604

u.179
0.170
0.160
0.150
0.141
0.131
0.121
0.112
0.102
0.092
0.082
0.073
0.063
Seismic 23
in terms of Widesss (1982) criteria. Model studies confirm
that resolution has a linear relationship to signal bandwidth
but is affected by noise in a nonlinear way. Under conditions
of high noise, more benefit is gained from an improvement in
the signal-to-noise (SIN) ratio than from an increase in signal
bandwidth. A square shaped frequency spectrum gives bet-
ter resolution than a tapered spectrum. Resolution is shown
to be a function of the effective bandwidth. One Hz of
bandwidth at low frequency is just as important as I Hz at
high frequency.
Reflection polarity affects the peak amplitude of the
composite waveform of closely spaced reflections. For
noise-free models, polarity is critical in the prediction of
boundary spacing based on waveform amplitude. Polarity
has little significance when noise is introduced into the
model.
FIG. 5
combined with appropriate processing allow an approxi-
mately correct interval velocity beneath the bit. From the
interval velocity, depth may be computed as a function of
time and velocity. Depth and interval velocity provide for
calculations for pore pressure and porosity to be made by
standard formulas. Pore pressure calculation depends pri-
marily on depth and interval transit times. Reliability is then
a function of the accuracy of the inversion. Porosity predic-
tion however requires more knowledge or assumptions of
rock properties. Tests made on appropriate VSP data result
in reasonable values of pore pressure and porosity. Estima-
tion of rock properties has sufficient merit to continue
research and development of the concept.
Seismic 24dnterpretation: Theory
Limit of Resolution as a Function of Noise, S24.1
Frequency Spectrum and Reflection Polarity
Harry R. Espey, Grotran, Inc.
A first priority of seismic interpretation is the recognition
of valid reflection events. Noise-free model studies have in
the past shown the resolution of closely spaced reflections to
be limited by the signal bandwidth, bandshape, and phase
spectrum. Such resolution has little meaning if reflections
cannot be recognized in the presence of typical noise. The
ability to identify a distinct event is limited by the amplitude
and frequency spectrum of the noise relative to the signal.
The bandwidth and bandshape of the signal spectrum affect
the distinctness of individual events as well as the resolution
of closely spaced reflections.
The resolving power of different waveforms are evaluated
Resolving power
Widess quantified resolving power in terms of the peak
signal amplitude (a,) relative to the total waveform energy
(0.
P,, = c,,,, lE.
Based on the formula, a spike (reflection containing all
frequencies) has infinite resolving power, and an infinite
time duration event (reflection containing 1 frequency) has
zero resolving power. The formula provides a convenient
means of evaluating the resolving power of different wave-
forms.
Widess defined resolution as the reciprocal of the resolv-
ing power and suggested a formula for resolution under
noise-free conditions.
T,- = l/(2 x bandwidth).
Kallweit defined resolution in terms of the upper frequency
of the spectrum (f,,).
The two formulas give very similar results when the wavelet
band ratio exceeds two octaves, but Widesss definition is
more general since it is not restricted by bandwidth.
Spectrum shape
The zero-phase wavelets shown in Figure I both have a
bandwidth of lo-40 Hz, but the spectrum of wavelet A has a
box shape and B has a sin ramp at the lower and upper
boundaries. Wavelet A appears to have superior quality as a
function of side lobe energy, but the resolving power,
calculated by Widesss formula, is greater for wavelet B.
Wavelet B also looks more like a spike function. The
resolving power calculations indicate that closely spaced
reflection boundaries can be resolved better with wavelet B
than with A. This is shown to be true in model studies.
The resolving power of reflection wavelets is a function of
the effective bandwidth of the spectrum. A wavelet with
specified bandwidth and box-shaped spectrum gives better
resolution than a wavelet with a sin ramp function at the
spectrum edges. A linear ramp function produces less reso-
lution than a sin ramp function. The total area under the
frequency spectrum curve controls the resolution. A spec-
trum with a linear ramp will give the same resolution as a box
Seismic 24
605
FIG. 1. Effect of band shape on wedge resolution.
spectrum over a lesser bandwidth when the area under each
spectrum curve is equal.
Figure 2 shows noise-free models for a geologic wedge
which varies in thickness from .004 to .042 sec. The models
were generated by convolving zero-phase wavelets with the
reflectivity function. Model A wavelet has a box spectrum
ranging from lo-40 Hz and B has the same bandwidth, but
shaped with a sin ramp function. Model C wavelet has a sin
ramp spectrum with a bandwidth of 6.6 to 43.3 Hz giving it
the same effective bandwidth as model A. A .OlO-set
wedge separation produces a composite waveform suggest-
ing two reflection events for model A, but a separation of
.012 set is necessary for distinctness in model B. Model C
wavelet has an absolute bandwidth greater than model A,
but the resolution is essentially the same. The wavelet used
in model C was designed to have an effective bandwidth
equal to that of model As wavelet.
The results shown in Figures 1 and 2 indicate that better
resolution may be obtained by using a box-shaped spectrum
for band-pass filtering of seismic data. This is contrary to the
usual practice of ramping the filter function to minimize the
ringing effect. The results also indicate that the amplitude
of a vibrator sweep signal should not be ramped at the
beginning and end of the sweep. The sweep is commonly
ramped to minimize side lobe energy. but at the sacrifice of
total energy radiated from the base plate. The resolving
FIG. 2. Effect of band shape on wedge resolution.
power of the nonramped sweep is greater, and the maximum
energy of the vibrator system is utilized,
Bandwidth and center frequency
Widesss formula suggests that resolution is a function of
the spectrum bandwidth alone. Model studies confirmed that
a zero-phase wavelet with a box spectrum ranging from I5 to
30 Hz gives half the resolution of a wavelet with a spectrum
of 10 to 40 Hz. A wavelet with a spectrum of IO to 70 Hz has
twice the resolution of the 10 to 40 Hz wavelet.
The center frequency of the spectrum has little effect of
resolution. A wavelet with 30 Hz bandwidth has the same
resolution whether the spectrum has a center frequency of 35
or 135 Hz. This is illustrated in Figure 3 using a wedge model
convolved with two wavelets having the same bandwidth but
different central frequency. The wavelet with the higher
center frequency has a cyclic appearance with a short time
betwen cycle peaks, but the time duration of the complete
wavelet is essentially the same as the wavelet with a lower
frequency spectrum. Since the time duration of the wavelet
is a function of the bandwidth, no advantage is gained by
shifting to a higher frequency.
The results of the model study in Figure 3 suggest that
seismic data acquisition should be carried out in a way that
preserves the maximum bandwidth. Filtering out low fre-
quency energy, during acquisition or processing, gives the
misleading impression of high resolution due to closely
spaced cycle peaks in the signal waveform. The time dura-
tion of the wavelet can be reduced by the addition of low
frequency energy, thereby giving better resolution. Low
frequency energy propagates with the least amount of atten-
uation and is therefore available with greater S/N strength
than high frequency energy. One Hz of bandwidth at a low
frequency is just as important as I Hz at a high frequency.
Noise
Recognition of a single reflection event as well as the
distinction of two closely spaced events depends on the level
of noise relative to signal amplitude. Resolution. defined by
noise-free models, has little meaning when a reflection event
cannot be recognized in real data containing noise. The most
5-35 HZ 120-150 HZ
FIG. 3. Effect of central frequency on resolution.
606
Seismic 24
critical noise occupies the same frequency spectrum as the
desired signal. Noise lying outside the signal spectrum can
be filtered out without loss of resolution.
Widess includes noise in a definition of resolving power,
where r is the S/N ratio. The resolution (T,) was previously
shown to be equal to the inverse of resolving power (P,).
Therefore,
T,. = (1 + l/r )/2 x bandwidth.
This is an interesting relationship because it shows that for
all practical purposes resolution is controlled by the signal
bandwidth when the SIN is greater than 211, but resolution is
significantly degraded when the SIN drops below l/l. In-
creasing the bandwidth 2 to 1 improves resolving power by
100 percent. An improvement in S/N from .5/l to l/l
improves resolving power by 250 percent, but an improve-
ment in S/N from 211 to 411 only improves resolving power
by 18 percent.
Figure 4 shows the result of introducing noise into the
wedge model shown previously. An S/N ratio of S/l causes
a level of interference that makes it difficult if not impossible
to recognize the geologic feature. Viewing Figure 4 from a
low grazing angle (by turning the page on edge) improves the
perception of the wedge. It may be possible to predict the
thickness of the wedge because of its linear trend. In the case
of a real geologic wedge, with somewhat irregular thinning, it
would be very difficult to predict accurately the thickness
with any noise present. Prediction of bed thickness on the
basis of amplitude changes would be futile. The model with
an S/N ratio of l/l shows substantial improvement in resolu-
tion as might be expected from the resolving power formula.
Noise-free model studies suggest that thin beds can be
resolved by observation of subtle changes in the composite
waveform character. Such waveform changes would be
difficult to detect with confidence in the models in Figure 4.
SIN - .S11
SIN - 111
FIG. 4. Effect of noise on wedge resolution.
Many techniques are available in seismic data acquisition
to attenuate noise, including the use of source-receiver
arrays, vertical stack, and CDP stack. An increase of
bandwidth can be achieved by improving the low frequency
response of the detector and instrument systems, but an
increase in high frequency response is difficult due to the
absorption properties of the sedimentary section. Therefore,
more opportunities are available to improve the SIN than to
increase the bandwidth but from the above analysis there is
little benefit in increasing the S/N greater than 211.
Polarity
Noise-free model studies show that closely spaced beds
cause reflection wavelets to add together constructively or
destructively depending on the bed spacing and the frequen-
cy spectrum of the wavelets. The peak amplitude of the
composite waveform is also affected by the polarity of the
reflections. Under noise-free conditions, bed thickness can
be predicted on the basis of the wavelet amplitude provided
the polarity is known. Model studies show that a signal-to-
noise ratio of better than 411 is necessary if amplitude is to be
used to predict bed thickness. Even a small amount of noise
corrupts the waveform amplitude and limits the accuracy of
thickness predictions. Under typical noise conditions, the
waveform polarity has little significance.
Seismic Properties of Thin Layers
A. .I. Berkhout und D. de Vries, Delft Univ. of
Technology, The Netherlands
S24.2
In the seismic literature, thin layers are often treated by
ray theory. In this paper we show that this approach
oversimplifies the problem and may lead to erroneous con-
clusions. The theory of thin layers is reconsidered from first
principles. It is shown that for a correct derivation of seismic
properties, the wave equation for bending waves (flexural
waves) should be included in the treatment of elastic bound-
ary conditions. The proposed theory leads to new expres-
sions for the reflection and transmission properties of thin
layers. One of the interesting conclusions shows that thin
layers are fully transparent for longitudinal waves if the
apparent wavelength of the incident wave along the thin
layer equals the wavelength of the free bending wave inside
the thin layer. The proposed theory can also be successfully
applied to thin surface layers. As an example, expressions
are derived for the surface particle velocity of an upward
traveling wave field in situations where a thin weathered
layer overlies a consolidated overburden.
Introduction
Thin layers occur almost everywhere in the subsurface.
Sedimentary sequences are always deposited in thin layers.
However, in many situations the difference of the seismic
velocities between the individual layers is small and an entire
package of thin layers may be considered as a single thick
one. In special situations, thin layers occur in the subsurface
with significantly different elastic properties. We mention
low-impedance coal layers, thin high-velocity limestone lay-
ers, and thin low-velocity surface layers. In these situations
the seismic behavior of thin layers should be considered
separately. Particularly with respect to coal layers, much
work has been done in this field.