered for transportation, routes and/or procedures
o The potential impact of changes on health and safety
o Modification required to operating procedures
o Authorization requirements
o Employees affected
o Training needs
Compliance Audit: A compliance audit evaluates compliance
with prevention requirements for each transportation route or
for each hazardous material, as appropriate. A compliance
audit covering each element of the prevention measures (see
below) should be conducted at least every three years. The
audit program should include:
o Preparation of a report of the findings
o Determination and documentation of the appropriate
response to each finding
o Documentation that any deficiency has been corrected.
Incident Investigation: Incidents can provide valuable
information about transportation hazards and the steps
needed to prevent accidental releases. The implementation
of incident investigation procedures should ensure that:
o Investigations are initiated promptly
o Summaries of investigations are included in a report
o Report findings and recommendations are addressed

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o Reports are reviewed with staff and contractors
Employee Participation: There should be a written plan of
action regarding the implementation of active employee
participation in the prevention of accidents.
Contractors: The plan should include procedures to ensure
that:
o The contractor is provided with safety performance
procedures and safety and hazard information
o Contractors observe safety practices
o Verify that the contractor acts responsibly
The plan should also include additional procedures to ensure
the contractors will:
o Ensure appropriate training for their employees
o Ensure their employees know process hazards and
applicable emergency actions
o Prepare and submit training records
o Inform employees about the hazards presented by their
work
Training: Good training programs on operating procedures
will provide the employees with the necessary information to
understand how to operate safely and why safe operations
are needed. The training program should include:
o The list of employees to be trained
o Specific training objectives
o Mechanisms to achieve objectives (i.e. hands-on
workshops, videos, etc.)
o Means to determine the effectiveness of the training
program
o Training procedures for new hires and refresher
programs
Preventive Measures
The plan should include procedures to implement preventive
measures specific to each hazardous material offered for
transportation, including:
Classification and segregation of hazardous materials in
warehouses and transport units
Packaging and packaging testing
Marking and labeling of packages containing hazardous
materials
Handling and securing packages containing hazardous
materials in transport units
Marking and placarding of transport units
Documentation (e.g. bills of lading)
Application of special provisions, as appropriate
Emergency Preparedness and Response
It is important to develop procedures and practices for the
handling of hazardous materials that allow for quick and efficient
responses to accidents that may result in injury or environmental
damage. The sponsor should prepare an Emergency
Preparedness and Response Plan that should cover:
Planning Coordination: This should include procedures for:
o Informing the public and emergency response agencies
o Documenting first aid and emergency medical treatment
o Taking emergency response actions
o Reviewing and updating the emergency response plan
to reflect changes and ensuring that the employees are
informed of such changes
Emergency Equipment: The plan should include procedures
for using, inspecting, testing, and maintaining emergency
response equipment.
Training: Employees should be trained in any relevant
procedures

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3.6 Disease Prevention
Communicable Diseases
Communicable diseases pose a significant public health threat
worldwide. Health hazards typically associated with large
development projects are those relating to poor sanitation and
living conditions, sexual transmission and vector-borne infections.
Communicable diseases of most concern during the construction
phase due to labor mobility are sexually-transmitted diseases
(STDs), such as HIV/AIDS. Recognizing that no single measure
is likely to be effective in the long term, successful initiatives
typically involve a combination of behavioral and environmental
modifications.
Recommended interventions at the project level include
94
:
Providing surveillance and active screening and treatment of
workers
Preventing illness among workers in local communities by:
o Undertaking health awareness and education initiatives,
for example, by implementing an information strategy to
reinforce person-to-person counseling addressing
systemic factors that can influence individual behavior
as well as promoting individual protection, and
protecting others from infection, by encouraging condom
use
o Training health workers in disease treatment
o Conducting immunization programs for workers in local
communities to improve health and guard against
infection
o Providing health services
Providing treatment through standard case management in
on-site or community health care facilities. Ensuring ready

94
Additional sources of information on disease prevention include IFC, 2006;
UNDP, 2000, 2003; Walley et al., 2000; Kindhauser, 2003; Heymann, 2004.
access to medical treatment, confidentiality and appropriate
care, particularly with respect to migrant workers
Promoting collaboration with local authorities to enhance
access of workers families and the community to public
health services and promote immunization
Vector-Borne Diseases
Reducing the impact of vector-borne disease on the long-term
health of workers is best accomplished through implementation of
diverse interventions aimed at eliminating the factors that lead to
disease. Project sponsors, in close collaboration with community
health authorities, can implement an integrated control strategy for
mosquito and other arthropod-borne diseases that might involve:
Prevention of larval and adult propagation through sanitary
improvements and elimination of breeding habitats close to
human settlements
Elimination of unusable impounded water
Increase in water velocity in natural and artificial channels
Considering the application of residual insecticide to
dormitory walls
Implementation of integrated vector control programs
Promoting use of repellents, clothing, netting, and other
barriers to prevent insect bites
Use of chemoprophylaxis drugs by non-immune workers and
collaborating with public health officials to help eradicate
disease reservoirs
Monitoring and treatment of circulating and migrating
populations to prevent disease reservoir spread
Collaboration and exchange of in-kind services with other
control programs in the project area to maximize beneficial
effects
Educating project personnel and area residents on risks,
prevention, and available treatment
Monitoring communities during high-risk seasons to detect
and treat cases

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Distributing appropriate education materials
Following safety guidelines for the storage, transport, and
distribution of pesticides to minimize the potential for misuse,
spills, and accidental human exposure
3.7 Emergency Preparedness and
Response
An emergency is an unplanned event when a project operation
loses control, or could lose control, of a situation that may result in
risks to human health, property, or the environment, either within
the facility or in the local community. Emergencies do not
normally include safe work practices for frequent upsets or events
that are covered by occupational health and safety.
All projects should have an Emergency Preparedness and
Response Plan that is commensurate with the risks of the facility
and that includes the following basic elements:
Administration (policy, purpose, distribution, definitions, etc)
Organization of emergency areas (command centers,
medical stations, etc)
Roles and responsibilities
Communication systems
Emergency response procedures
Emergency resources
Training and updating
Checklists (role and action list and equipment checklist)
Business Continuity and Contingency
Additional information is provided for key components of the
emergency plan, as follows below.
Communication Systems
Worker notification and communication
Alarm bells, visual alarms, or other forms of communication
should be used to reliably alert workers to an emergency. Related
measures include:
Testing warning systems at least annually (fire alarms
monthly), and more frequently if required by local regulations,
equipment, or other considerations
Installing a back-up system for communications on-site with
off-site resources, such as fire departments, in the event that
normal communication methods may be inoperable during an
emergency
Community Notification
If a local community may be at risk from a potential emergency
arising at the facility, the company should implement
communication measures to alert the community, such as:
Audible alarms, such as fire bells or sirens
Fan out telephone call lists
Vehicle mounted speakers
Communicating details of the nature of the emergency
Communicating protection options (evacuation, quarantine)
Providing advise on selecting an appropriate protection
option
Media and Agency Relations
Emergency information should be communicated to the media
through:
A trained, local spokesperson able to interact with relevant
stakeholders, and offer guidance to the company for
speaking to the media, government, and other agencies
Written press releases with accurate information, appropriate
level of detail for the emergency, and for which accuracy can
be guaranteed

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Emergency Resources
Finance and Emergency Funds
A mechanism should be provided for funding emergency
activities.
Fire Services
The company should consider the level of local fire fighting
capacity and whether equipment is available for use at the
facility in the event of a major emergency or natural disaster.
If insufficient capacity is available, fire fighting capacity
should be acquired that may include pumps, water supplies,
trucks, and training for personnel.
Medical Services
The company should provide first aid attendants for the
facility as well as medical equipment suitable for the
personnel, type of operation, and the degree of treatment
likely to be required prior to transportation to hospital.
Availability of Resources
Appropriate measures for managing the availability of resources in
case of an emergency include:
Maintaining a list of external equipment, personnel, facilities,
funding, expert knowledge, and materials that may be
required to respond to emergencies. The list should include
personnel with specialized expertise for spill clean-up, flood
control, engineering, water treatment, environmental science,
etc., or any of the functions required to adequately respond
to the identified emergency
Providing personnel who can readily call up resources, as
required
Tracking and managing the costs associated with emergency
resources
Considering the quantity, response time, capability,
limitations, and cost of these resources, for both site-specific
emergencies, and community or regional emergencies
Considering if external resources are unable to provide
sufficient capacity during a regional emergency and whether
additional resources may need to be maintained on-site
Mutual Aid
Mutual aid agreements decrease administrative confusion and
provide a clear basis for response by mutual aid providers.
Where appropriate, mutual aid agreements should be
maintained with other organizations to allow for sharing of
personnel and specialized equipment.
Contact List
The company should develop a list of contact information for
all internal and external resources and personnel. The list
should include the name, description, location, and contact
details (telephone, email) for each of the resources, and be
maintained annually.
Training and Updating
The emergency preparedness facilities and emergency response
plans require maintenance, review, and updating to account for
changes in equipment, personnel, and facilities. Training
programs and practice exercises provide for testing systems to
ensure an adequate level of emergency preparedness. Programs
should:
Identify training needs based on the roles and
responsibilities, capabilities and requirements of personnel
in an emergency
Develop a training plan to address needs, particularly for fire
fighting, spill response, and evacuation

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Conduct annual training, at least, and perhaps more frequent
training when the response includes specialized equipment,
procedures, or hazards, or when otherwise mandated
Provide training exercises to allow personnel the opportunity
to test emergency preparedness, including:
o Desk top exercises with only a few personnel, where the
contact lists are tested and the facilities and
communication assessed
o Response exercises, typically involving drills that allow
for testing of equipment and logistics
o Debrief upon completion of a training exercise to assess
what worked well and what aspects require improvement
o Update the plan, as required, after each exercise. Elements
of the plan subject to significant change (such as contact
lists) should be replaced
o Record training activities and the outcomes of the training
Business Continuity and Contingency
Measures to address business continuity and contingency include:
Identifying replacement supplies or facilities to allow business
continuity following an emergency. For example, alternate
sources of water, electricity, and fuel are commonly sought.
Using redundant or duplicate supply systems as part of
facility operations to increase the likelihood of business
continuity.
Maintaining back-ups of critical information in a secure
location to expedite the return to normal operations following
an emergency.

GENERAL EHS GUIDELINES: CONSTRUCTION AND DECOMMISSIONING

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4.0 Construction and Decommissioning

4.1 Environment.............................................................89
Noise and Vibration................................................89
Soil Erosion............................................................89
Air Quality..............................................................90
Solid Waste............................................................90
Hazardous Materials...............................................91
Wastewater Discharges..........................................91
Contaminated Land................................................91
4.2 Occupational Health and Safety................................92
4.3 Community Health and Safety..................................94
General Site Hazards.............................................94
Disease Prevention................................................94
Traffic Safety..........................................................95

This section provides additional, specific guidance on prevention
and control of community health and safety impacts that may
occur during new project development, at the end of the project
life-cycle, or due to expansion or modification of existing project
facilities. Cross referencing is made to various other sections of
the General EHS Guidelines.
4.1 Environment{ TC "4.1
Environment" \ f C \ l "2" }
Noise and Vibration
During construction and decommissioning activities, noise and
vibration may be caused by the operation of pile drivers, earth
moving and excavation equipment, concrete mixers, cranes and
the transportation of equipment, materials and people. Some
recommended noise reduction and control strategies to consider
in areas close to community areas include:
Planning activities in consultation with local communities so
that activities with the greatest potential to generate noise are
planned during periods of the day that will result in least
disturbance
Using noise control devices, such as temporary noise
barriers and deflectors for impact and blasting activities, and
exhaust muffling devices for combustion engines.
Avoiding or minimizing project transportation through
community areas
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion may be caused by exposure of soil surfaces to rain
and wind during site clearing, earth moving, and excavation
activities. The mobilization and transport of soil particles may, in
turn, result in sedimentation of surface drainage networks, which
may result in impacts to the quality of natural water systems and
ultimately the biological systems that use these waters.
Recommended soil erosion and water system management
approaches include:
Sediment mobilization and transport
Reducing or preventing erosion by:
o Scheduling to avoid heavy rainfall periods (i.e., during
the dry season) to the extent practical
o Contouring and minimizing length and steepness of
slopes
o Mulching to stabilize exposed areas
o Re-vegetating areas promptly
o Designing channels and ditches for post-construction
flows
o Lining steep channel and slopes (e.g. use jute matting)
Reducing or preventing off-site sediment transport through
use of settlement ponds, silt fences, and water treatment,
and modifying or suspending activities during extreme rainfall
and high winds to the extent practical.

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Clean runoff management
Segregating or diverting clean water runoff to prevent it
mixing with water containing a high solids content, to
minimize the volume of water to be treated prior to release
Road design
Limiting access road gradients to reduce runoff-induced
erosion
Providing adequate road drainage based on road width,
surface material, compaction, and maintenance
Disturbance to water bodies
Depending on the potential for adverse impacts, installing
free-spanning structures (e.g., single span bridges) for road
watercourse crossings
Restricting the duration and timing of in-stream activities to
lower low periods, and avoiding periods critical to biological
cycles of valued flora and fauna (e.g., migration, spawning,
etc.)
For in-stream works, using isolation techniques such as
berming or diversion during construction to limit the exposure
of disturbed sediments to moving water
Consider using trenchless technology for pipeline crossings
(e.g., suspended crossings) or installation by directional
drilling
Structural (slope) stability
Providing effective short term measures for slope
stabilization, sediment control and subsidence control until
long term measures for the operational phase can be
implemented
Providing adequate drainage systems to minimize and
control infiltration
Air Quality
Construction and decommissioning activities may generate
emission of fugitive dust caused by a combination of on-site
excavation and movement of earth materials, contact of
construction machinery with bare soil, and exposure of bare soil
and soil piles to wind. A secondary source of emissions may
include exhaust from diesel engines of earth moving equipment,
as well as from open burning of solid waste on-site. Techniques to
consider for the reduction and control of air emissions from
construction and decommissioning sites include:
Minimizing dust from material handling sources, such as
conveyors and bins, by using covers and/or control
equipment (water suppression, bag house, or cyclone)
Minimizing dust from open area sources, including storage
piles, by using control measures such as installing
enclosures and covers, and increasing the moisture content
Dust suppression techniques should be implemented, such
as applying water or non-toxic chemicals to minimize dust
from vehicle movements
Selectively removing potential hazardous air pollutants, such
as asbestos, from existing infrastructure prior to demolition
Managing emissions from mobile sources according to
Section 1.1
Avoiding open burning of solid (refer to solid waste
management guidance in Section 1.6)
Solid Waste
Non-hazardous solid waste generated at construction and
decommissioning sites includes excess fill materials from grading
and excavation activities, scrap wood and metals, and small
concrete spills. Other non-hazardous solid wastes include office,
kitchen, and dormitory wastes when these types of operations are
part of construction project activities. Hazardous solid waste
includes contaminated soils, which could potentially be
encountered on-site due to previous land use activities, or small

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amounts of machinery maintenance materials, such as oily rags,
used oil filters, and used oil, as well as spill cleanup materials from
oil and fuel spills. Techniques for preventing and controlling non-
hazardous and hazardous construction site solid waste include
those already discussed in Section 1.6.
Hazardous Materials
Construction and decommissioning activities may pose the
potential for release of petroleum based products, such as
lubricants, hydraulic fluids, or fuels during their storage, transfer,
or use in equipment. These materials may also be encountered
during decommissioning activities in building components or
industrial process equipment. Techniques for prevention,
minimization, and control of these impacts include:
Providing adequate secondary containment for fuel storage
tanks and for the temporary storage of other fluids such as
lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids,
Using impervious surfaces for refueling areas and other fluid
transfer areas
Training workers on the correct transfer and handling of fuels
and chemicals and the response to spills
Providing portable spill containment and cleanup equipment
on site and training in the equipment deployment
Assessing the contents of hazardous materials and
petroleum-based products in building systems (e.g. PCB
containing electrical equipment, asbestos-containing building
materials) and process equipment and removing them prior
to initiation of decommissioning activities, and managing their
treatment and disposal according to Sections 1.5 and 1.6 on
Hazardous Materials and Hazardous Waste Management,
respectively
Assessing the presence of hazardous substances in or on
building materials (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls, asbestos-
containing flooring or insulation) and decontaminating or
properly managing contaminated building materials
Wastewater Discharges
Construction and decommissioning activities may include the
generation of sanitary wastewater discharges in varying quantities
depending on the number of workers involved. Adequate portable
or permanent sanitation facilities serving all workers should be
provided at all construction sites. Sanitary wastewater in
construction and other sites should be managed as described in
Section 1.3.
Contaminated Land
Land contamination may be encountered in sites under
construction or decommissioning due to known or unknown
historical releases of hazardous materials or oil, or due to the
presence of abandoned infrastructure formerly used to store or
handle these materials, including underground storage tanks.
Actions necessary to manage the risk from contaminated land will
depend on factors such as the level and location of contamination,
the type and risks of the contaminated media, and the intended
land use. However, a basic management strategy should include:
Managing contaminated media with the objective of
protecting the safety and health of occupants of the site, the
surrounding community, and the environment post
construction or post decommissioning
Understanding the historical use of the land with regard to
the potential presence of hazardous materials or oil prior to
initiation of construction or decommissioning activities
Preparing plans and procedures to respond to the discovery
of contaminated media to minimize or reduce the risk to
health, safety, and the environment consistent with the
approach for Contaminated Land in Section 1.6
Preparation of a management plan to manage obsolete,
abandoned, hazardous materials or oil consistent with the
approach to hazardous waste management described in
Section 1.6.

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Successful implementation of any management strategy may
require identification and cooperation with whoever is responsible
and liable for the contamination.
4.2 Occupational Health and Safety{
TC "4.2 Occupational Health and
Safety" \ f C \ l "2" }
Over-exertion
Over-exertion, and ergonomic injuries and illnesses, such as
repetitive motion, over-exertion, and manual handling, are among
the most common causes of injuries in construction and
decommissioning sites. Recommendations for their prevention
and control include:
Training of workers in lifting and materials handling
techniques in construction and decommissioning projects,
including the placement of weight limits above which
mechanical assists or two-person lifts are necessary
Planning work site layout to minimize the need for manual
transfer of heavy loads
Selecting tools and designing work stations that reduce force
requirements and holding times, and which promote
improved postures, including, where applicable, user
adjustable work stations
Implementing administrative controls into work processes,
such as job rotations and rest or stretch breaks
Slips and Falls
Slips and falls on the same elevation associated with poor
housekeeping, such as excessive waste debris, loose construction
materials, liquid spills, and uncontrolled use of electrical cords and
ropes on the ground, are also among the most frequent cause of
lost time accidents at construction and decommissioning sites.
Recommended methods for the prevention of slips and falls from,
or on, the same elevation include:
Implementing good house-keeping practices, such as the
sorting and placing loose construction materials or demolition
debris in established areas away from foot paths
Cleaning up excessive waste debris and liquid spills regularly
Locating electrical cords and ropes in common areas and
marked corridors
Use of slip retardant footwear
Work in Heights
Falls from elevation associated with working with ladders,
scaffolding, and partially built or demolished structures are among
the most common cause of fatal or permanent disabling injury at
construction or decommissioning sites. If fall hazards exist, a fall
protection plan should be in place which includes one or more of
the following aspects, depending on the nature of the fall hazard
95
:
Training and use of temporary fall prevention devices, such
as rails or other barriers able to support a weight of 200
pounds, when working at heights equal or greater than two
meters or at any height if the risk includes falling into
operating machinery, into water or other liquid, into
hazardous substances, or through an opening in a work
surface
Training and use of personal fall arrest systems, such as full
body harnesses and energy absorbing lanyards able to
support 5000 pounds (also described in this section in
Working at Heights above), as well as fall rescue procedures
to deal with workers whose fall has been successfully
arrested. The tie in point of the fall arresting system should
also be able to support 5000 pounds
Use of control zones and safety monitoring systems to warn
workers of their proximity to fall hazard zones, as well as

95
Additional information on identification of fall hazards and design of protection
systems can be found in the United States Occupational Health and Safety
Administrations (US OSHA) web site:
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/fallprotection/index.html

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securing, marking, and labeling covers for openings in floors,
roofs, or walking surfaces
Struck By Objects
Construction and demolition activities may pose significant
hazards related to the potential fall of materials or tools, as well as
ejection of solid particles from abrasive or other types of power
tools which can result in injury to the head, eyes, and extremities.
Techniques for the prevention and control of these hazards
include:
Using a designated and restricted waste drop or discharge
zones, and/or a chute for safe movement of wastes from
upper to lower levels
Conducting sawing, cutting, grinding, sanding, chipping or
chiseling with proper guards and anchoring as applicable
Maintaining clear traffic ways to avoid driving of heavy
equipment over loose scrap
Use of temporary fall protection measures in scaffolds and
out edges of elevated work surfaces, such as hand rails and
toe boards to prevent materials from being dislodged
Evacuating work areas during blasting operations, and using
blast mats or other means of deflection to minimize fly rock or
ejection of demolition debris if work is conducted in proximity
to people or structures
Wearing appropriate PPE, such as safety glasses with side
shields, face shields, hard hats, and safety shoes
Moving Machinery
Vehicle traffic and use of lifting equipment in the movement of
machinery and materials on a construction site may pose
temporary hazards, such as physical contact, spills, dust,
emissions, and noise. Heavy equipment operators have limited
fields of view close to their equipment and may not see
pedestrians close to the vehicle. Center-articulated vehicles create
a significant impact or crush hazard zone on the outboard side of
a turn while moving. Techniques for the prevention and control of
these impacts include:
Planning and segregating the location of vehicle traffic,
machine operation, and walking areas, and controlling
vehicle traffic through the use of one-way traffic routes,
establishment of speed limits, and on-site trained flag-people
wearing high-visibility vests or outer clothing covering to
direct traffic
Ensuring the visibility of personnel through their use of high
visibility vests when working in or walking through heavy
equipment operating areas, and training of workers to verify
eye contact with equipment operators before approaching the
operating vehicle
Ensuring moving equipment is outfitted with audible back-up
alarms
Using inspected and well-maintained lifting devices that are
appropriate for the load, such as cranes, and securing loads
when lifting them to higher job-site elevations.
Dust
Dust suppression techniques should be implemented, such
as applying water or non-toxic chemicals to minimize dust
from vehicle movements
PPE, such as dusk masks, should be used where dust levels
are excessive
Confined Spaces and Excavations
Examples of confined spaces that may be present in construction
or demolition sites include: silos, vats, hoppers, utility vaults,
tanks, sewers, pipes, and access shafts. Ditches and trenches
may also be considered a confined space when access or egress
is limited. In addition to the guidance provided in Section 2.8 the
occupational hazards associated with confined spaces and
excavations in construction and decommissioning sites should be
prevented according to the following recommendations:

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Controlling site-specific factors which may contribute to
excavation slope instability including, for example, the use of
excavation dewatering, side-walls support, and slope
gradient adjustments that eliminate or minimize the risk of
collapse, entrapment, or drowning
Providing safe means of access and egress from
excavations, such as graded slopes, graded access route, or
stairs and ladders
Avoiding the operation of combustion equipment for
prolonged periods inside excavations areas where other
workers are required to enter unless the area is actively
ventilated
Other Site Hazards
Construction and decommissioning sites may pose a risk of
exposure to dust, chemicals, hazardous or flammable materials,
and wastes in a combination of liquid, solid, or gaseous forms,
which should be prevented through the implementation of project-
specific plans and other applicable management practices,
including:
Use of specially trained personnel to identify and remove
waste materials from tanks, vessels, processing equipment
or contaminated land as a first step in decommissioning
activities to allow for safe excavation, construction,
dismantling or demolition
Use of specially trained personnel to identify and selectively
remove potentially hazardous materials in building elements
prior to dismantling or demolition including, for example,
insulation or structural elements containing asbestos and
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), electrical components
containing mercury
96

Use of waste-specific PPE based on the results of an
occupational health and safety assessment, including

96
Additional information on the management and removal of asbestos containing
building materials can be found in ASTMStandard E2356 and E1368
respirators, clothing/protective suits, gloves and eye
protection
4.3 Community Health and Safety{ TC
"4.3 Community Health and Safety" \ f
C \ l "2" }
General Site Hazards
Projects should implement risk management strategies to protect
the community from physical, chemical, or other hazards
associated with sites under construction and decommissioning.
Risks may arise from inadvertent or intentional trespassing,
including potential contact with hazardous materials, contaminated
soils and other environmental media, buildings that are vacant or
under construction, or excavations and structures which may pose
falling and entrapment hazards. Risk management strategies may
include:
Restricting access to the site, through a combination of
institutional and administrative controls, with a focus on high
risk structures or areas depending on site-specific situations,
including fencing, signage, and communication of risks to the
local community
Removing hazardous conditions on construction sites that
cannot be controlled affectively with site access restrictions,
such as covering openings to small confined spaces,
ensuring means of escape for larger openings such as
trenches or excavations, or locked storage of hazardous
materials
Disease Prevention
Increased incidence of communicable and vector-borne diseases
attributable to construction activities represents a potentially
serious health threat to project personnel and residents of local
communities. Recommendations for the prevention and control of
communicable and vector-borne diseases also applicable to

APRIL 30, 2007 95

WORLDBANK GROUP
construction phase activities are provided in Section 3.6 (Disease
Prevention).
Traffic Safety
Construction activities may result in a significant increase in
movement of heavy vehicles for the transport of construction
materials and equipment increasing the risk of traffic-related
accidents and injuries to workers and local communities. The
incidence of road accidents involving project vehicles during
construction should be minimized through a combination of
education and awareness-raising, and the adoption of procedures
described in Section 3.4 (Traffic Safety).
GENERAL EHS GUIDELINES: REFERENCES AND ADDITIONAL SOURCES

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Final - General EHS Guidelines

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Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines

GENERAL EHS GUIDELINES: INTRODUCTION

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