The relationship between extracurricular activities and delinquency of adolescents in

foster care

Heather M. Farineau , Lenore M. McWey

The Florida State University, United States
a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 October 2010
Received in revised form 3 January 2011
Accepted 4 January 2011
Available online 11 January 2011
Keywords:
Adolescents
Delinquency
Foster care
Youth activities
This study examined the relationships between involvement in extracurricular activities and delinquency for
adolescents in foster care. Using data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being, a
subsample of adolescents (n=117) in long-term foster care was the focus of this study. Contrary to the
hypotheses, results indicated that greater involvement in extracurricular activities was associated with higher
levels of delinquency. Further analyses revealed that the type of placement and closeness with caregiver
predicted delinquency above and beyond the frequency of participation in extracurricular activities.
Implications are discussed.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
When maltreatment is so severe that it is no longer safe for a child
to remain in the custody of their parents, the child may be placed
within the foster care system (Kools, 1997). Often children are
removed not only fromtheir biological parents, but fromtheir friends,
schools, and communities. These separations may create a sense of
loss, and children may react to these losses in maladaptive ways
(Grogan-Kaylor, Ruffolo, Ortega, & Clarke, 2007; Haskett, Nears, Ward,
& McPherson, 2006). The pervasiveness of behavioral problems
among children in foster care has long been documented (Heinger,
Simpkins, & Combs-Orme, 2000; Zima, Bussing, Yang, & Belin, 2000).
Determining ways to decrease problematic behavior of adolescents in
foster care may help protect them from the serious longer-term
consequences of delinquency, such as criminal activity as adults
(Ryan, Hernandez, & Herz, 2007). Studies have shown that enhancing
a sense of community through involvement in extracurricular
activities may be one means of helping to decrease problematic
behavior (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006; Linville & Hurbner, 2005;
Mahoney & Stattin, 2000; Ryan, Marshall, Herz, & Hernandez, 2008;
Sandford, Duncombe, & Armour, 2008). However, research examining
this relationship specically for adolescents in foster care has been
limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the
relationship between involvement in extracurricular activities and
delinquency for adolescents in long-term foster care.
There is substantial evidence that children who are victims of
abuse and neglect are at high risk for emotional and behavioral
problems (Jonson-Reid, 1998; Ryan, Herz, Hernandez, & Marshall,
2007). Children who reside in foster care are at a greater risk for
various negative outcomes than their peers who are not in foster care
(Grogan-Kaylor et al., 2007). Adolescents in foster care have been
shown to have a greater susceptibility for behavior problems (Ryan,
Marshall, et al., 2008) and behavior problems may lead to delinquency
(Lemmon, 2006; Ryan, Testa, & Zhai, 2008; Widom, 2003).
Ryan, Hernandez, et al. (2007) reported that 45% of the adolescents
in foster care in their sample were arrested at least one time during
the study period. Jonson-Reid and Barth (2000) found that middle
school aged children entering the teenage years were more likely to
be youth offenders following entry into foster care. Similarly,
Heinger et al. (2000) reported that the highest total problem scores
were found for children aged 1315. Further, Rosenthal and Curiel
(2006) found that youths' self-report of problembehaviors were even
higher than caregivers' reports. Given the increased risk for
delinquency specically for youths within these age ranges, the
focus of the present study was mid-to-late adolescents in long-term
foster care, and incorporated both youths' and caregivers' reports of
delinquency.
Children and Youth Services Review 33 (2011) 963968
This document includes data from the National Survey on Child and Adolescent
Well-Being, which was developed under contract with the Administration on Children,
Youth, and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (ACYF/DHHS). The
data have been provided by the National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect. The
information and opinions expressed herein reect solely the position of the authors.
Nothing herein should be construed to indicate the support or endorsement of its
content by ACYF/DHHS.
Corresponding author. Department of Family and Child Sciences, Florida State
University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, United States.
E-mail address: hmf0928@fsu.edu (H.M. Farineau).
0190-7409/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.01.002
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Children and Youth Services Review
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ chi l dyout h
1.1. Theoretical background
Social control theory is frequently used to explain adolescent
delinquency (Li, 2004). Social control theorists suggest that the
greater an individual's social capital, the greater their sense of social
commitment (Hirschi, 1969). Families are socializing agents respon-
sible for instilling a sense of attachment, commitment, and obligation.
People deviate from normative behavior when their social bonds are
weak or broken (Hirschi, 1969). Certainly, children in foster care have
weakened social bonds.
Child maltreatment uniquely impacts a child's social resources
(Ryan & Testa, 2005). When abuse or neglect occurs, it may
undermine a child's sense of commitment, trust, and obligation
resulting in increases in problematic behavior (Cernkovich, Lanctot, &
Giordano, 2008; Ryan & Testa, 2005). A recent study designed to
identify risk factors associated with female adolescent delinquency
found that lower levels of family trust and caring were predictive of
higher rates of delinquency (Cernkovich et al., 2008). Further,
ineffective parenting has been found to predict adolescent delin-
quency (Simons, Chao, Conger, & Elder, 2001).
Applying social control theory to foster care, the removal of
children fromtheir homes may break what social bonds they do have,
further diminishing their sense of social control. As a result, increases
in problematic behavior may be expected. However, with time,
protective factors may lead to decreases in problem behavior (Leon,
Ragsdale, Miller, & Spacarelli, 2008). If youths are involved in contexts
that promote their sense of commitment, trust, and obligation, one
may expect problem behaviors to diminish as youths rebuild their
social capital. Ryan, Testa, and Zhai (2008) highlight the role that
social bonds plays with delinquency of at-risk youths. Involvement in
extracurricular activities may provide opportunities for social bonds
with both adult gures and peers.
1.2. Potential effects of youth involvement in activities
For decades, communities have attempted to address the needs of
at-risk youths by developing and offering specic youth activities (De
Wit et al., 2007). Participating in extracurricular activities has been
associated with decreased antisocial behavior, specically aggression,
among youths (Mahoney, 2000). For adolescents in foster care, who
are already more susceptible to engaging in problematic behavior,
being involved in structured extracurricular activities may be a
signicant protective factor against risky behaviors.
Family disruption has been theoretically linked with a sense of
social disorganization which has been associated with behavior
problems in adolescents (Tiet, Huizinga, & Byrnes, 2010). Relying on
social disorganization theory, Tiet et al. (2010) hypothesized that
youths' report of involvement in extracurricular activities would be
associatedwithlower levels of anti-social behavior among adolescents
living in high-risk neighborhoods. Results provided tentative support
for the positive relationship between involvement in activities and
resilience. Other researchers have also demonstrated that youths who
drop out of activities have greater delinquency scores compared to
those who stayed in structured extra-curricular activities (Persson,
Kerr, & Stattin, 2007). Similarly, Haskett et al. (2006) demonstrated
that experiences within the broader community may moderate the
relationship between out-of home placement and delinquency.
Different types of activities, however, may yield different out-
comes (Persson et al., 2007). Activities that are structured and have
positive role models are associated with positive adolescent outcomes
(Mahoney & Stattin, 2000; Sandford et al., 2008). Extracurricular
activities that have regularly scheduled practices or meetings may
provide a sense of structure to children's lives. For adolescents in
foster care, this may be benecial as sometimes these children may
endure substantial, continual changes. Often times, children in foster
care are confronted with changes with friends, case workers, and even
foster parents. Participating in an extracurricular activity may provide
a sense of structure that may help reestablish some sense of stability
to these young people's lives.
Yet not all studies demonstrate positive relationship between
involvement in activities and outcomes. For example, in a randomized
controlled trial, De Wit et al. (2007) conducted a national level
evaluation of a specic community program, namely Big Brother Big
Sisters, aimed to improve child behavior among at-risk youths. Results
did not indicate signicant differences between many outcomes,
including behavior problems, when comparing experimental and
control groups. The authors suggested, however, that the lack of
signicance may be related to other factors, such as a lack of statistical
power. Similarly, Mahoney and Stattin (2000) showed a link between
unstructured activities and an increase in antisocial behavior and
delinquency. Although researchers have begun to focus on the
relationship between involvement in extracurricular activities and
problematic behaviors, no known study has examined this specically
for adolescents in foster care.
1.3. Type of placement, closeness with caregivers, and outcomes
Although the general termfoster care is frequently used to describe
the living situations of all children involved with the child welfare
system, not every placement is the same. Approximately half of the
children in foster care are placed with relatives in situations often
labeled kinship care or relative placement (Dubowitz et al., 1994).
Yet, in other instances, usually when kinship care is not possible,
children are placed in traditional foster care settings where they
reside with non-relatives.
Placement type is sometimes a controversial issue in the child
welfare literature. There are some who endorse kinship care as the
preferred placement type, because it may eliminate the trauma
associated with placing children with strangers (Dubowitz et al.,
1994), and it may help maintain family connections (Holtan, Ronning,
Handegayrd, & Sourander, 2005; Rushton & Minnis, 2002). However,
others voice concerns about placing children in the same family that
raised parents who were unable to care for their children (Dubowitz
et al., 1994). Additionally, kinship placements are perceived as more
difcult to supervise, more likely to delay reunication, and more
likely to permit unsupervised contact between biological parents and
children when compared to non-relative foster care placements
(Dubowitz et al., 1994).
Youths placed in group home settings are at a higher risk of
aggression and delinquency than youths who are placed in traditional
foster family settings; the relative risk of delinquency is at least
double for adolescents who have experienced at least one group home
placement compared to youths in traditional foster care placements
(Ryan, Marshall, et al., 2008). Some espouse that the increased risk
for delinquency for youths in group homes specically may be due
to the negative effects of peer contagion (Ryan, Marshall, et al.,
2008, p. 1089), where the opportunities for adolescents to seek peers
with similar attitudes toward delinquency may be greater in group
homes.
In a review of research on placement outcomes for children in
treatment foster care, Redding, Fried, and Britner (2000) suggested
that poor relationships with current caregivers have negative effects
on children in foster care. Similarly, ndings from a study conducted
by Moretti, Holland, Moore, and McKay (2004) indicated that an
intervention aimed to improve caregiver-adolescent relationships
resulted in a diminishment of delinquency of adolescents at post-test.
Although little is known about the effect of involvement with
extracurricular activities and delinquency specically for adolescents
in foster care, it has been shown that involvement in activities may
afford opportunities to build positive relationships, which in turn,
may result in better outcomes for the youths participating in these
activities (Mahoney & Stattin, 2000; Sandford et al., 2008). For youths
964 H.M. Farineau, L.M. McWey / Children and Youth Services Review 33 (2011) 963968
in foster care, positive adult role models may be especially important.
Bender (2010) emphasizes that it is the responsibility of child welfare
professionals to identify emotional, social, and psychosocial factors
that can prevent youths in foster care from becoming juvenile
delinquents. In essence, it is the responsibility of caseworkers to
assess what services may benet children in care, and advocate for
those services with the anticipation that they may deter later
delinquency.
2. Purpose
Although the relationship between involvement in activities
and adolescent delinquency has been the focus of recent studies
(e.g. De Wit et al., 2007; Tiet et al., 2010), little is known about
whether or not the same outcomes are achieved specically for
adolescents in foster care. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the
potential positive relationship between participation in extracurric-
ular activities and outcomes of adolescents in foster care. More
specically, we hypothesized that participation in extracurricular
activities would be associated with decreased delinquency of
adolescents in long-term foster care, but that other important factors,
namely type of out-of-home placement and positive relationships
with caregivers will also be associated with reduced delinquency.
3. Method
3.1. Sample and procedure
We conducted secondary data analyses of data from the restricted
release version of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-
Being (NSCAW; National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect,
2002). The NSCAW dataset is the result of a national, longitudinal
study of the well-being of children involved in the child welfare
system across the country (National Data Archive on Child Abuse and
Neglect, 2002). The study included over 5500 children from 97
agencies nation-wide. Agencies were selected randomly and cases
were identied during a 15 month period (October 1999December
2000). The dataset was divided into two separate samples of children:
those who were subjects of investigations of abuse or neglect
(N=5501); and those who have been in foster care for approximately
one year at Wave 1 due to an investigation of abuse or neglect (long-
term foster care, N=727). As we were interested in adolescents
residing in out-of-home placements, rather than all children who
were subjects of child welfare investigations, the long-termfoster care
(LTFC) sample was the focus of this study. We used data fromWave 1.
Restricting the sample to adolescents, the nal sample size for the
purposes of this study was 117. The sample consisted of 51% girls.
Regarding race, 38% were African American, 44% Caucasian, 12%
American Indian, 3% Asian, and 3% identied themselves as other.
The age of the adolescents ranged from 13 to 16 (M=14; SD=0.79).
3.2. Measures
Data were collected fromadolescents, their current caregivers, and
local and state child protective services agencies. All data were
collected through interviews and surveys except when sensitive
data such as delinquency were gathered. In those instances, the
researchers used a computer assisted mechanism for collecting data.
The specic measures for this study are described below.
The Youth Self-Report (YSR, Achenbach, 1991) was administered to
adolescents. The YSR includes problem behavior and social compe-
tence subscales. The reported reliability for the YSR ranges from 0.65
to 0.89 for adolescents (Achenbach, 1991). The internal consistency of
the total YSR specically for the NSCAWsample is 0.90 (National Data
Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect, 2002). For the purposes of
this study, 2 subscales were used. The Activities subscale of the YSR
(YSR-AS) was used to assess adolescent involvement and competence
in activities, including sports and hobbies (Achenbach, 1991). A total
competence score, however, cannot be computed if there is missing
data (Achenbach, 1991); therefore in addition to using the YSR-AS
total score, we also extracted an individual item of the YSR assessing
the frequency of participation in activities. Three discrete categories
included: participation in activities less than once a week, 12 times a
week, and 3 or more times a week.
Rosenthal and Curiel (2006) indicated that there may be
differences between youth and caregiver reports of problematic
behavior, therefore, for the purposes of this study both were included.
Adolescents' self-reported delinquent behaviors were ascertained
using the Delinquency subscale of the YSR. This subscale includes
items related to stealing, using alcohol or drugs, lying, and cheating,
and is scored on a 3-point scale (0=not true, 1=somewhat true,
2=very often true). Total delinquency scores are created by summing
items.
To assess caretaker's report of adolescent delinquency, the
Delinquent Behavior subscale of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL;
Achenbach, 1991) was also used. The test-retest reliability of the CBCL
ranges from 0.72 to 0.93. The internal consistency of total problem
behaviors for the NSCAW sample specically was 0.96 (National Data
Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect, 2002).
The NSCAW dataset also includes an assessment of adolescents'
perceptions of their relationships with their current caregivers
(National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect, 2002). A question
asks howclose they feel to their current caregiver. Response choices
include 5 options ranging from not at all to very much.
4. Results
A series of linear regressions were performed to analyze the
relationship between involvement in extracurricular activities and
delinquency for adolescents in long-term foster care. We hypothe-
sized that there would be a signicant inverse relationship between
involvement in extracurricular activities and delinquency. Results
revealed signicant relationships between youth activities (YSR-AS)
and both youth report of delinquency [=0.44, t(37)=3.0, pb0.01]
and caregiver report [=0.42, t(36)=2.7, p=0.01]. Contrary to the
original hypothesis, however, results indicated a positive relation-
ship between youth participation in activities and delinquent
behavior. Similarly, we also examined the relationship between the
frequency in which youths participated in activities, and both youth
and caregiver reports of delinquency. Again, both relationships
were signicant and in the unexpected direction [youth report
of delinquency =0.22, t(114) =2.4, p=0.02; caregiver report
=0.26, t(112)=2.8, pb0.01]. Correlations are presented in Table 1.
The association between participation in activities and delin-
quency may be inuenced by other important factors, such as type
of out-of-home placement and closeness with caregivers. Therefore,
multiple regression analyses were conducted using youth and
caregiver report of delinquency as the dependent factors. The linear
combination of predictors (i.e. frequency of participation in activities,
Table 1
Correlations of delinquency, involvement in activities, frequency of participation in
activities, and closeness to caregiver (N=117).
Variables 1 2 3 4 5
1. Youth report of delinquency
2. Caregiver report of delinquency 0.52

3. Involvement in activities 0.44

0.42

4. Frequency of participation in activities 0.22

0.26

0.13
5. Closeness with caregivers 0.09 0.32

0.04 0.16
pb0.001.
pb0.01.
pb0.05.
965 H.M. Farineau, L.M. McWey / Children and Youth Services Review 33 (2011) 963968
type of out-of-home placement, and closeness with caregivers) was
signicantly relatedtobothyouthreport of delinquency [F(3, 91)=3.8,
p=0.02], and caregiver report of delinquency [F(3, 88)=6.4, pb0.01].
Next, multiple regression analyses with unordered sets of predictors
were conducted to test the extent to which type of out-of-home
placement and closeness with caregivers predicted delinquency over
and above the frequency in which youths participated in activities. For
youthreport of delinquency, the type of out of home placement predicted
delinquency above and beyond the frequency of participation in
extracurricular activities [R
2
change=0.05, F(3, 88)=4.1, p=0.05], but
closeness with caregivers did not [R
2
change=0.01, F(3, 86)=0.48,
p=0.49]. Comparatively, results of multiple regression conducted with
the same predictors and caregiver report of delinquency, closeness with
caregiver predicted delinquency above and beyond the frequency of
participationinextracurricular activities [R
2
change=0.13, F(3, 86)=4.3,
p=0.04]. Type of out of home placement, however, offered no signicant
predictivepower beyondthat contributedbyfrequencyof participationin
activities and closeness to caregiver [R
2
change=0.01, F(3, 87)=0.47,
p=0.50].
Lastly, analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted to test if
there would be signicant differences in the mean of both youth and
caregiver reports of delinquency based on type of out of home
placement, closeness with caregivers, and the frequency in which
adolescents participated in activities. As seen in Table 2, there were
signicant differences in mean scores of youth report of delinquency
and the frequency in which they participated in activities. Adolescents
with the least frequent participation had the lowest self-report of
delinquency (M=56.7, SD=7.2), whereas those who participated in
activities 3 or more times a week reported the highest levels of
delinquency (M=61.5, SD=12.0). The mean differences in self-
report of delinquency did not signicantly differ, however, based on
closeness to caregiver or type of out-of-home placement. The
differences in the means of caregiver report of delinquency, however,
were signicantly different for frequency of participation, closeness to
caregiver, and type of out of home placement (please see Table 3).
Adolescents residing in group homes, those who participated in
activities 3 or more times a week, and adolescents with self-reports of
a lack of closeness to their caregiver reported the highest mean scores
of delinquency.
5. Discussion
In this study, we examined the association between involvement
in extracurricular activities and delinquency of adolescents involved
in the foster care system. Past literature indicates that extracurricular
activities tend to have a positive inuence on delinquency levels in
youths in the general population (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006; Mahoney
& Stattin, 2000; Sandford et al., 2008), however no known study has
examined whether a similar effect is observable for youths in foster
care. Contrary to hypotheses, results indicated that increased
involvement in extracurricular activities was associated with higher
delinquency scores for adolescents.
Although the relationships between activities and delinquency
were in the unexpected direction, in retrospect there are several
plausible explanations for these ndings. Relying on social control
theory to help explain these ndings, adolescents in foster care may
have a diminished sense of social control as a result of their placement
in care, which may be associated with the increased rates of
delinquent behavior. Consistent with past research, ndings of this
study indicated that relationships with caregivers were important to
adolescent outcomes (Redding et al., 2000). Adolescents in this study
who reported the highest feelings of closeness to their caregivers had
the lowest delinquency scores. In accordance with social control
theory, perhaps this closeness promoted their sense of commitment,
trust, and obligation, which, in turn, is associated with diminished
problematic behaviors; whereas weakened social bonds are associat-
ed with less social control and greater negative behaviors. Ryan, Testa,
and Zhai (2008) note the importance of social bonds in lessening
delinquency of at-risk youths. For the adolescents in this study, it
seemed that involvement in extra-curricular activities could not
counter the negative consequences of weakened relationships with
caregivers.
Tobetter understandtheassociationbetweenincreaseddelinquency
and participation in activities, we also included type of placement as a
predictor. Past research suggests that the relative risk for delinquency is
at least double for adolescents who have had at least one group home
placement (Ryan, Marshall, et al., 2008). Findings of this study indicate
that adolescents in group homes had the highest delinquency scores
compared to youths in kinship or traditional foster care placements.
Conversely, adolescents in kinship settings had the lowest delinquency
scores by both adolescent and caregiver report. Perhaps maintaining
family connections through kinship placements (Holtan et al., 2005;
Rushton & Minnis, 2002) promotes social control and prosocial
behaviors and serves as a protective factor for adolescents who are
more at risk of becoming involved in delinquent behavior.
For youths in foster care, resiliency is an important factor, as
adolescents are already predisposed to delinquent behaviors (Bender,
2010; Lemmon, 2006; Widom, 2003). Bender (2010) states that it is
the responsibility of child welfare professionals to advocate for
services that may deter later delinquency. In the general population,
community efforts have attempted to address the needs of at-risk
youths by developing and offering specic youth activities (De Wit
et al., 2007). However, ndings of this study may suggest that no
matter how many activities an adolescent in foster care is involved
with, if there is not a positive relationship between the youths and
their caregiver more delinquent behaviors may be expected. Moretti
Table 2
Means, standard deviation, and one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) for youth
reports of delinquency (N=111).
Variables Youth report of delinquency
Mean SD SS MS F
Frequency of activities
Less than once a week 56.7 7.2 583.5 291.7 3.3

12 times a week 57.1 6.6

3 or more times a week 61.5 12.0
Closeness to caregiver
Not close 58.6 9.4 407.4 203.7 2.2
Somewhat close 63.9 9.9
Close 58.2 9.7
Out of home placement type
Foster home 57.2 8.5 483.6 241.8 2.8
Kinship care 56.1 8.6
Group home 61.8 11.3
pb0.01.
Table 3
Means, standard deviation, and one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) for caregiver
reports of delinquency (N=113).
Caregiver report of delinquency
Variables Mean SD SS MS F
Frequency of activities
Less than once a week 61.4 8.2 1200.9 600.4 7.9

12 times a week 59.3 7.9

3 or more times a week 66.7 9.7
Closeness to caregiver
Not close 66.3 8.6 687.6 343.8 4.2

Somewhat close 67.0 10.1

Close 61.2 9.3
Out of home placement type
Foster home 62.4 8.7 629.2 314.6 4.6

Kinship care 58.1 7.3

Group home 65.2 8.6
pb0.01.
966 H.M. Farineau, L.M. McWey / Children and Youth Services Review 33 (2011) 963968
et al. (2004) indicated that interventions aimed toward improving
caregiveradolescent relationships diminish adolescent delinquency.
Findings of the present study suggest that it may be important to invest
in interventions promoting a child's adjustment to their out-of-home
placement. Family therapy to improve caregiverchild relationships
may be important not only for family adjustment but for the prevention
of longer-term outcomes including adolescent delinquency.
There are several limitations of this study that warrant consider-
ation. First, the relationships between involvement in activities and
delinquency examined in this study are not causal. Perhaps if an
adolescent exhibits delinquent behavior, their caregiver may involve
them in more activities. To address this in future research, it may be
helpful to evaluate delinquency or other externalizing behaviors
before an adolescent participates in specic activities, and then assess
outcomes longitudinally.
In addition, we were unable to assess the type of activities in which
adolescents participated. Persson et al. (2007) stated that the type of
activity a youth participated in is an important consideration.
Activities that have regularly scheduled practices or meetings may
provide a sense of structure to adolescents' lives. Conversely, research
indicates that children who participated in unstructured activities had
greater delinquency scores compared to those who were in structured
extra-curricular activities (Persson et al., 2007). Adolescents in foster
care may face multiple changes and instabilities with changing
placements, foster parents, and even case managers. Unstructured
activities may have an iatrogenic effect resulting in higher rates of
delinquency for this specic population (Mahoney & Stattin, 2000).
Unfortunately, in the present study, information regarding whether
the activity was structured or not was not available. Future research
could distinguish between structured and unstructured activities to
determine if structured activities are indeed associated with better
outcomes.
Peer contagion may be another central contributing factor to the
unanticipated effects of involvement in activities on delinquency. As
others have suggested, although activities may promote social bonds,
they may also provide opportunities for adolescents to interact with
peers with similar attitudes toward delinquency (Ryan, Marshall,
et al., 2008). In this study, adolescents reporting the most frequent
participation in activities had the signicantly higher scores on
delinquency by both adolescent and caregiver report. Associations
with other peers may be an important variable to consider in future
research.
The sample size of this study was relatively small given the total
sample size of the LTFC subsample of the NSCAW dataset. Although
including all children in the LTFC subsample, regardless of age, would
have afforded greater statistical power, restricting this study to the
examination of adolescents in long-term foster care allowed impor-
tant distinctions to be detected. The age ranges of children in past
research vary widely and data fromyoung children are often analyzed
simultaneously with data from older children; however there are
important developmental differences between younger children and
adolescents. We specically limited our sample to adolescents
because of the important increased risk for delinquent behavior
among adolescents. Although the consequence of limiting the sample
to adolescents reduced the sample size, it allowed us to begin to
understand factors associated with delinquent behaviors specically
for adolescents.
6. Conclusion
Determining ways to decrease problematic behavior of adolescents
in foster care may help protect them from the serious longer-term
consequences of delinquency, suchas criminal activity as adults (Ryan,
Herz, et al., 2007). The increased risk for negative outcomes for youths
in foster care has long been documented. Results of this study suggest
that participation in activities may not, by itself, buffer the risk for
delinquent behaviors of adolescents in foster care. Rather, promoting
an adolescent's social control by working to improve their relationship
with their caregiver may improve behavioral outcomes. Rigorous
examination of protective factors is needed to help promote a sense of
belongingness and well-being for adolescents in foster care.
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the youth self-report and 1991 prole. Burlington:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.
Bender, K. (2010). Why do some maltreated youth become juvenile offenders? A call
for further investigation and adaptation of youth services. Children and Youth
Services Review, 32, 466473, doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.10.022.
Cernkovich, S. A., Lanctot, N., & Giordano, P. (2008). Predicting adolescent and adult
antisocial behavior among adjudicated delinquent females. Crime and Delinquency,
54, 333.
De Wit, D. J., Lipman, E., Manzano-Munguia, M., Bisanz, J., Graham, K., Offord, D. R., et al.
(2007). Feasability of a randomized controlled trial for evaluating the effectiveness
of the Big Brothers Big Sisters community match program at the national level.
Children and Youth Services Review, 29, 383404.
Dubowitz, H., Feigelman, S., Harrington, D., Starr, R., Zuravin, S., &Sawyer, R. (1994). Children
in kinship care: How do they fare? Children and Youth Services Review, 16, 85106.
Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2006). Is extracurricular participation associated with
benecial outcomes? Concurrent and longitudinal relations. Developmental
Psychology, 42, 698713, doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.698.
Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ruffolo, M. C., Ortega, R. M., & Clarke, J. (2007). Behaviors of youth
involved in the child welfare system. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 3559, doi:
10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.09.004.
Haskett, M. E., Nears, K., Ward, C. S., & McPherson, A. V. (2006). Diversity in adjustment
of maltreated children: Factors associated with resilient functioning. Clinical
Psychology Review, 26, 796812, doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.03.005.
Heinger, C. A., Simpkins, C. G., & Combs-Orme, T. (2000). Using the CBCL to determine
the clinical status of children in state custody. Children and Youth Services Review,
22, 5573.
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Holtan, A., Ronning, J. A., Handegayrd, B. H., & Sourander, A. (2005). A comparison of
mental health problems in kinship and nonkinship foster care. European Child &
Adolescent Psychiatry, 14, 200207.
Jonson-Reid, M. (1998). Youth violence and exposure to violence in childhood: An
ecological review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 3, 159179.
Jonson-Reid, M., & Barth, R. P. (2000). Fromplacement to prison: The path to adolescent
incarceration fromchild welfare supervised foster or group care. Children and Youth
Services Review, 22, 493516.
Kools, S. (1997). Adolescent identity development in foster care. Family Relations, 46,
263271.
Lemmon, J. H. (2006). The effects of maltreatment recurrence and child welfare services
on dimensions of delinquency. Criminal Justice Review, 31, 532, doi:
10.1177/0734016806287945.
Leon, S., Ragsdale, B., Miller, S., & Spacarelli, S. (2008). Trauma resilience among youth
in substitute care demonstrating sexual behavior problems. Child Abuse & Neglect,
32, 6781.
Li, S. D. (2004). The impacts of self-control and social bonds on juvenile delinquency in
a national sample of mid-adolescents. Deviant Behavior, 25, 351373.
Linville, D. C., & Hurbner, A. J. (2005). The analysis of extracurricular activities and their
relationship to youth violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 483492, doi:
10.1007/s10964-005-7265-9.
Mahoney, J. L. (2000). School extracurricular activity participation as a moderator in the
development of antisocial patterns. Child Development, 71, 502516.
Mahoney, J. L., & Stattin, H. (2000). Leisure activities and adolescent antisocial behavior:
The role of structure and social context. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 113127, doi:
10.1006/jado.2000.0302.
Moretti, M., Holland, R., Moore, K., & McKay, S. (2004). An attachment-based parenting
program for caregivers of severely conduct-disordered adolescents: Preliminary
ndings. Journal of Child and Youth Care Work, 19, 170179.
National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect (2002). National survey of child and
adolescent well-being research brief. [On-line]. Retrieved on September 21, 2005, from.
http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/core/ongoingresearch/acf/wellbeing_reports.html.
Persson, A., Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2007). Staying in or moving away from structures
activities: Explanations involving parents and peers. Developmental Psychology, 43,
197207.
Redding, R. E., Fried, C., & Britner, P. A. (2000). Predictors of placement outcomes in
treatment foster care: Implications for foster parent selection and service delivery.
Journal of Child and Family Studies, 4, 425447.
Rosenthal, J. A., & Curiel, H. F. (2006). Modeling behavioral problems of children in the
child welfare system: Caregiver, youth, and teacher perceptions. Children and Youth
Services Review, 28, 13911408.
Rushton, A., & Minnis, H. (2002). Residential and foster family care in child and
adolescent psychiatry. In M. Rutter, & E. Taylor (Eds.), Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry: Modern Approaches. Blackwell.
Ryan, J. P., Hernandez, P. M., & Herz, D. (2007). Developmental trajectories of offending
for male adolescents leaving foster care. Social Work Research, 31(2), 8393.
Ryan, J. P., Herz, D., Hernandez, P. M., & Marshall, J. M. (2007). Maltreatment and
delinquency: Investigating child welfare bias in juvenile justice processing.
Children and Youth Services Review, 29, 10351050.
967 H.M. Farineau, L.M. McWey / Children and Youth Services Review 33 (2011) 963968
Ryan, J. P., Marshall, J. M., Herz, D., & Hernandez, P. M. (2008). Juvenile delinquency in
child welfare: Investigating group home effects. Children and Youth Services Review,
30, 10881099, doi:10.1016/j/childyouth.2008.02.004.
Ryan, J. P., & Testa, M. F. (2005). Child maltreatment and juvenile delinquency:
Investigating the role of placement and placement instability. Children and Youth
Services Review, 27, 227249.
Ryan, J. P., Testa, M. F., & Zhai, F. (2008). African American males in foster care and
delinquency: The value of social bonds and permanence. Child Welfare, 87,
115140.
Sandford, R. A., Duncombe, R., &Armour, K. M. (2008). The role of physical activity/sport in
tackling youth disaffection and anti-social behavior. Educational Review, 60, 419435,
doi:10.1080/00131910802393464.
Simons, R. L., Chao, W., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (2001). Quality of parenting as
mediator of the effect of childhood deance on adolescent friendship choices and
delinquency: Agrowth curve analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 6379.
Tiet, Q. Q., Huizinga, D., & Byrnes, H. F. (2010). Predictors of resilience among inner city
youths. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 360378.
Widom, C. (2003). Understanding child maltreatment and juvenile delinquency: The
research. In J. Wiig, C. Widom, & J. A. Tuell (Eds.), Understanding child maltreatment
and juvenile delinquency from research to effective program, practice, and system
solutions (pp. 110). Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America.
Zima, B. T., Bussing, R., Yang, X., & Belin, T. R. (2000). Help seeking steps and service use
for children in foster care. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 27,
271285.
968 H.M. Farineau, L.M. McWey / Children and Youth Services Review 33 (2011) 963968