VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES

Applications range from the Pakistan to India pipeline to carry crude oil
Natural systems of pipes that carry blood throughout our body and air
into and out of our lungs
water pipes in our homes and the distribution system that delivers the
water from the city well to the house
Numerous hoses and pipes carry hydraulic fluid or other fluids to various
components of vehicles and machines
The air quality within our buildings is maintained at comfortable levels
by the distribution of conditioned heated, cooled air through a maze
of pipes and ducts
Although all of these systems are different, the fluid-mechanics principles
governing the fluid motions are common. The purpose of this
chapter is to understand the basic processes involved in such
cases
TYPICAL PIPE SYSTEM COMPONENTS
We are considering those pipes in which the fluid is running full
Pipe Flow Open Channel Flow
Pipe Flow: driving force is the pressure gradient alone, gravity
may/may not be important (inclined and large heights)
Open Channel Flow: driving force is the gravity alone water flows
down the hill. If the pipe is not full, it is not possible to maintain this
pressure difference P
1
- P
2
Re < 2100
Re < 2100 - 4000
Re > 4000
Osborne Reynolds, 1883
Turbulent
Transitional
Laminar
u
A
t
Q
x
Laminar
Transitional
Turbulent
ENTRANCE REGION AND FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW
Re 06 . 0
D
e
l
= Laminar Flow
| |
6 / 1
Re 4 . 4
D
e
l
=
Turbulent Flow
r
Hydrodynamic entrance region
Hydrodynamically
fully developed region
Velocity boundary layer Veloctiy profile
x
ENTRANCE REGION AND FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW
Re 06 . 0
D
e
l
= Laminar Flow
| |
6 / 1
Re 4 . 4
D
e
l
=
Turbulent Flow
Pressure and Shear Stress
For horizontal pipe flow, gravity has no effect except for a hydrostatic
pressure variation across the pipe, that is usually negligible
Pressure difference, between one section of the horizontal pipe and
another which forces the fluid through the pipe
Viscous effects provide the restraining force that exactly balances the
pressure force, thereby allowing the fluid to flow through the pipe with
no acceleration
Entrance flow
Fully developed flow
p
Constant
x
c
=
c
Entrance pressure
drop
X
1
= 0
X
2
X
3
P
If viscous effects were absent in such flows, the pressure would be constant
throughout the pipe, except for the hydrostatic variation
In non-fully developed flow regions, such as the entrance region of a pipe, the
fluid accelerates or decelerates as it flows (the velocity profile changes from
a uniform profile at the entrance of the pipe to its fully developed profile at
the end of the entrance region).
In the entrance region there is a balance between pressure, viscous, and inertial
(acceleration) forces. The result is a pressure distribution along the
horizontal pipe as shown in Fig. The magnitude of the pressure gradient, is
larger in the entrance region than in the fully developed region, where it is a
constant,
The fact that there is a nonzero pressure gradient along the horizontal pipe is a
result of viscous effects.
The need for the pressure drop can be viewed from two different standpoints.
In terms of a force balance, the pressure force is needed to overcome the
viscous forces generated.
In terms of an energy balance, the work done by the pressure force is needed
to overcome the viscous dissipation of energy throughout the fluid
The nature of the pipe flow is strongly dependent on whether the flow
is laminar or turbulent. This is a direct consequence of the differences
in the nature of the shear stress in laminar and turbulent flows
The shear stress in laminar flow is a direct result of momentum
transfer among the randomly moving molecules (a microscopic
phenomenon)
The shear stress in turbulent flow is largely a result of momentum
transfer among the randomly moving, finite-sized bundles of fluid
particles (a macroscopic phenomenon).
THE NET RESULT IS THAT THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SHEAR
STRESS ARE QUITE DIFFERENT FOR LAMINAR FLOW THAN FOR
TURBULENT FLOW.
DESIRABLE SITUATIONS OF TURBULENT FLOW
To transfer the required heat between a solid and an adjacent fluid such as in the
cooling coils of an air conditioner or a boiler of a power plant would require an
enormously large heat exchanger if the flow were laminar
Turbulence is also of importance in the mixing of fluids. Smoke from a stack would
continue for miles as a ribbon of pollutant without rapid dispersion within the
surrounding air if the flow were laminar rather than turbulent
Although there is mixing on a molecular scale (laminar flow), it is several orders of
magnitude slower and less effective than the mixing on a macroscopic scale
(turbulent flow). It is considerably easier to mix cream into a cup of coffee (turbulent
flow) than to thoroughly mix two colors of a viscous paint (laminar flow)
DESIRABLE SITUATIONS OF LAMINAR FLOW
Pressure drop in pipes - power requirements for pumping can be considerably
lower if the flow is laminar rather than turbulent
Blood flow through a persons arteries is normally laminar, except in the largest
arteries with high blood flowrates
Aerodynamic drag on an airplane wing can be considerably smaller with laminar
flow past it than with turbulent
DEFINITION OF TURBULENCE:
Taylor and Von Karman (1937)
Turbulence is an irregular motion which in general makes its
appearance in fluids, gaseous or liquids, when they flow past solid
surfaces or even when neighbouring streams of same fluid past over
one another
Turbulent fluid motion is an irregular condition of flow in which
various quantities show a random variation with time and space
coordinates, so that statistically distinct average values can be
discerned
MEAN MOTION AND FLUCTUATIONS
u u u ; u u u =
' '
+ =
( )
+
=
T t
t
dt t , z , y , x u
T
1
u
o
o
( )
(
(
(

+
=
(
(
(

+
=
+
=
'
} } } } }
T t
t
dt u
T t
t
dt u
T
1
T t
t
dt u
T t
t
dt u
T
1
T t
t
dt u u
T
1
u
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
| | 0 T u u T
T
1
T u
T t
t
dt u
T
1
u
o
o
= =
(
(
(

+
=
'
}
}
' '
+
= =
T t
t
dt
T
1
_______
o
o
2
u
2
u
MEAN MOTION AND FLUCTUATIONS
0 u
( )
( )
u
2
1
u
______
I ntensity Turbulence
T
o
t
o
t
dt
2
u
T
1
2
u
(
(
(

}
+
'
'
= =
u u 2
2
u
2
u
2
u u
2
u
'
+ +
'
= +
'
=
( )
u u 2
2
u
2
u
2
u
________
________
_______ ______
'
'
+ + =
( ) | | 0 zero
T
u
T t
t
dt u
T
u
T t
t
dt u u
T
1
________ o
o
o
o
u u
= =
(
(
(

+
' =
+
' =
} }
'
0
________
u u
=
'
u . u
2
u
2
u
_______ ______
+ =
'
( )( )
v u u v v u
v u v v u u
uv
______ ______ ______
_________ __________
____
' ' ' '
+
'
+
'
+
+ + = =
v u
v u
uv
______ ____
' '
+
+ =
RULES
f f =
g f
____
g f + = +
g . f
____
g . f =
s
f
s
___
f
c
c
=
c
c
= ds f
______
ds . f
REYNOLDS EQUATIONS AND REYNOLDS STRESSES
0
z
w
y
v
x
u
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
z
u
2
2
y
u
2
2
x
u
2
x
P
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u

(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
z
v
2
2
y
v
2
2
x
v
2
y
P
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v

(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
z
w
2
2
y
w
2
2
x
w
2
z
P
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w

p p p ; w w w ; v v v ; u u u
'
+ =
'
+ =
'
+ =
'
+ =
0
z
w
y
v
x
u
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
0
z
_____
w w
y
_____
v v
x
_____
u u
=
c
'
+ c
+
c
'
+ c
+
c
'
+ c
x
__
u
x
u
x
_____
u u
c
'
c
+
c
c
=
c
'
+ c
0
z
w
y
v
x
u
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
z
u
2
2
y
u
2
2
x
u
2
x
P
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u

( ) ( )
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
+
c
c
2
z
u
2
2
y
u
2
2
x
u
2
x
P
z
uw
y
uv
x
2
u
t
u

t
u
t
__
u
t
u
t
_____
u u
c
c
=
c
'
c
+
c
c
=
c
'
+ c
Flows Steady Mean for zero
t
u
=
c
c
( )
x
u
u 2
x
____
2
u
x
2
u
x
____
2
u
x
__________
2
u u
x
___
2
u
c
c
+
c
'
c
=
c
c
+
c
'
c
=
c
'
+ c
=
c
c
x
u
u 2
x
____
2
u
x
___
2
u
c
c
+
c
'
c
=
c
c
y
____
v u
y
u
v
y
v
u
y
___
uv
c
' '
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
( )( )
y
___
u v
____
v u
____
v u v u
y
___ __________
v v u u
y
___
uv
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
' + ' + ' ' + c
=
c
' + ' + c
=
c
c
z
____
w u
z
u
w
z
w
u
z
___
uw
c
' '
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
x
__
p
x
p
x
_____
p p
c
'
c
+
c
c
=
c
'
+ c
x
p
x
_____
p p
c
c
=
c
'
+ c
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(
(
(
(

c
' ' c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
' ' c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
' c
2
z
u
2
2
y
u
2
2
x
u
2
x
p
z
____
w u
z
u
w
z
w
u
y
____
v u
y
u
v
y
v
u
x
u
u 2
x
____
2
u

(
(
(
(

c
' ' c
+
c
' ' c
+
c
' c

(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
____
w u
y
____
v u
x
____
2
u
2
z
u
2
2
y
u
2
2
x
u
2
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
z
w
y
v
x
u
u


(
(
(
(

c
' ' c
+
c
' ' c
+
c
' c

(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
____
w u
y
____
v u
x
____
2
u
2
z
u
2
2
y
u
2
2
x
u
2
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
(
(
(
(

c
' ' c
+
c
' ' c
+
c
' c

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
____
w u
y
____
v u
x
____
2
u
u
2
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
(
(
(
(

c
' ' c
+
c
' c
+
c
' ' c

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
____
w v
y
____
2
v
x
____
v u
v
2
y
p
z
w
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
(
(
(
(

c
' c
+
c
' ' c
+
c
' ' c

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
____
2
w
y
____
w v
x
____
w u
w
2
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
(
(
(
(

c
' ' c
+
c
' ' c
+
c
' c

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
____
w u
y
____
v u
x
____
2
u
u
2
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
(
(
(
(

c
' ' c
+
c
' c
+
c
' ' c

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
____
w v
y
____
2
v
x
____
v u
v
2
y
p
z
w
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
(
(
(
(

c
' c
+
c
' ' c
+
c
' ' c

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
____
2
w
y
____
w v
x
____
w u
w
2
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
(

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
u
2
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
(

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
v
2
y
p
z
w
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
(

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
w
2
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
Steady state Navier Stokes
equations, if the velocity
components and pressure
components are replaced by mean
components or time averages
Resultant surface force per unit area due to the additional terms
(
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
(
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
(
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
z
'
zz
y
'
yz
x
'
xz
k
z
'
yz
y
'
yy
x
'
xy
j
z
'
xz
y
'
xy
x
'
xx
i P
o
t
t
t o t
t
t
o
___
2
u
'
xx
'
= o
___
2
v
'
yy
'
= o
___
2
w
'
zz
'
= o
___
v u
'
xy
' '
= o
___
w u
'
xz
' '
= o
___
w v
'
yz
' '
= o
(
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
'
xz
y
'
xy
x
'
xx
u
2
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
t
o

(
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
'
yz
y
'
yy
x
'
xy
v
2
y
p
z
w
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t o t

(
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

V +
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
'
zz
y
'
yz
x
'
xz
w
2
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
o
t
t

zz yz xz
yz yy xy
xz xy xx
o t t
t o t
t t o
' '
' ' '
' ' '
___
2
w
___
w v
___
w u
___
w v
___
2
v
___
v u
___
w u
___
v u
___
2
u
' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' '



=
In turbulent flow, laminar stresses must be increased by additional streses
REYNOLDS STRESSES (1895 - Reynolds)
Laminar flow shear stress
caused by random motion
of molecules
Turbulent flow as a series of
random three dimensional eddies
_____
v u
dy
du
turb lam
' '
= + = t t t
Laminar flow
0 v 0 u 0
_____
v u =
'
=
'
=
' '

FULLY DEVELOPED TURBULENT FLOW

Random turbulent
fluctuations
Turbulent bursts
Turbulent
Transitional
Laminar
t
u
2000
4000
Re
D
VISCOUS SUBLAYER : t
lam
>>> t
turb
OVERLAP LAYER: t
lam
~ t
turb
TURBULENT LAYER: t
lam
<<< t
turb
lam
t
turb
t
Pipe centerline
t
r
R
( ) r t
w
t
Pipe wall Viscous sublayer
Overlap
layer
Outer
layer
( ) u r
r
R
VISCOUS SUBLAYER
OVERLAP LAYER
TURBULENT LAYER
5 y y u <
+ +
=
+
30 y 5 05 . 3 y ln 5 u <
+
<
+
=
+
30 y 5 . 5 y ln 5 . 2 u >
+
+
+
=
+
t

t
t
v
t
u
u
u ;
w
u ;
yu
y =
+
= =
+
30 y 5 . 5 y ln 5 . 2 u >
+
+
+
=
+
5 y ; y u <
+ +
=
+
30 y 5 05 . 3 y ln 5 u <
+
<
+
=
+
Pipe centerline
Experimental data
25
u
u*
20
15
10
5
1
0
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
yu*
Viscous sublayer
Friction Factor
Pressure force = Viscous forces
= L D D P
w
t t
t
A
2
4 D
L
P
w
= 4 t A
D
L
u u
P
avg
w
avg
= 4
2
1
2
1
2 2

A
D
L
C
u
P
f
avg
4
2
1
2
=

A
=
D
L
f
u
P
avg
2
2
1

A
4C
f
=f
D
L
f
u
gh
avg
L
=
2
2
1

gD
Lu f
h
avg
L
2
2
=
DarcyWeisbach equation
FRICTION FACTOR FOR TURBULENT FLOW IN A
HYDRAULICALLY SMOOTH PIPE
}
= =
R
0
dr u r 2
avg
u
2
R Q t t
r y
r = R y
dr = -dy
( )
}
=
0
R
) dy ( u y R 2 Q t
( )
}
=
R
0
) dy ( u y R 2
avg
u
2
R t t
2
u
by Multiply
v
t
( )
}
=
R
0
) dy (
2
u
u y R 2
2
u
avg
u
2
R
v
t
v
t
}
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
R
0
yu
d
u
u
y
yu Ru
2
u
avg
u
2
Ru
v
t
t
v
t
v
t
t
v
t
}
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
R
0
yu
d
u
u
y
yu Ru
2
u
avg
u
2
Ru
v
t
t
v
t
v
t
t
v
t
}
+
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
=
+
R
0
dy u y R 2
u
avg
u 2
R
t
5 . 5 B 5 . 2 A B y ln A u = = +
+
=
+
}
+
+
(

+
+
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
=
+
R
0
dy B y ln A y R 2
u
avg
u 2
R
t
{ }
+
+
+
+
+

+ +
+

+
+

+ + +
=
+
R
0
2
2
y
B 2
R
0
y BR 2
R
0
4
2
y
y ln
2
2
y
A 2
R
0
y y ln y A R 2
u
avg
u 2
R
t
Integration by parts
} }
= vdu uv udv
( ) C x x ln x dx
x
x x x ln xdx ln
dx x ln
v u
+ = = =
} } }
1
C
x
x ln
x
dx
x
x x
x ln xdx ln x + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
} }
4 2
1
2 2
2 2 2 2
x ln u ;
x
v dv xdx = = =
2
2
{ }
+
+
+
+
+

+ +
+

+
+

+ + +
=
+
R
0
2
2
y
B 2
R
0
y BR 2
R
0
4
2
y
y ln
2
2
y
A 2
R
0
y y ln y A R 2
u
avg
u 2
R
t
2
2
R
B 2
2
BR 2
4
2
R
R ln
2
2
R
A 2 R R ln R A R 2
u
avg
u 2
R
+

+
+

+
+

+ + +
=
+
t
(

+ +
+

+ +
=
+
2
1
B 2 B 2
4
1
A 2 R ln
2
1
A 2 A 2 R ln A 2
2
R
u
avg
u 2
R
t
(

+
+
= B A
2
3
R ln A
u
avg
u
t
(

+ +
+

+
= B B 2
2
1
A R ln A A 2 R ln A 2
u
avg
u
t
5 . 5 B 5 . 2 A = =
(

+
+
= 75 . 1 R ln 5 . 2
u
avg
u
t
f
8
f
c
2
w
2
avg
u
w
avg
u
u
avg
u
= = = =
t

t
t
75 . 1 R ln 5 . 2
f
8
u
avg
u
+
+
= =
t
(

+
+
= 75 . 1 R ln 5 . 2
u
avg
u
t
75 . 1
Ru
ln 5 . 2
f
8
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
v
t
75 . 1
avg
u 2
u avg
Ru 2
ln 5 . 2
f
8
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
v
8
75 . 1
8
f
2
1
Re ln
8
5 . 2
f
1
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
8
75 . 1
8 2
1
ln
8
5 . 2
f Re ln
8
5 . 2
f
1
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
9129 . 0 f Re ln 8838 . 0
f
1
=
e log . b ln b log =
e log
b log
b ln =
f Re log 30258 . 2
e log
f Re log
f Re ln = =
9129 . 0 f Re log 035 . 2
f
1
=
8 . 0 f Re log 0 . 2
f
1
=
PRANDTLS UNIVERSAL
LAW OF FRICTION
verified Nikuradses expmts
upto Re = 3.4 10
6
8 . 0 f Re log 0 . 2
f
1
=
Re Prandtl Equation Blasius Equation
1000 0.0622 0.0567
2000 0.0494 0.0473
5000 0.0374 0.0376
10000 0.0309 0.0316
20000 0.0259 0.0266
50000 0.0209 0.0212
100000 0.018 0.0178
200000 0.0156 0.015
500000 0.0131 0.0119
1000000 0.0116 0.01
2000000 0.0104 0.008414
5000000 0.009 0.0069
10000000 0.0081 0.0056
4 / 1
VD
3164 . 0 f
L
D
2
V
2
1
P

(

= =
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

A
Prandtls universal equation agrees well with Blasius equation upto Re = 100000 but
at higher values Blasius equation deviates progressively more from the results of
measurements whereas Prandtls equation maintains good agreement
Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius (1883 1970)
Ph.D student of Ludwig Prandtl 1907
Johann Nikuradse (November 20, 1894 July 18, 1979)
Ph.D student of Ludwig Prandtl 1920
Faculty along with Prof. Prandtl
Sent back to Russia in 1934
Hager, Blasius: A life in research and education, Experiments in Fluids 34 (2003) 566571
Hager, Johann Nikuradse Hydraulic experimenter, Journal of Hydraulic Research, Vol. 46,
No. 4 (2008), pp. 435444
When you decide not to strive for the top position where
you could have problems, choose the second position,
where you can really add to progress
Zagarola and Smits (1998)
Reynolds numbers from 31000 35 10
6
55 0
04 7
475 0 92 1
1
.
D
f Re
.
. f Re log .
f
=
Predicted 1.4%of the Princetons experimental data
Mark V. Zagarola. and Alexander J. Smits, Mean flow scaling of turbulent pipe
flow, J. Fluid Mech. (1998), Vol. 373, pp. 33-79
B.J. McKeon, M.V. Zagarola and A.J.Smits, A new friction factor relationship for
fully developed pipe flow, J. Fluid Mech. (2005), Vol. 538, pp. 429-443.
100000
10
50
=
=
=
Re
m L
mm D
3
1000
001 0
m / kg
Pa .
=
=

D u
Re
avg
=
001 0
10 50 1000
100000
3
.
u
avg


=
s / m u
avg
2 =
8 . 0 f Re log 0 . 2
f
1
=
Re = 100000 f = 0.018
2 2
2 1000
2
1
4 018 0
2
1
4 4

= = =
w
avg
w
f
.
u
C f
t

t
Pa
w
9 = t
1000
001 0
1000
9
5
.
y
yu
y = =
+
v
t
s / m . u
w
09487 0
1000
9
= = =

t
t
s / m . u 09487 0 =
t
mm . m . y 0527 0 10 27 5
5
= =

1 2 1
2
2
n n
n
u
u
c
avg
Re = 100000 n= 7
( )
( )( )
8167 0
1 7 2 1 7
7 2 2
2
.
u
c
=
+ +
=
s / m . u
c
45 2 =
Ratio of turbulent shear stress to laminar shear stress at r = 12. 5 mm
n
cl
R
r
u
u
1
1
|
.
|

\
|
=
36 25
25
5 12
1
25 7
45 2
7
7 1
5 12
.
. .
dy
du
. r
= |
.
|

\
|

=

=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

R R
r
n
u
dr
du
n
cl
1
1
1
1
1
n
n
cl
R
r
nR
u
dr
du

|
.
|

\
|
=
1
1
Pa . . .
dr
du
wlam
02536 0 36 25 001 0 = = = t
Pa .
.
R
r
w w
5 4 9
25
5 12
= = = t t
45 176
02536 0
02536 0 5 4
.
.
. .
lam
wlam w
lam
turb
=

=
t
t t
t
t
EMPIRICAL POWER LAW VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
n
1
R
y
n
1
R
r
1
c
u
u
max
u
u
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
= = r y
r = R y
dr = -dy
} } }
= =
R
0
dy ) y R ( u 2
R
0
dr u r 2 udA t t
} }
|
.
|

\
|
=
R
0
dy ) y R (
n
1
R
y
c
u 2 udA t
( )
} }
=
R
0
dy ) y R (
n / 1
y
n / 1
R
c
u 2
udA
t
( ) ( )
} }
=
R
0
dy
n / 1
y y
n / 1
Ry
n / 1
R
c
u 2
udA
t
| | | |
R
0
1
n
1 n
1
n
1 n
Y
n
1 n
n
1 n
Y R
n / 1
R
c
u 2
udA
(
(
(
(

+
+
+
+

+
+
=
}
t
c
Au
dA u
c
u
avg
u
}
=
| | | |
R
0
1
n
1 n
1
n
1 n
Y
n
1 n
n
1 n
Y R
n / 1
R
c
u 2
udA
(
(
(
(

+
+
+
+

+
+
=
}
t
| | | |
(
(
(
(

+
+

+
+
=
}
n
1 n 2
n
1 n 2
R
n
1 n
n
1 n
R R
n / 1
R
c
u 2
udA
t
| |
(
(
(
(
(

+
+

+
+
=
}
n
1 n 2
n
1 n 2
R
n
1 n
n
1 n 2
R
n / 1
R
c
u 2
udA
t
(
(
(
(

+
+
=
}
n
1 n 2
1
n
1 n
1
n / 1
R
n
1 n 2
R
c
u 2
udA
t
(
(
(
(

+ +
+

+
+
=
}
n
1 n 2
.
n
1 n
n
1 n
n
1 n 2
n / 1
R
n
1 n 2
R
c
u 2
udA
t
(
(
(

+ +
+
=
}
n
1 n 2
.
n
1 n
n
1 n 1 n 2
2
R
c
u 2 udA t
(
(
(
(

+ +
=
}
n
1 n 2
.
n
1 n
n
n
2
R
c
u 2 udA t
| || |
(
(

+ +
=
}
1 n 2 1 n
2
n 2
2
R
c
u udA t
( )( )
( )( ) 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
2
2
2
2
2
+ +
=
+ +
= =
}
n n
n
u R
n n
n
R u
Au
dA u
u
u
c
c
c c
avg
t
t
1 2 1
2
2
n n
n
u
u
c
avg
Laminar
n =10
n =6
c
u
V
r
R
0.5
0
1
Turbulent
0.5 1
n =8
VD
Re

=
11
10
5
n
10
4
10
5
10
6
6
7
8
9
FRICTION FACTOR FOR TURBULENT FLOW IN A HYDRAULICALLY
ROUGH PIPE
Roughness disturbs the flow in the wall region
Roughness elements are large enough, they break the viscous
sublayer
5
u
< =
+
v
t
c
c
Pipe is hydraulically smooth
5
u
> =
+
v
t
c
c
Pipe is hydraulically rough
5 . 8
y
ln 44 . 2 u +
|
.
|

\
|
=
+
c
5
u
< =
+
v
t
c
c
HYDRAULICALLY SMOOTH
5
u
> =
+
v
t
c
c
HYDRAULICALLY ROUGH
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

c
|

A VD
,
D D
L
2
V
2
1
P
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

c
|

A VD
,
D L
D
2
V
2
1
P
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

c
|
VD
,
D
f
}
= =
R
0
dr u r 2
avg
u
2
R Q t t
r y
r = R y
dr = -dy
( )
}
=
0
R
) dy ( u y R 2 Q t
( )
}
=
R
0
) dy ( u y R 2
avg
u
2
R t t
( )
}
=
R
0
) dy (
u
u
y R 2
u
avg
u
2
R
t t
( )
}
+
=
R
0
) dy ( u y R 2
u
avg
u
2
R
t
( )
}
+
=
R
0
) dy ( u y R 2
u
avg
u
2
R
t
C
y
ln A u +
|
.
|

\
|
=
+
c
( )( )
}
+ =
R
0
) dy ( C ln A y ln A y R 2
u
avg
u
2
R c
t
}
+ + =
R
0
dy ) Cy CR ln Ay ln AR y ln Ay y ln RA 2
u
avg
u
2
R c c
t
(
(
(

+ + + =
R
0
2
2
y
C
R
0
CRy
R
0
ln
2
2
Ay
R
0
ln ARy
R
0
A
4
2
y
y ln
2
2
Ay
R
o
ARy y ln ARy 2
u
avg
u
2
R c c
t
(
(
(

+ + + =
2
2
CR
2
CR ln
2
2
AR
ln
2
AR
4
2
AR
R ln
2
2
AR
2
AR R ln
2
AR 2
u
avg
u
2
R c c
t
(
(

+ + + =
2
C
C ln
2
A
ln A
4
A
R ln
2
A
A R ln A 2
u
avg
u
c c
t
(
(

+ =
2
C
ln
2
A
ln A
4
A 3
R ln
2
A
2
u
avg
u
c c
t
C
2
A 3 R
ln A
u
avg
u
+ =
c
t
A = 2.44; C = 8.5
f
8
f
c
2
w
2
avg
u
w
avg
u
u
avg
u
= = = =
t

t
t
84 . 4
R
ln 44 . 2
f
8
+ =
c
7112 . 1
R
ln 86267 . 0
f
1
+ =
c
7112 . 1
R
log 98637 . 1
f
1
+ =
c
7112 . 1
R
log 98637 . 1
f
1
+ =
c
7112 . 1
2
1
log 98637 . 1
D
log 98637 . 1
f
1
+ + =
c
1132 . 1
D
log 98637 . 1
f
1
+ =
c
6346 . 3
x
1
275130869 . 0
560460679 . 0
10 x
560460679 . 0
9863 . 1
1132 . 1
x log
x log 9863 . 1 1132 . 1
=
=

=
=

=
=
(
(
(
(

=
6346 . 3
D
log 98637 . 1
f
1
c
(
(
(

=
7 . 3
D
log 0 . 2
f
1
c
VonKarmans Relation
( ) Pipe Smooth ; 8 . 0 f Re log 0 . 2
f
1
=
8 . 0
f Re
1
log 0 . 2
f
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f Re
5 . 2
log 0 . 2
f
1
Combining smooth and rough pipe friction factors
(
(
(

=
7 . 3
D
log 0 . 2
f
1
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f Re
5 . 2
log 0 . 2
f
1
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
f Re
5 . 2
7 . 3
D
log 0 . 2
f
1
c
COLEBROOKS
FRICTION FACTOR
CORRELATION
(
(
(
(

=
7 . 3
Du
.
u
log 0 . 2
f
1
t
v
v
t
c
(
(
(
(
(

+
=
7 . 3
avg
u
avg
u
.
Du
.
log 0 . 2
f
1 t
v
c
(
(
(
(
(

+
=
7 . 3
u
avg
u
.
avg
Du
.
log 0 . 2
f
1 t
v
c
f
8
u
avg
u
=
t
(
(
(
(
(

+
=
7 . 3
f
8
.
avg
Du
.
log 0 . 2
f
1
v
c
(
(

+
=
f Re 31 . 1
log 0 . 2
f
1 c
MOODY CHART
The author does not claim to offer anything particularly new or original, his aim merely being
to embody the now accepted conclusions in convenient form for engineering use.
Equivalent Roughness for New Pipes [From Moody and Colebrook ]
Pipe Equivalent Roughness (mm)
Riveted steel 0.99.0
Concrete 0.33.0
Wood stave 0.180.9
Cast iron 0.26
Galvanized iron 0.15
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.045
Drawn tubing 0.0015
Plastic, glass 0.0 (smooth)
Air under standard conditions flows through a 4.0-mm-diameter drawn tubing with
an average velocity of 50 m/s. For such conditions the flow would normally be
turbulent. However, if precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to the flow
(the entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust free, the tube does not
vibrate, etc.), it may be possible to maintain laminar flow. a Determine the pressure
drop in a 0.1-m section of the tube if the flow is laminar. b Repeat the calculations if
the flow is turbulent
13215
10 54 18
10 4 50 225 1
6
3
=

= =

.
. VD
Re

If flow is laminar
3
10 843 4
13215
64 64

= = = .
Re
f
Pa
. . .
D
fLV
P
gD
fLV
h
f
185
10 4 2
50 1 0 10 843 4 225 1
2 2
3
2 3 2 2
=


= = =

A
( ) W . P Q P 1162 0 185 50 10 4
4
2
3
= = =

t
A

4
10 75 3
4
0015 0
0015 0

= = = .
.
D
mm .
c
c
13215
10 54 18
10 4 50 225 1
6
3
=

= =

.
. VD
Re

028 0. f Chart Moody =

Pa .
. . .
D
fLV
P
gD
fLV
h
f
5 3062
10 4 2
50 1 0 028 0 225 1
2 2
3
2 2 2
=


= = =

A
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
f Re
5 . 2
7 . 3
D
log 0 . 2
f
1
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

f
.
.
.
log .
f 13215
5 2
7 3
10 75 3
0 2
1
4
837 5 842 5 0293 0
836 5 852 5 0292 0
834 5 862 5 0291 0
833 5 872 5 029 0
8188 5 976 5 028 0
. RHS . LHS . f
. RHS . LHS . f
. RHS . LHS . f
. RHS . LHS . f
. RHS . LHS . f
= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =
0293 0. f =
Pa .
. . .
D
fLV
P
gD
fLV
h
f
69 3204
10 4 2
50 1 0 0293 0 225 1
2 2
3
2 2 2
=


= = =

A
( ) W . . P Q P 014 2 69 3204 50 10 4
4
2
3
= = =

t
A

Non-circular pipes
Circular pipe
Water
50 atm
Rectangular
duct
Air
1.2 atm
Circular pipes can withstand
large pressure differences
between the inside and the
outside without undergoing
any distortion, but the
noncircular pipes cannot.
MEAN VELOCITY
V = 0
V
max
(a) Actual
V
m
(b) Idealized
Actual and idealized velocity profiles for
flow in a tube (the mass flow rate of the
fluid is the same for both cases).
( )
c
m c c
A
m V A V r, x dA = =
}

( )
( )
( )
0
2 2
0
2
2
c
R
c
R
A
m
c
V r, x dA
V r, x rdr
V V r, x rdr
A
R R

t
= = =
}
}
}
NON-CIRCULAR CONDUITS
Calculations for fully developed turbulent flow in ducts in non-circular
cross section are usually carried out by using the Moody chart data
for round pipes with the diameter replaced by the hydraulic
diameter and Reynolds number based on the hydrualic diameter.
Such calculations are usually accurate to within about 15%. If greater
accuracy is needed, a more detailed analysis based on the
specific geometry of interest is needed.
HYDRAULIC DIAMETER
D
Circular tube:
Square duct:
Rectangular duct:
a
b
a
a
( )
2
4 4
h
D
D D
D
t
t
= =
2
4
4
h
a
D a
a
= =
( )
4 2
2
h
ab ab
D
a b a b
= =
+ +
4
c
h
A
D
P
=
MINOR LOSSES- losses caused by valves, bends, tees etc
MAJOR LOSSES- losses caused by the friction of pipe
Flow through a valve
2
V
2
1
P
L
K

A
=
2
V
2
1
L
gh
2
V
2
1
L
gh
2
V
2
1
P
L
K = = =

A
g 2
2
V
L
K
L
h =
g 2
2
V
D
eq
l
f
g 2
2
V
L
K
L
h = =
f
D
L
K
eq
l =
ENTRANCE FLOW CONDITIONS AND LOSS COEFFICIENTS
K
L
= 0.8 Re-entrant
K
L
= 0.5 Sharp Edged
K
L
= 0.2 Slightly rounded
K
L
= 0.04well rounded
FLOW PATTERN AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION FOR A
SHARP EDGE ORIFICE
Venacontracta Is Often Developed At The Entrace Of The Pipe
Lost
because of
viscous
dissipation
ENTRANCE LOSS COEFFICIENT AS A FUNCTION OF
ROUNDING OF THE INLET EDGE
EXIT FLOW CONDITIONS AND LOSS COEFFICIENTS
K
L
= 1.0Re-entrant
K
L
= 1.0 Sharp Edged
K
L
= 1.0Slightly rounded
K
L
= 1.0well rounded
LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR A SUDDEN CONTRACTION
LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR A SUDDEN EXPANSION
CALCULATION OF LOSS COEFFICIENT OF SUDDEN EXPANSION
3 3 1 1
V A V A =
( )
1 3 3 3 3 3 3 1
V V V A A P A P =
L
h
g
V
g
p
g
V
g
p
+ + = +
2 2
2
3 3
2
1 1

Mass
Momentum
Energy
g
V
h
V
h g
V
P
K
L L
L
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
= = =

A
3 3 1 1
V A V A =
( ) ( ) ( )
1 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 1
V V V P P V V V A A P A P = =
L
h
g
V
g
p
g
V
g
p
+ + = +
2 2
2
3 3
2
1 1

L
h
g
V V
g
p p
=

2
2
3
2
1 3 1

g
V
h
g
g
V
V V
g
g
V
p p
L
2
2
2 2
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
3 1
=

( )
L
K
V
V V
V
V V V
=

2
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
1 3 3
2

( )
L
K
V
V
V
V V V
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

2
1
2
3
2
1
1 3 3
1
2
( )
L
K
A
A
V
V V V
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

2
3
2
1
2
1
1 3 3
1
2
( )
L
K
A
A
V
V V V
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

2
3
2
1
2
1
3 1
2
3
1
2
L
K
A
A
V
V
V
V
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
3
2
1
1
3
2
1
2
3
1 2
L
K
A
A
A
A
A
A
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
3
2
1
3
1
2
3
2
1
1 2
L
K
A
A
A
A
A
A
= +
2
3
2
1
3
1
2
3
2
1
1 2 2
L
K
A
A
A
A
= + 1 2
3
1
2
3
2
1
2
3
1
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A
A
K
L
2
3
1
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A
A
K
L
Viscous drag is negligibly small, hence
matching with the experimental results
LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR A CONICAL DIFFUSER
LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR A 90
O
BEND
LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR A 90
O
MITRE BEND
Valve is a variable
resistance element in
a pipe circuit
Globe Valve
Gate Valve
Swing check valve Stop check valve
Head loss in a valve is due to dissipation of kinetic energy of the large velocity fluid
near the valve seat
Loss coefficient of
pipe components
PIPE FLOW TYPES
Water at 10 deg C (v = 1.307 10
-6
m
2
/s)is to flow from reservoir A to reservoir B
through a cast-iron pipe (c = 0.26 mm) of length 20 m at a rate of 0.002 m
3
/s as
shown in Fig. The system contains a sharp-edged entrance and six regular threaded
90 elbows. Determine the pipe diameter needed.
L
h z
g
V
g
p
z
g
V
g
p
+ + + = + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
0
2 2 1 2 1
= = = = = z V V p p
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
L
K
D
L
f
g
V
z
2
2
1
2
3
2
3
2
10 55 2 10 2 4 4
D
.
D D
Q
A
Q
V

=

= = =
t t

1 5 1 5 0 = = =
Lexit Lelbow Lent
K ; . K ; . K
( ) ( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +

=

0 1 5 1 6 5 0
20
81 9 2
2
2
. . .
D
f
.
V
( ) ( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
|
|
.
|

\
|

0 1 5 1 6 5 0
20 10 55 2
81 9 2
1
2
2
2
3
. . .
D
f
D
.
.
0 20 5 10 10 03 6
5 6
= f D . D .
D
.
.
D
D
.
VD
Re
3
6
2
3
10 95 1
10 307 1
10 55 2

= =

v
D
.
D
4
10 6 2

=
c
Assuming friction factor would lead us to solving fifth order equation for getting
diameter of the pipe . Hence, assume diameter
m . D 05 0 =
3
4 4
10 2 5
05 0
10 6 2 10 6 2


=

= .
.
.
D
.
D
c
4
3
10 9 3
05 0
10 95 1
=

= .
.
.
Re
0 20 5 10 10 03 6
5 6
= f D . D .
( ) ( ) 0 20 05 0 5 10 05 0 10 03 6
5
6
= f . . . .
068 0. f =
Based on c/D and Re, from Moody chart, f = 0.033
m . D 045 0 =
3
4 4
10 78 5
045 0
10 6 2 10 6 2


=

= .
.
.
D
.
D
c
4
3
10 33 4
045 0
10 95 1
=

= .
.
.
Re
0 20 5 10 10 03 6
5 6
= f D . D .
( ) ( ) 0 20 045 0 5 10 045 0 10 03 6
5
6
= f . . . .
032 0. f =
Based on c/D and Re, from Moody chart, f = 0.032
MULTIPLE PIPE SYSTEMS
Analogy between pipe systems and electrical circuits can be made
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT FLUID CIRCUIT
CURRENT FLOWRATE
VOLTAGE DROP PRESSURE DROP
RESISTANCE MINOR AND MAJOR LOSSES
V =I R AP =Q
2
R
Resistance to flow o f
Ohms law - linear equation fluid equations are generally
non- linear equation
R Q
D
L f
Q
D
D
Q
L f
D
Lu f
P
avg
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
2

= = = =
t

A
SERIES PIPE SYSTEMS
3 2 1
3 2 1
L L L L
h h h h
Q Q Q Q
B A
+ + =
= = =

PARALLEL PIPE SYSTEMS
3 2 1
3 2 1
L L L
h h h
Q Q Q Q
= =
+ + =

MULTIPLE LOOP SYSTEM
3 2 1
Q Q Q

+ =
3 2
L L
h h =
2 1
2 2
2 2
L L B
B B
A
A A
h h gZ
V P
gZ
V P
+ + + + = + +

3 1
2 2
2 2
L L B
B B
A
A A
h h gZ
V P
gZ
V P
+ + + + = + +

THREE RESERVOIR PROBLEM CAN BE QUITE COMPLEX
Three reservoirs at known elevations are connected together with three pipes of
known properties (lengths, diameters, and roughnesses)
The problem is to determine the flowrates into or out of the reservoirs If valve (1)
were closed, the fluid would flow from reservoir B to C, and the flowrate could be
easily calculated.
Similar calculations could be carried out if valves (2) and (3) were closed with the
others open
With all valves open, however, it is not necessarily obvious which direction the fluid
flows.
It is clear that fluid flows from reservoir A because the other two reservoir levels are
lower. Whether the fluid flows into or out of reservoir B depends on the elevation of
reservoirs B and C and the properties (length, diameter, roughness) of the three
pipes.
In general, the flow direction is not obvious, and the solution process must include
the determination of this direction.
Three reservoirs are connected by three pipes as are shown in Fig. For simplicity,
we assume that the diameters of each pipe is 0.3048 m, the friction factor for each is
0.02, and because of the large length to diameter ratio, minor losses are negligible.
Determine the flow rate into or out of each reservoir
30.48 m
0.3048
m
0.3048 m
0.3048 m
304.8 m
152.4 m
121.92 m
6.096 m
0.0 m
3 2 1
Q Q Q

= +
3 2 1
V V V = +
g
V
D
l
f
g
V
D
l
f z
g
V
g
p
z
g
V
g
p
C
C C
A
A A
2 2 2 2
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
2 2
+ + + + = + +

0 0 0 = = = = =
c C A C A
z ; V V ; p p
g
V
D
l
f
g
V
D
l
f z
A
2 2
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
+ =
81 9 2 3048 0
92 121
02 0
81 9 2 3048 0
8 304
02 0 48 30
2
3
2
1
.
V
.
.
.
.
V
.
.
. .

+

=
2
3
2
1
4078 0 01937 1 48 30 V . V . . + =
2
3
2
1
4 0 9 29 V . V . + =
Assume that the water flows out of the reservoir B
g
V
D
l
f
g
V
D
l
f z
g
V
g
p
z
g
V
g
p
C
C C
B
B B
2 2 2 2
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
+ + + + = + +

0 0 0 = = = = =
c C B C B
z ; V V ; p p
g
V
D
l
f
g
V
D
l
f z
B
2 2
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
+ =
81 9 2 3048 0
92 121
02 0
81 9 2 3048 0
4 152
02 0 096 6
2
3
2
2
.
V
.
.
.
.
V
.
.
. .

+

=
2
3
2
2
4078 0 5097 0 096 6 V . V . . + =
3 2 1
V V V = +
2
3
2
1
4 0 9 29 V . V . + =
2
3
2
2
4078 0 5097 0 096 6 V . V . . + =
s / m . V V . . V . V . s / m V Assume 2284 7 4 0 3 9 29 4 0 9 29 3
3
2
3
2 2
3
2
1 1
= + = + = =
s / m . V V . . V . V . s / m V Assume 5 8 4 0 1 9 29 4 0 9 29 1
3
2
3
2 2
3
2
1 1
= + = + = =
84 29 2284 7 4078 0 5097 0 096 6 4078 0 5097 0 096 6
2
2
2 2
2
2
3
2
2
. V . . V . . V . V . . = + = + =
36 75 5 8 4078 0 5097 0 096 6 4078 0 5097 0 096 6
2
2
2 2
2
2
3
2
2
. V . . V . . V . V . . = + = + =
Hence, our original assumption must be incorrect
Assume that the water flows into the reservoirs B and C out of A
3 2 1
Q Q Q

+ =
3 2 1
V V V + =
g
V
D
l
f
g
V
D
l
f z
g
V
g
p
z
g
V
g
p
B
B B
A
A A
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2 2
+ + + + = + +

; V V ; p p
B A B A
0 0 = = = =
81 9 2 3048 0
4 152
02 0
81 9 2 3048 0
8 304
02 0 096 6 48 30
2
2
2
1
.
V
.
.
.
.
V
.
.
. . .

+

+ =
2
2
2
1
5097 0 01937 1 384 24 V . V . . + =
2
2
2
1
5 0 92 23 V . V . + =
g
V
D
l
f
g
V
D
l
f z
g
V
g
p
z
g
V
g
p
C
C C
A
A A
2 2 2 2
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
2 2
+ + + + = + +

; V V ; p p
C A c A
0 0 = = = =
81 9 2 3048 0
92 121
02 0
81 9 2 3048 0
8 304
02 0 0 0 48 30
2
3
2
1
.
V
.
.
.
.
V
.
.
. . .

+

+ =
2
3
2
1
4078 0 01937 1 48 30 V . V . . + =
2
3
2
1
4 0 9 29 V . V . + =
3 2 1
V V V + =
2
2
2
1
5 0 92 23 V . V . + =
2
3
2
1
4 0 9 29 V . V . + =
Eqn 1
Eqn 2
Eqn 3
Subtracting eqn 2 from eqn 3
2
2 3
2
2
2
3
25 1 95 14 5 0 4 0 98 5 V . . V V . V . . + = =
Eqn 2 can be written as
( )
2
2 3 2
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
3 2
5 0 2 5 0 92 23 V . V V V V V . V V . + + + = + + =
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 3 2
2
3
2
2
25 1 95 14 2 25 1 95 14 5 1 92 23 2 5 1 92 23 V . . V V . . V . . V V V V . . + + + + = + + =
2
2 2
2
2
25 1 95 14 2 75 2 97 8 V . . V V . . + + =
2
2
2
2 2
75 2 97 8 25 1 95 14 2 V . . V . . V = +
2
2
2
2 2
75 2 97 8 25 1 95 14 2 V . . V . . V = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
75 2 75 2 97 8 2 97 8 25 1 95 14 4 V . V . . . V . . V + = +
Squarring
4
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
5625 7 335 49 4609 80 5 8 59 V . V . . V V . + = +
0 4609 80 135 109 5625 2
2
2
4
2
= + . V . V .
0 4 31 59 42
2
2
4
2
= + . V . V
( )
75 0 84 41
2
4 31 1 4 59 42 59 42
2
2
2
. or .
. . .
V =

=
s / m . or s / m . V 866 0 47 6
2
=
3 2 1
V V V + =
2
2
2
1
5 0 92 23 V . V . + =
2
3
2
1
4 0 9 29 V . V . + =
s / m . V 47 6
2
=
2
2
2
1
5 0 92 23 V . V . + =
s / m . V 866 0
2
=
s / m . V 729 1
1
=
2
3
2
1
4 0 9 29 V . V . + =
2
3
2
4 0 729 1 9 29 V . . . + =
s / m . V 202 8
3
=
3 2 1
V V V + =
202 8 47 6 729 1 . . . + =
2
2
2
1
5 0 92 23 V . V . + =
s / m . V 8523 4
1
=
2
3
2
1
4 0 9 29 V . V . + =
2
3
2
4 0 8523 4 9 29 V . . . + =
s / m . V 986 3
3
=
3 2 1
V V V + =
986 3 866 0 8523 4 . . . + =
s / m . V 866 0
2
=
s / m . V 986 3
3
=
s / m . V 8523 4
1
=
( ) A from s / m . . . V D Q
3
2
1
2
1
3541 0 8523 4 3048 0
4 4
= = =
t t

( ) B o int s / m . . . V D Q
3
2
2
2
2
0632 0 866 0 3048 0
4 4
= = =
t t

( ) C o int s / m . . . V D Q
3
2
3
2
3
29084 0 986 3 3048 0
4 4
= = =
t t