1

00:00:00,000 --> 00:00:42,327

[MUSIC PLAYING]
2
00:00:42,327 --> 00:00:45,850
PROFESSOR: I'm Al Oppenheim, and
I'd like to welcome you to
3
00:00:45,850 --> 00:00:50,260
this videotape course on
signals and systems.
4
00:00:50,260 --> 00:00:54,810
Signals, at least as an informal
definition, are
5
00:00:54,810 --> 00:00:58,820
functions of one or more
independent variables that
6
00:00:58,820 --> 00:01:02,460
typically carry some type
of information.
7
00:01:02,460 --> 00:01:05,950
Systems, in our setting,
would typically be
8
00:01:05,950 --> 00:01:08,860
used to process signals.
9
00:01:08,860 --> 00:01:12,740
One very common example of a
signal might be, let's say, a
10
00:01:12,740 --> 00:01:14,130
speech signal.
11
00:01:14,130 --> 00:01:17,670
And you might think of the air
pressure as a function of
12
00:01:17,670 --> 00:01:20,920
time, or perhaps the electrical
signal after it

13
00:01:20,920 --> 00:01:23,580
goes through the microphone
transducer as a function of
14
00:01:23,580 --> 00:01:27,150
time, as representing
the speech signal.
15
00:01:27,150 --> 00:01:31,120
And we might see a typical
speech signal looking
16
00:01:31,120 --> 00:01:33,990
something like I've
indicated here.
17
00:01:33,990 --> 00:01:38,310
It's a function of time, in
this particular case.
18
00:01:38,310 --> 00:01:42,970
And the independent variable,
being time, is, in fact,
19
00:01:42,970 --> 00:01:44,290
continuous.
20
00:01:44,290 --> 00:01:47,780
And so a signal like this, we
will typically be referring to
21
00:01:47,780 --> 00:01:51,570
as a continuous time signal.
22
00:01:51,570 --> 00:01:55,180
Now, it also, for this
particular example, is a
23
00:01:55,180 --> 00:01:58,470
function of one independent
variable.
24
00:01:58,470 --> 00:02:06,660
And that will be referred to
as a one-dimensional signal

25
00:02:06,660 --> 00:02:10,470
corresponding to the fact that
there's only one independent
26
00:02:10,470 --> 00:02:13,890
variable instead of several
independent variables.
27
00:02:13,890 --> 00:02:18,696
So the speech signal is an
example of a continuous time,
28
00:02:18,696 --> 00:02:19,946
one-dimensional signal.
29
00:02:19,946 --> 00:02:21,520
30
00:02:21,520 --> 00:02:25,990
Now, signals can, of course,
be multi-dimensional.
31
00:02:25,990 --> 00:02:28,740
And they may not have, as their
independent variables,
32
00:02:28,740 --> 00:02:30,130
time variables.
33
00:02:30,130 --> 00:02:34,000
One very common example
are the examples
34
00:02:34,000 --> 00:02:36,080
represented by images.
35
00:02:36,080 --> 00:02:41,340
Images, as signals, we might
think of as representing
36
00:02:41,340 --> 00:02:46,020
brightness, as it varies
in a horizontal
37

00:02:46,020 --> 00:02:48,500

and vertical direction.
38
00:02:48,500 --> 00:02:51,720
And so the brightness as a
function of these two spatial
39
00:02:51,720 --> 00:02:55,990
variables is then a
two-dimensional signal.
40
00:02:55,990 --> 00:03:00,270
41
00:03:00,270 --> 00:03:07,460
And the independent variables
would typically be continuous,
42
00:03:07,460 --> 00:03:09,730
but of course they're
not time variables.
43
00:03:09,730 --> 00:03:14,690
And incidentally, it's worth
just commenting that very
44
00:03:14,690 --> 00:03:18,950
often, simply for convenience,
we'll have a tendency to refer
45
00:03:18,950 --> 00:03:22,230
to the independent variables
when we talk about signals as
46
00:03:22,230 --> 00:03:27,170
time variables, whether or not
they really do represent time.
47
00:03:27,170 --> 00:03:31,690
Well, let me illustrate one
example of an image.
48
00:03:31,690 --> 00:03:37,790
And this is a picture of J. B.
J. Fourier, who, perhaps, more
49

00:03:37,790 --> 00:03:42,240

than anyone else, is responsible
for the elegance
50
00:03:42,240 --> 00:03:45,260
and beauty of a lot of the
concepts that we'll be talking
51
00:03:45,260 --> 00:03:47,780
about throughout this course.
52
00:03:47,780 --> 00:03:51,470
And when you look at this, in
addition to seeing Fourier
53
00:03:51,470 --> 00:03:54,720
himself, you should recognize
that what you're looking at is
54
00:03:54,720 --> 00:03:58,530
basically a signal which is
brightness as a function of
55
00:03:58,530 --> 00:04:03,400
the horizontal and vertical
spatial variables.
56
00:04:03,400 --> 00:04:08,960
As another example of an image
as a signal, let's look at an
57
00:04:08,960 --> 00:04:10,610
aerial photograph.
58
00:04:10,610 --> 00:04:16,040
This is an aerial photograph
taken over a set of roads,
59
00:04:16,040 --> 00:04:19,019
which you can more or less
recognize in the picture.
60
00:04:19,019 --> 00:04:23,600
And one of the difficulties with
this signal is that the

61
00:04:23,600 --> 00:04:27,430
road system is somewhat obscured
by cloud cover.
62
00:04:27,430 --> 00:04:31,990
And what I'll want to show later
as an example of what a
63
00:04:31,990 --> 00:04:35,340
system might do to such a
signal, in terms of processing
64
00:04:35,340 --> 00:04:41,540
it, is an attempt to at least
compensate somewhat for the
65
00:04:41,540 --> 00:04:44,900
cloud cover that's represented
in the photograph.
66
00:04:44,900 --> 00:04:48,140
Although in terms of the
detailed analysis that we go
67
00:04:48,140 --> 00:04:52,550
through during the course, our
focus of attention is pretty
68
00:04:52,550 --> 00:04:54,810
much restricted to
one-dimensional signals.
69
00:04:54,810 --> 00:04:58,940
In fact, we will be using
two-dimensional signals, more
70
00:04:58,940 --> 00:05:03,390
specifically images, very often
to illustrate a variety
71
00:05:03,390 --> 00:05:06,090
of concepts.
72
00:05:06,090 --> 00:05:10,400
Now, speech and images are

examples of what we've

73
00:05:10,400 --> 00:05:15,250
referred to as continuous-time
signals in that they are
74
00:05:15,250 --> 00:05:18,990
functions of continuous
variables.
75
00:05:18,990 --> 00:05:22,380
An equally important class of
signals that we will be
76
00:05:22,380 --> 00:05:27,170
concentrating on in the course
are signals that are
77
00:05:27,170 --> 00:05:33,750
discrete-time signals, where by
discrete-time, what we mean
78
00:05:33,750 --> 00:05:38,770
is that the signal is a
function of an integer
79
00:05:38,770 --> 00:05:44,570
variable, and so specifically
only takes on values at
80
00:05:44,570 --> 00:05:48,150
integer values of
the argument.
81
00:05:48,150 --> 00:05:52,820
So here is a graphical
illustration of a
82
00:05:52,820 --> 00:05:54,540
discrete-time signal.
83
00:05:54,540 --> 00:05:58,290
And discrete-time signals arise
in a variety of ways.
84

00:05:58,290 --> 00:06:04,040

One very common example that
is seen fairly often is
85
00:06:04,040 --> 00:06:08,440
discrete-time signals in the
context of economic time
86
00:06:08,440 --> 00:06:13,250
series, for example, stock
market analysis.
87
00:06:13,250 --> 00:06:17,810
So what I show here is one
very commonly occurring
88
00:06:17,810 --> 00:06:21,220
example of a discrete-time
signal.
89
00:06:21,220 --> 00:06:25,330
It represents the weekly
stock market index.
90
00:06:25,330 --> 00:06:30,390
The independent variable in this
case is the week number.
91
00:06:30,390 --> 00:06:34,780
And we see what the stock market
is doing over this
92
00:06:34,780 --> 00:06:37,830
particular period as
a function of the
93
00:06:37,830 --> 00:06:38,830
number of the week.
94
00:06:38,830 --> 00:06:41,550
And, of course, along
the vertical axis
95
00:06:41,550 --> 00:06:44,800
is the weekly index.

96
00:06:44,800 --> 00:06:47,660
Incidentally, this particular
period was
97
00:06:47,660 --> 00:06:49,925
not chosen at random.
98
00:06:49,925 --> 00:06:54,260
It In fact captures a very
interesting aspect of stock
99
00:06:54,260 --> 00:07:00,640
market history, namely the stock
market crash in 1929,
100
00:07:00,640 --> 00:07:05,180
which, in fact, is represented
by the behavior of this
101
00:07:05,180 --> 00:07:08,720
discrete-time signal,
or sequence, in
102
00:07:08,720 --> 00:07:09,810
this particular area.
103
00:07:09,810 --> 00:07:12,960
So this dramatic dip, in
fact, is the stock
104
00:07:12,960 --> 00:07:16,610
market crash of 1929.
105
00:07:16,610 --> 00:07:21,340
Well, the Dow Jones weekly
average is an example of a
106
00:07:21,340 --> 00:07:24,520
one-dimensional discrete-time
signal.
107
00:07:24,520 --> 00:07:29,150
And just as with continuous
time, we had not just

108
00:07:29,150 --> 00:07:31,810
one-dimensional but
multi-dimensional signals,
109
00:07:31,810 --> 00:07:35,950
likewise we have
multi-dimensional signals in
110
00:07:35,950 --> 00:07:41,870
the discrete-time case where,
in that case, then, the
111
00:07:41,870 --> 00:07:43,900
discrete-time signal that
we're talking about, or
112
00:07:43,900 --> 00:07:48,160
sequence, is a function of
two integer variables.
113
00:07:48,160 --> 00:07:52,230
And as one example, this might,
let's say, represent a
114
00:07:52,230 --> 00:07:58,330
spatial antenna array where this
is array number in, let's
115
00:07:58,330 --> 00:08:01,730
say, the horizontal direction,
and this is array number in
116
00:08:01,730 --> 00:08:03,550
the vertical direction.
117
00:08:03,550 --> 00:08:06,070
Both classes of signals,
continuous-time and
118
00:08:06,070 --> 00:08:10,100
discrete-time, as I've
indicated, are very important.
119
00:08:10,100 --> 00:08:14,300
And it should be emphasized

that the importance of

120
00:08:14,300 --> 00:08:17,680
discrete-time signals and
associated processing
121
00:08:17,680 --> 00:08:22,490
continues to grow in large part
because of the current
122
00:08:22,490 --> 00:08:27,400
and emerging technologies that
permit, basically, the
123
00:08:27,400 --> 00:08:32,900
processing of continuous-time
signals by first converting
124
00:08:32,900 --> 00:08:36,309
them to discrete-time signals
and processing them with
125
00:08:36,309 --> 00:08:37,990
discrete-time systems.
126
00:08:37,990 --> 00:08:42,429
And that, in fact, is a topic
that we will discuss in a fair
127
00:08:42,429 --> 00:08:44,710
amount of detail later
on in the course.
128
00:08:44,710 --> 00:08:47,550
129
00:08:47,550 --> 00:08:51,620
Let's now our attention
to systems.
130
00:08:51,620 --> 00:08:58,190
And as I indicated, a system
basically processes signals.
131
00:08:58,190 --> 00:09:02,830
And they have, of course,

inputs and outputs.

132
00:09:02,830 --> 00:09:06,670
And depending on whether we're
talking about continuous time
133
00:09:06,670 --> 00:09:11,340
or discrete time, the system
may be a continuous-time
134
00:09:11,340 --> 00:09:14,130
system or a discrete-time
system.
135
00:09:14,130 --> 00:09:18,030
So in the continuous-time case,
I indicate here an input
136
00:09:18,030 --> 00:09:23,050
x(t) and an output y(t) If
we were talking about a
137
00:09:23,050 --> 00:09:27,790
discrete-time system, I would
represent the input in terms
138
00:09:27,790 --> 00:09:32,170
of a discrete-time variable,
and, of course, the output in
139
00:09:32,170 --> 00:09:36,050
terms of a discrete-time
variable also.
140
00:09:36,050 --> 00:09:40,700
Now, in very general terms,
systems are hard to deal with
141
00:09:40,700 --> 00:09:45,530
because they are defined very
broadly and very generally.
142
00:09:45,530 --> 00:09:49,770
And in dealing with systems and
analyzing them, what we

143
00:09:49,770 --> 00:09:55,060
will do is attempt to exploit
some very specific, and as
144
00:09:55,060 --> 00:09:59,410
we'll see, very useful
system properties.
145
00:09:59,410 --> 00:10:04,160
To indicate what I mean and how
things might be split up,
146
00:10:04,160 --> 00:10:07,660
we could talk about systems, and
will talk about systems,
147
00:10:07,660 --> 00:10:10,300
that are linear.
148
00:10:10,300 --> 00:10:14,090
And we could divide systems,
basically, into systems that
149
00:10:14,090 --> 00:10:20,510
are either linear or nonlinear,
and we will, and
150
00:10:20,510 --> 00:10:24,590
also divide systems into systems
that are what we'll
151
00:10:24,590 --> 00:10:29,420
refer to as time-invariant
or time-varying systems.
152
00:10:29,420 --> 00:10:33,320
And these aren't terms that
we've defined yet, of course,
153
00:10:33,320 --> 00:10:37,160
but we will be defining in
the course very shortly.
154
00:10:37,160 --> 00:10:40,640
And while, in some sense, this

division represents all

155
00:10:40,640 --> 00:10:45,260
systems, and this does, too,
the focus of the course is
156
00:10:45,260 --> 00:10:49,040
really going to be principally
on linear,
157
00:10:49,040 --> 00:10:50,860
time-invariant systems.
158
00:10:50,860 --> 00:10:55,560
So it's basically these systems
that we will be
159
00:10:55,560 --> 00:10:57,120
focusing on.
160
00:10:57,120 --> 00:11:00,692
And we'll be referring to
those systems as linear,
161
00:11:00,692 --> 00:11:04,880
time-invariant systems.
162
00:11:04,880 --> 00:11:08,100
Well, as a brief glimpse at some
of the kinds of things
163
00:11:08,100 --> 00:11:14,140
that systems can do, let me
illustrate, first in a
164
00:11:14,140 --> 00:11:17,570
one-dimensional continuous-time
context, and
165
00:11:17,570 --> 00:11:21,840
then later with a discrete-time
example, one
166
00:11:21,840 --> 00:11:27,020
example of some processing

of signals with
167
00:11:27,020 --> 00:11:28,540
an appropriate system.
168
00:11:28,540 --> 00:11:32,630
The particular example that I
want to illustrate relates to
169
00:11:32,630 --> 00:11:35,740
the restoration of
old recordings.
170
00:11:35,740 --> 00:11:38,960
And this is some work that was
done by Professor Thomas
171
00:11:38,960 --> 00:11:43,190
Stockham, who is at the
University of Utah, and work
172
00:11:43,190 --> 00:11:46,800
that he had done a number of
years ago relating to the fact
173
00:11:46,800 --> 00:11:53,380
that in old recordings, for
example in Caruso recordings,
174
00:11:53,380 --> 00:11:57,380
the recording was done through
a mechanical horn, and the
175
00:11:57,380 --> 00:11:59,990
characteristics of the
horn tended to
176
00:11:59,990 --> 00:12:01,860
vary from day to day.
177
00:12:01,860 --> 00:12:04,900
And because of the
characteristics of the horn,
178
00:12:04,900 --> 00:12:08,190

the recording tended to have a

muffled quality, something
179
00:12:08,190 --> 00:12:12,360
like this, sort of the sense
that you would get if you were
180
00:12:12,360 --> 00:12:15,120
speaking through a megaphone.
181
00:12:15,120 --> 00:12:20,360
What Professor Stockham did
was develop a system to
182
00:12:20,360 --> 00:12:25,260
process these old recordings
in such a way that a lot of
183
00:12:25,260 --> 00:12:28,650
the characteristics and
distortion due to that
184
00:12:28,650 --> 00:12:30,710
recording system was removed.
185
00:12:30,710 --> 00:12:34,870
So I'd like to illustrate that
as one example of some signal
186
00:12:34,870 --> 00:12:38,790
processing with an appropriate
continuous-time system.
187
00:12:38,790 --> 00:12:43,400
And what you'll hear is
a two-track recording.
188
00:12:43,400 --> 00:12:47,830
On the first track is the
original, unrestored Caruso
189
00:12:47,830 --> 00:12:52,130
recording, and on the second
track is the result of the
190

00:12:52,130 --> 00:12:53,280

restoration.
191
00:12:53,280 --> 00:12:56,910
And so as I switch back and
forth from channel one to
192
00:12:56,910 --> 00:13:00,890
channel two, we'll be switching
from the original to
193
00:13:00,890 --> 00:13:02,280
the restored.
194
00:13:02,280 --> 00:13:06,330
We'll begin the tape by
playing the original.
195
00:13:06,330 --> 00:13:10,170
And then, as it proceeds,
we'll switch.
196
00:13:10,170 --> 00:13:12,350
So we'll begin on channel one.
197
00:13:12,350 --> 00:13:15,647
198
00:13:15,647 --> 00:13:19,090
199
00:13:19,090 --> 00:13:19,300
[MUSIC PLAYING, MUFFLED]
200
00:13:19,300 --> 00:13:21,640
That's the original recording.
201
00:13:21,640 --> 00:13:22,600
And switch now to
the processed.
202
00:13:22,600 --> 00:13:31,970
[MUSIC PLAYING, CLEARER]
203
00:13:31,970 --> 00:13:37,850
Now let's switch back,

back to the original.

204
00:13:37,850 --> 00:13:46,770
205
00:13:46,770 --> 00:13:48,020
Back to the restoration.
206
00:13:48,020 --> 00:13:54,670
207
00:13:54,670 --> 00:13:58,030
And once again, back
to the original.
208
00:13:58,030 --> 00:14:04,880
209
00:14:04,880 --> 00:14:09,500
And presumably and hopefully,
what you heard was that in the
210
00:14:09,500 --> 00:14:13,830
restoration, in fact, a lot of
the muffled characteristics of
211
00:14:13,830 --> 00:14:19,470
the original recording were
compensated for or removed.
212
00:14:19,470 --> 00:14:22,480
Now one of the interesting
things that happened, in fact,
213
00:14:22,480 --> 00:14:26,620
in the work that Professor
Stockham did is that in the
214
00:14:26,620 --> 00:14:28,060
process of the restoration-215
00:14:28,060 --> 00:14:30,160
and perhaps you heard this-216
00:14:30,160 --> 00:14:33,020
in the process of the
restoration, in fact, some of

217
00:14:33,020 --> 00:14:37,580
the background noise on the
recording was emphasized.
218
00:14:37,580 --> 00:14:43,310
And so he processed the signal
further in an attempt to
219
00:14:43,310 --> 00:14:45,350
remove that background noise.
220
00:14:45,350 --> 00:14:48,250
And with that particular
processing, the processing was
221
00:14:48,250 --> 00:14:51,060
very highly nonlinear.
222
00:14:51,060 --> 00:14:54,980
A very interesting thing
happened, which was that not
223
00:14:54,980 --> 00:14:59,060
only in that processing was the
background noise removed,
224
00:14:59,060 --> 00:15:02,180
but somewhat surprisingly,
also the
225
00:15:02,180 --> 00:15:03,630
orchestra was removed.
226
00:15:03,630 --> 00:15:08,240
And let me just play that now
as an example of some very
227
00:15:08,240 --> 00:15:11,930
sophisticated processing with
a nonlinear system.
228
00:15:11,930 --> 00:15:17,515
What you'll hear on channel one
is the restoration as we

229
00:15:17,515 --> 00:15:19,320
had just played it.
230
00:15:19,320 --> 00:15:23,610
When I switch to channel two,
it will be after the
231
00:15:23,610 --> 00:15:27,986
processing with an attempt to
remove the orchestra and the
232
00:15:27,986 --> 00:15:30,060
background noise.
233
00:15:30,060 --> 00:15:31,310
Channel one now.
234
00:15:31,310 --> 00:15:38,696
235
00:15:38,696 --> 00:15:41,691
And now the noise and
orchestra removed.
236
00:15:41,691 --> 00:15:44,390
237
00:15:44,390 --> 00:15:46,293
Back to channel one.
238
00:15:46,293 --> 00:15:58,460
239
00:15:58,460 --> 00:16:02,085
And finally, once again, with
the orchestra removed.
240
00:16:02,085 --> 00:16:12,220
241
00:16:12,220 --> 00:16:15,950
So that's an example
of processing of a
242
00:16:15,950 --> 00:16:19,280
continuous-time signal

with a corresponding
243
00:16:19,280 --> 00:16:21,160
continuous-time system.
244
00:16:21,160 --> 00:16:25,800
Now I'd like to illustrate an
example of some processing on
245
00:16:25,800 --> 00:16:27,600
a discrete-time signal.
246
00:16:27,600 --> 00:16:30,730
And I'd like to do that in the
context of the example that I
247
00:16:30,730 --> 00:16:33,260
showed before of a discrete-time
signal, which
248
00:16:33,260 --> 00:16:38,660
was the Dow Jones Industrial
weekly stock market index.
249
00:16:38,660 --> 00:16:44,880
I had shown it before, as I've
shown it here again, over a
250
00:16:44,880 --> 00:16:49,550
period of slightly more than a
year, where this is the number
251
00:16:49,550 --> 00:16:53,630
of weeks and this is
the weekly index.
252
00:16:53,630 --> 00:16:58,640
And to illustrate some of the
processing, what I'd like to
253
00:16:58,640 --> 00:17:03,020
do is show the stock market
index, the weekly index, over
254
00:17:03,020 --> 00:17:07,750

a much longer time period, in

particular, the weekly index
255
00:17:07,750 --> 00:17:10,119
over a 10 year period.
256
00:17:10,119 --> 00:17:12,290
And that's what I show here.
257
00:17:12,290 --> 00:17:19,329
So what this covers is
roughly 1927 to 1937.
258
00:17:19,329 --> 00:17:22,950
And in this case, although this
is still a discrete-time
259
00:17:22,950 --> 00:17:26,319
signal, just simply for the
purposes of display, what
260
00:17:26,319 --> 00:17:31,010
we've done is to essentially
connect the dots and draw a
261
00:17:31,010 --> 00:17:34,550
continuous curve through the
points so that this picture
262
00:17:34,550 --> 00:17:37,110
isn't filled up with a lot
of vertical lines.
263
00:17:37,110 --> 00:17:42,050
So this is the discrete-time
sequence that represents the
264
00:17:42,050 --> 00:17:46,970
weekly Dow Jones Index over
a 10 year period.
265
00:17:46,970 --> 00:17:53,250
And here, by the way, again,
is the crash of 1929.
266

00:17:53,250 --> 00:17:56,990

It's interesting to note, by
the way, that actually the
267
00:17:56,990 --> 00:18:02,050
disaster in the stock market
wasn't so much the 1929 crash
268
00:18:02,050 --> 00:18:04,780
but the long downward trend
that followed that.
269
00:18:04,780 --> 00:18:10,430
And you can see that here by
filtering through, by eye, the
270
00:18:10,430 --> 00:18:13,220
rapid variations in the index.
271
00:18:13,220 --> 00:18:17,160
And what you see is this
smooth downward trend
272
00:18:17,160 --> 00:18:23,000
followed, eventually,
by an upward trend.
273
00:18:23,000 --> 00:18:27,800
Now, this issue of looking at
something like this, looking
274
00:18:27,800 --> 00:18:33,180
at a sequence, and following
the smoother parts of it,
275
00:18:33,180 --> 00:18:37,950
namely the long term trends, is,
in fact, something that is
276
00:18:37,950 --> 00:18:40,470
done quite typically
with economic
277
00:18:40,470 --> 00:18:42,325
time series like this.

278
00:18:42,325 --> 00:18:47,560
And in particular, what's done
is to smooth it, or average
279
00:18:47,560 --> 00:18:53,820
over some time period, to
emphasize the slow variations
280
00:18:53,820 --> 00:18:56,750
and de-emphasize the
rapid variations.
281
00:18:56,750 --> 00:19:01,070
And that, in fact, is processing
that is done with a
282
00:19:01,070 --> 00:19:02,560
discrete-time system.
283
00:19:02,560 --> 00:19:06,660
So when you hear referred to,
let's say, in stock market
284
00:19:06,660 --> 00:19:11,070
reports, a 51-day moving
average, that, in fact, is
285
00:19:11,070 --> 00:19:15,630
processing the stock market
index with a particular
286
00:19:15,630 --> 00:19:17,460
discrete-time system.
287
00:19:17,460 --> 00:19:21,960
The result of doing that on
this particular example
288
00:19:21,960 --> 00:19:25,090
generates a smooth version
of the curve,
289
00:19:25,090 --> 00:19:27,040
which I overlay here.

290
00:19:27,040 --> 00:19:34,330
And the overlay, then, is really
attempting to track the
291
00:19:34,330 --> 00:19:37,600
smoother variations and
de-emphasize the more rapid
292
00:19:37,600 --> 00:19:39,370
variations.
293
00:19:39,370 --> 00:19:42,930
Let me just slightly offset that
so that the difference
294
00:19:42,930 --> 00:19:44,680
stands out a little more.
295
00:19:44,680 --> 00:19:51,230
And so here you see what is
the original weekly index.
296
00:19:51,230 --> 00:19:56,280
And this is the result of
processing that sequence with
297
00:19:56,280 --> 00:20:00,990
an appropriate system
to apply smoothing.
298
00:20:00,990 --> 00:20:04,110
And in fact, what it is
is a moving average.
299
00:20:04,110 --> 00:20:08,330
And so here again, you can see,
in the smoother curve,
300
00:20:08,330 --> 00:20:12,800
this general downward trend
up until this time period,
301
00:20:12,800 --> 00:20:17,620
followed by, eventually,
a recovery.

302
00:20:17,620 --> 00:20:23,560
Well, we've seen an example with
a continuous-time signal,
303
00:20:23,560 --> 00:20:26,070
the Caruso recording, an example
of the discrete-time
304
00:20:26,070 --> 00:20:28,900
signal, this stock
market index.
305
00:20:28,900 --> 00:20:33,810
And what I'd also like to show
is a third example, which is
306
00:20:33,810 --> 00:20:38,320
the result of some processing on
an image, in particular the
307
00:20:38,320 --> 00:20:40,720
image that we talked about
before, which was the aerial
308
00:20:40,720 --> 00:20:45,000
photograph that had the problem
of some cloud cover.
309
00:20:45,000 --> 00:20:50,570
So once again, what we see here
is the original aerial
310
00:20:50,570 --> 00:20:53,770
photograph with the
cloud cover.
311
00:20:53,770 --> 00:20:58,260
And some processing was applied
to this using a system
312
00:20:58,260 --> 00:21:02,520
which, in fact, was both
nonlinear and quote
313

00:21:02,520 --> 00:21:06,280

"time-varying," or, in the
case of these independent
314
00:21:06,280 --> 00:21:10,520
variables, we would refer to
it as spatially-varying.
315
00:21:10,520 --> 00:21:16,100
And the result of applying that
processing is shown in
316
00:21:16,100 --> 00:21:18,590
the adjoining picture.
317
00:21:18,590 --> 00:21:24,350
And what we see there is
hopefully a reasonable attempt
318
00:21:24,350 --> 00:21:26,890
to compensate for
the cloud cover.
319
00:21:26,890 --> 00:21:31,080
And this, by the way, was some
work that was done by
320
00:21:31,080 --> 00:21:37,150
Professor Lim at MIT, and has
been very successful type of
321
00:21:37,150 --> 00:21:40,160
processing for aerial
photographs.
322
00:21:40,160 --> 00:21:44,480
I should say, also, that this
particular example is one
323
00:21:44,480 --> 00:21:49,670
where, although the original
signal was a signal that is
324
00:21:49,670 --> 00:21:52,790
continuous-time, that is, the
independent variables are

325
00:21:52,790 --> 00:21:57,080
continuous, as they are in a
spatial, aerial photograph, in
326
00:21:57,080 --> 00:22:01,180
fact, for the processing, that
picture was first converted to
327
00:22:01,180 --> 00:22:05,050
a sequence through a process
called sampling, which we'll
328
00:22:05,050 --> 00:22:06,620
be talking about later.
329
00:22:06,620 --> 00:22:09,180
And then the processing,
in fact, was done
330
00:22:09,180 --> 00:22:10,430
on a digital computer.
331
00:22:10,430 --> 00:22:12,890
332
00:22:12,890 --> 00:22:19,340
Well, these then are some
examples of the use of some
333
00:22:19,340 --> 00:22:25,490
systems to process some signals,
both in continuous
334
00:22:25,490 --> 00:22:30,290
time and discrete time, for
one-dimensional signals and
335
00:22:30,290 --> 00:22:34,190
for multi-dimensional signals.
336
00:22:34,190 --> 00:22:38,580
And as I've referred to systems,
we've thought of them
337

00:22:38,580 --> 00:22:42,310

as one big block with an
appropriate, or associated,
338
00:22:42,310 --> 00:22:43,990
input and output.
339
00:22:43,990 --> 00:22:47,530
And as we'll be getting into
in the first part of the
340
00:22:47,530 --> 00:22:52,320
course, very often, systems are
interconnected together
341
00:22:52,320 --> 00:22:54,100
for a variety of reasons.
342
00:22:54,100 --> 00:22:56,010
Some of the kinds of
interconnections that we'll
343
00:22:56,010 --> 00:23:02,300
talk about are connecting
systems in what are called
344
00:23:02,300 --> 00:23:06,080
series, or cascade
interconnections, parallel
345
00:23:06,080 --> 00:23:09,930
interconnections, feedback
interconnections.
346
00:23:09,930 --> 00:23:14,590
And feedback interconnections,
in fact, are very interesting,
347
00:23:14,590 --> 00:23:18,160
very important, and very useful,
and will be a major
348
00:23:18,160 --> 00:23:21,340
topic toward the end
of the course.

349
00:23:21,340 --> 00:23:27,280
Feedback, as you may or may not
know, comes into play in a
350
00:23:27,280 --> 00:23:31,250
variety of situations, for
example, in amplifier design,
351
00:23:31,250 --> 00:23:36,770
as we'll talk about, feedback
plays an important role.
352
00:23:36,770 --> 00:23:42,310
In a situation where you have
a basically unstable system,
353
00:23:42,310 --> 00:23:45,320
feedback is often used to
stabilize the system.
354
00:23:45,320 --> 00:23:49,520
And feedback interconnections
of systems in that sense are
355
00:23:49,520 --> 00:23:53,020
very often used in high
performance aircraft, which
356
00:23:53,020 --> 00:23:56,830
are inherently unstable, and
are stabilized through this
357
00:23:56,830 --> 00:23:59,770
kind of interconnection.
358
00:23:59,770 --> 00:24:03,760
Just to give you a little sense
of this without going
359
00:24:03,760 --> 00:24:08,970
into any of the details, what
I'd like to show you is an
360
00:24:08,970 --> 00:24:15,490
excerpt from a lecture that

we'll be seeing toward the end

361
00:24:15,490 --> 00:24:20,340
of the course relating to the
analysis of feedback systems
362
00:24:20,340 --> 00:24:22,100
and the uses of feedback.
363
00:24:22,100 --> 00:24:25,880
And this is in the context of
what's referred to as the
364
00:24:25,880 --> 00:24:29,670
inverted pendulum, which is
a system that's basically
365
00:24:29,670 --> 00:24:32,790
unstable, and feedback
interconnections are used to
366
00:24:32,790 --> 00:24:34,340
stabilize it.
367
00:24:34,340 --> 00:24:39,720
The idea, as you'll see in this
brief clip, is that there
368
00:24:39,720 --> 00:24:44,220
is a cart that's moving on
a track with a rod that's
369
00:24:44,220 --> 00:24:45,880
pivoted at the base.
370
00:24:45,880 --> 00:24:49,500
And so that system, in the
absence of anything, is
371
00:24:49,500 --> 00:24:52,390
unstable in that the rod
would tend to fall.
372
00:24:52,390 --> 00:24:57,510
And as we go into in detail in

the lecture later, we use

373
00:24:57,510 --> 00:25:01,000
feedback to position
the cart under the
374
00:25:01,000 --> 00:25:03,680
pendulum to balance it.
375
00:25:03,680 --> 00:25:07,730
And in fact, that balancing
can be done even when we
376
00:25:07,730 --> 00:25:10,690
modify the system in a
variety of ways, as
377
00:25:10,690 --> 00:25:11,970
you'll see in this clip.
378
00:25:11,970 --> 00:25:15,850
So let's take a look at that,
remembering that this is just
379
00:25:15,850 --> 00:25:19,340
a brief excerpt from a
longer discussion.
380
00:25:19,340 --> 00:25:19,700
[VIDEO PLAYBACK]
381
00:25:19,700 --> 00:25:25,460
I can change the overall system
even further by, let's
382
00:25:25,460 --> 00:25:28,810
say, for example, pouring
a liquid in.
383
00:25:28,810 --> 00:25:32,870
And now, let me also comment
that I've changed the physics
384
00:25:32,870 --> 00:25:36,800
of it a little bit because the

liquid can slosh around a

385
00:25:36,800 --> 00:25:37,160
little bit.
386
00:25:37,160 --> 00:25:40,170
It becomes a little more
complicated a system, but as
387
00:25:40,170 --> 00:25:43,080
you can see, it still
remains balanced.
388
00:25:43,080 --> 00:25:45,560
[END VIDEO PLAYBACK]
389
00:25:45,560 --> 00:25:48,090
As you'll see when we get
to it, by the way, that
390
00:25:48,090 --> 00:25:51,290
demonstration was a
lot of fun to do.
391
00:25:51,290 --> 00:25:56,090
Now, in talking about signals
and systems as we go through
392
00:25:56,090 --> 00:26:01,360
the course, there are several
domains, two in particular,
393
00:26:01,360 --> 00:26:05,850
that we will find convenient
for the analysis and
394
00:26:05,850 --> 00:26:10,070
representation of signals
and systems.
395
00:26:10,070 --> 00:26:17,100
One is the time domain, which
is what we tend to think of,
396
00:26:17,100 --> 00:26:21,910

and which we have kind of been

focusing on in the discussion
397
00:26:21,910 --> 00:26:23,950
so far in this lecture.
398
00:26:23,950 --> 00:26:28,890
But equally important is what's
referred to as the
399
00:26:28,890 --> 00:26:34,220
frequency domain as a
representation for signals,
400
00:26:34,220 --> 00:26:37,630
and as a means for analysis
for systems.
401
00:26:37,630 --> 00:26:40,600
And in the context of
the frequency domain
402
00:26:40,600 --> 00:26:44,750
representation, some of the
kinds of ideas and topics that
403
00:26:44,750 --> 00:26:50,270
we'll be exploring are the
Fourier Transform, and the
404
00:26:50,270 --> 00:26:55,930
Laplace Transform, and a
discrete-time counterpart of
405
00:26:55,930 --> 00:26:59,140
the Laplace Transform, which
is the z-Transform.
406
00:26:59,140 --> 00:27:02,080
The Fourier Transform discussion
we'll get into
407
00:27:02,080 --> 00:27:03,990
fairly early in the course.
408

00:27:03,990 --> 00:27:08,110

And the Laplace Transform and
z-Transform represent
409
00:27:08,110 --> 00:27:11,200
extensions of the Fourier
transform, and we'll be
410
00:27:11,200 --> 00:27:14,520
getting into that later
in the course.
411
00:27:14,520 --> 00:27:18,550
Just initially to think about
the time domain and frequency
412
00:27:18,550 --> 00:27:21,610
domain, you might think,
for example, of
413
00:27:21,610 --> 00:27:23,490
a note being played.
414
00:27:23,490 --> 00:27:28,800
And the time-domain
representation would be how
415
00:27:28,800 --> 00:27:32,250
the sound pressure,
as a function
416
00:27:32,250 --> 00:27:34,330
of time, would change.
417
00:27:34,330 --> 00:27:37,560
And the frequency-domain
representation would
418
00:27:37,560 --> 00:27:40,960
correspond to a representation
of the frequency
419
00:27:40,960 --> 00:27:43,440
content of the note.
420

00:27:43,440 --> 00:27:46,720

And, in fact, what I'd like to
do is illustrate that and
421
00:27:46,720 --> 00:27:51,720
those two domains simultaneously
by playing a
422
00:27:51,720 --> 00:27:53,370
glockenspiel note.
423
00:27:53,370 --> 00:27:58,220
What you'll hear is the note
repeated several times over.
424
00:27:58,220 --> 00:28:02,490
And at the same time, you'll see
two displays, one on the
425
00:28:02,490 --> 00:28:05,950
left representing the time
domain display a
426
00:28:05,950 --> 00:28:08,820
representation of the signal,
and the one on the right
427
00:28:08,820 --> 00:28:11,650
representing the frequency
domain.
428
00:28:11,650 --> 00:28:13,350
So let's look at that.
429
00:28:13,350 --> 00:28:16,130
And you'll hear the note
and simultaneously
430
00:28:16,130 --> 00:28:17,380
see these two displays.
431
00:28:17,380 --> 00:28:21,080
432
00:28:21,080 --> 00:28:25,850
So there's the note on the

left, the time waveform.

433
00:28:25,850 --> 00:28:30,285
And on the right, what we see
is the frequency content, in
434
00:28:30,285 --> 00:28:34,900
particular, indicating the fact
that there are several
435
00:28:34,900 --> 00:28:36,420
harmonic lines in the tone.
436
00:28:36,420 --> 00:28:54,540
437
00:28:54,540 --> 00:29:00,410
Well, what I've gone through in
this lecture represents a
438
00:29:00,410 --> 00:29:04,450
brief overview of signals
and systems.
439
00:29:04,450 --> 00:29:08,340
And beginning with the next
lecture, we will be much more
440
00:29:08,340 --> 00:29:13,950
specific and precise, first
discussing some basic signals,
441
00:29:13,950 --> 00:29:16,880
and then talking about
systems, and system
442
00:29:16,880 --> 00:29:20,860
properties, and how
to exploit them.
443
00:29:20,860 --> 00:29:26,890
As one final comment that I'd
like to make in this lecture,
444
00:29:26,890 --> 00:29:34,640
I'd like to emphasize at the

outset that the taped lectures

445
00:29:34,640 --> 00:29:38,180
represent only one component
of the course.
446
00:29:38,180 --> 00:29:42,690
And equally important will be
both the textbook and the
447
00:29:42,690 --> 00:29:44,670
video course manual.
448
00:29:44,670 --> 00:29:49,140
In particular, it's important
not only to be viewing the
449
00:29:49,140 --> 00:29:55,470
tapes, but simultaneously, or
in conjunction with that,
450
00:29:55,470 --> 00:29:59,510
doing the appropriate reading
in the textbook and also
451
00:29:59,510 --> 00:30:02,500
working through the problems
carefully in the
452
00:30:02,500 --> 00:30:04,940
video course manual.
453
00:30:04,940 --> 00:30:08,830
In a course like this, you
basically only get out of it
454
00:30:08,830 --> 00:30:10,630
as much as you put into it.
455
00:30:10,630 --> 00:30:14,900
The hope is that if you put the
right amount of time and
456
00:30:14,900 --> 00:30:18,910
effort into it, you'll find the

course to be educational
457
00:30:18,910 --> 00:30:19,720
and interesting.
458
00:30:19,720 --> 00:30:22,250
And I certainly hope that
that will be the case.
459
00:30:22,250 --> 00:30:23,500
Thank you.
460
00:30:23,500 --> 00:30:25,045