Classification of Matter

Atoms
John Dalton proposed in 1805 that elements were composed of small indivisible particles called atoms.
He developed this idea in order to explain how elements always reacted in ratios of whole numbers.
John Dalton proposed that atoms are simply rearranged in a chemical reaction. Nowadays, it is known that atoms are
composed of smaller particles called protons, electrons and neutrons.
The nucleus is the centre of the atom and is composed of smaller particles called protons which are positively charged
(1.6022 10
19
Coulombs) and neutrons which have no charge. These particles are collectively referred to as nucleons,
as they are present in the nucleus of the atom. The mass of the proton is 1.6726 10
27
kilograms, while the neutron is
similar in size with a mass of 1.6749 10
27
kilograms.
Electrons (e

) are small negatively charged particles which orbit the central positive charged nucleus of an atom. They
have a mass significantly smaller than the proton (9.1094 10
31
kg), and have a charge equal to the proton. They
orbit in energy levels called shells, which are different energy levels, which the electrons occupy when they orbit the
nucleus.
Molecules
A molecule is made of two or more atoms joined with covalent bonds (bonds between elements due to the sharing of
electrons to obtain a stable octet in the outermost shell). In other terms, molecules consist of the smallest unit of a
substance (covalently bonded substance) that can move independently.
All covalently-bonded compounds (two or more atoms bonded together) are molecules, even though some exist not
as individual molecules but as a lattice, such as SiO
2
(silicon dioxide sand) or C (carbon diamond).
Other molecules include when the same element is bonded with itself e.g. H
2
, O
2
or N
2.

Monatomic molecules are molecules with only one atom include the noble gases, which exist as uncombined
elements, and therefore as single elements. Some examples include: He (helium), Ne (neon) and Ar (argon).
Diatomic molecules include some elements such as O
2
(oxygen), H
2
(hydrogen), N
2
(nitrogen), and some
compounds such as hydrogen iodine HI and hydrogen fluoride HF.
Diatomic molecules can also be compounds such as HCl (hydrochloric acid) but not ionic compounds such as NaCl
(sodium chloride table salt)
Some triatomic molecules include ozone O
3
, water H
2
O and sulfur dioxide SO
2

Some tetratomic molecules include white phosphorus P
4
and ammonia NH
3

Compounds
A compound consists of two or more elements joined chemically. In compounds, the atoms form chemical bonds
between the electrons in the outer shell of the atom. Unlike elements, compounds can be chemically broken down
into their elemental components. Compounds are chemical bonded with fixed ratios. If they are not chemically bonded
they may be a
mixture or alloy. For example in HCl, there is one hydrogen atom for every chlorine atom.
Ionic compounds are compounds formed between usually a metal and a non-metal, where the metal transfers its
excess electrons to the non-metals forming an ionic compound.
Ionic compounds are lattices, and the formula used (empirical formula) represents the ratio of atoms in the lattice.
Covalent compounds are compounds formed between two or more non-metals, through the sharing of electrons
to reach a stable octet in the outer shell of each element.
Covalent compounds are molecules. The formula used is a direct proportion to the structure of the molecule.
Ions
Ions are charged particles. Positive ions are formed when metal atoms lose electrons, e.g. Na
+
, Mg
2+
or Al
3+
.
Negative ions are formed when non-metal ions gain electrons e.g. Cl

, S
2
or N
3

A polyatomic ion or radical is a charged particle made up of more than one type of atom,
e.g. NH
4
+
, or CO
3
2

Pure substances and impure substances
Matter can either be classified by their state of matter at room temperature, either as a solid, liquid or gas.
Matter can also be classified into two categories, pure substances and impure substances.

Homogeneous and heterogeneous substances

Pure substances include elements and compounds. These substances have a fixed composition and properties
and therefore are unable to be separated using simple physical separation methods.
Impure substances, also referred to as mixtures, have variable composition and properties and are able to be
separated easily using various methods such as sieving, sedimentation and evaporation.
Homogeneous refers to a substance that is composed of a single substance for example elements or a mixture
that has roughly a uniform composition or structure.
Heterogeneous refers to a mixture that is composed of different substances without a uniform composition or
structure.