A PROJECT REPORT ON

UTILIZATION OF WASTE HEAT IN

AUTOMOBILES

SUBMITTED TO

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI

VISHWAVIDYALAYA
(M.P.)

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING (MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)

YEAR 2008-09

BY
TARUN KUMAR DUBEY

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PROF. S.S GAUTAM

LECTURER
DEPT. OF MECH ENGG.
 GWALIOR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GWALIOR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
GWALIOR (M.P.)

Submitted to: submitted by:

PROF. S.S. GAUTAM TARUN KR. DUBEY
LECTURER
DEPT. OF MECH ENGG

GWALIOR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

GWALIOR (M.P.)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
 This is to certify that
TARUN KR. DUBEY
students of Bachelor of Engineering(MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING) VII semester has submitted a project
report on UTILIZATION OF WASTE HEAT IN
AUTOMOBILES under the guidance of PROF.
S.S.GAUTAM for the partial fulfillment of the VII Semester
of Bachelor of Engineering(Mechanical Engineering) and
submitted a satisfactory report of the project. This work has
not been submitted in part or full to this or any other
university for the award of any degree or diploma to the best
of my knowledge.

We wish him/ her success in the future.

Prof. S.S. GAUTAM

Lectuter
Dept of Mech. Engg.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With extreme happiness we would like to thank all the
helping hands which helped us to complete the project been
taken by us.
A special thanks is given to our guide Mr.
K.N.SHRIVASTAV who constantly supported us to complete
our project in the best way possible.

A very special thanks to our H.O.D. Mr.

ASHUTOSH SHARMA who encouraged us to finish
this project. His ideas helped us to sort out and repair
the errors at certain very crucial stages of the project.

Our heartily gratitude’s towards our department

faculties and lab staff members who helped us in their best
possible way along with their practical ideas to complete our
project.

TARUN KR. DUBEY

Contents

1. Introduction to Project.
2. Engine.

3. Engine operation.

4. Thermoelectric Effect.

5. Basic on which project is based.

6. Theory of the project.

7. Thomson effect.

8. Figure of merit.

9. Types of thermocouple.

10. Advantages and Disadvantages.

What new to do with waste heat in Automobiles?

If you have a lot of heat, then you can do what Power plants do
you can use the heat to generate steam, and use the steam to spin a
turbine. The turbine can drive a generator, which produces
electricity. This setup is very common, but it requires a fair
amount of equipment and space.

If you would like to generate electricity from heat in a simple way

that has no moving parts, this usually involves thermocouples.

Thermocouples take advantage of an electrical effect that occurs

at junctions between different metals. For example, take two iron
wires and one copper wire. Twist one end of the copper wire and
one end of one of the iron wires together. Do the same with the
other end of the copper wire and the other iron wire. If you heat
one of the twisted junctions (perhaps with a match) and attach the
two free ends to a volt meter, you will be able to measure a
voltage. Similarly, if you hook the two iron wires to a battery one
junction will get hot and the other will get cold.

ENGINE
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the
combuston of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a
confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic
reaction creates gases at high tempreture and, pressure which
are permitted to expand. Internal combustion engines are
defined by the useful work that is performed by the expanding
hot gases acting directly to cause the movement of solid parts of
the engine.

The term Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is often used to

refer to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as a
Wankel engine or a reciprocating piston engine in which there is
controlled movement of pistons, cranks, cams, or rods. However,
continuous combustion engines such as jet engines, most
rockets, and many gas turbines are also classified as types of
internal combustion engines. This contrasts with external
combustion engines such as steam engines and stirling engines
that use a separate combustion chamber to heat a separate
working fluid which then in turn does work, for example, by
moving a piston or a turbine.

A huge number of different designs for internal combustion

engines exist, each with different strengths and weaknesses.
Although they're used for many different purposes, internal
combustion engines particularly see use in mobile applications
such as cars, aircraft, and even handheld applications: all where
their ability to use an energy-dense fuel (especiallyfossil fuels) to
deliver a high power-to-weight ratio is particularly
advantageous.
Applications
The motion of internal combustion engines is usually performed
by the controlled movement of pistons, cranks, rods, rotors, or
even the entire engine itself.

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile

propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. In mobile
equipment, internal combustion is advantageous since it can
provide high power-to-weight ratios together with excellent
fuelenergy density. Generally using fossil fuel(mainly
petroleum), these engines have appeared in transport in almost
all vehicles (automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a
wide variety of aircrafts and locomotives). These vehicles, when
they are not hybrid, are called All-Petroleum Internal
Combustion Engine Vehicles (APICEVs) or All Fossil Fuel
Internal Combustion Vehicles (AFFICEVs).

Internal combustion engines appear in the form of gas turbines

as well where a very high power is required, such as injet
aircraft, helicoptores, and large ships. They are also frequently
used for electric generator and by industry.
Operation

Four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle)

1.Intake
2.compression
3.power
4. exhaust

Basic process
Internal combustion engines have 4 basic steps:

• Intake

Combustible mixtures are emplaced in the combustion chamber

• Compression

The mixtures are placed under pressure

• Combustion/Expansion
The mixture is burnt, almost invariably a deflagration, although
a few systems involve detonation. The hot mixture is expanded,
pressing on and moving parts of the engine and performing
useful work.

• Exhaust

The cooled combustion products are exhausted

Many engines overlap these steps in time, jet engines do all steps
simultaneously at different parts of the engines. Some internal
combustion engines have extra steps.

Combustion
All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic
chemical process ofcombustion: the reaction of afuel, typically
with oxygen from the air—although other oxidizers such as
nitrous oxide may be employed. The combustion process typically
results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as
the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals
at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined
by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers .

The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons

and are derived mostly fromfossil fuels. Because of this, vehicles
that uses this energy are called All-Fossil Fuel Internal
Combustion Engine Vehicles (AFFICEVs). Fossil fuels include
dieselfuel, gasoline and petrolieum gas, and the rarer use
ofpropane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most
internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use
can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without
major modifications. Liquid and gaseousbiofuels such as ethanol
and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops
that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used.
Some engines with appropriate modifications can also run on
hydrogengas.

All internal combustion engines must achieve ignition in their

cylinders to create combustion. Typically engines use either a
spark ignition(SI)method or a compression ignition(CI) system.
In the past, other methods using hot tubes or flames have been
used.

Gasoline Ignition Process

Gasoline engine ignition systems generally rely on a combination

of a lead-acid battery and an induction coil to provide a high-
voltage electrical spark to ignite the air-fuel mix in the engine's
cylinders. This battery is recharged during operation using an
electricity-generating device such as an alternator or generator
driven by the engine. Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air
and gasoline and compress it to not more than 185 psi, then use
a spark plug to ignite the mixture when it is compressed by the
piston head in each cylinder.

Diesel Ignition Process

Diesel engines and HCCI engines, rely solely on heat and

pressure created by the engine in its compression process for
ignition. The compression level that occurs is usually twice or
more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines will take in air only,
and shortly before peak compression, a small quantity of diesel
fuel is sprayed into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the
fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines will take in both air
and fuel but continue to rely on an unaided auto-combustion
process, due to higher pressures and heat. This is also why diesel
and HCCI engines are more susceptible to cold-starting issues,
although they will run just as well in cold weather once started.
Light duty diesel engines in automobiles and light trucks employ
glow plugs that pre-heat the combustion chamber just before
starting to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather. Most
diesels also have a battery and charging system; nevertheless,
this system is secondary and is added by manufacturers as a
luxury for the ease of starting, turning fuel on and off (which
can also be done via a switch or mechanical apparatus), and for
running auxiliary electrical components and accessories. Most
new engines rely on electrical and electronic control systems that
also control the combustion process to increase efficiency and
reduce emissions.

Measures of engine performance

Engine types vary greatly in a number of different ways:

• Energy effeciency
• fuel/propellant consumption (brake specific fuel
consumtion for shaft engines, thrust specific fuel
consumption for jet engines)
• power to weight ratio
• thrust to weight ratio
• torque curves(for shaft engines)
Energy Efficiency
Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products—hot gases—
have more available thermal energy than the original
compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higherchemical energy).
The available energy is manifested as high tempreture and
pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a
reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the
cylinders drive the engine's pistons.

Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot
gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the
exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous
position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed
to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any
heat that isn't translated into work is normally considered a
waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or
liquid cooling system.

Engine efficiency can be discussed in a number of ways but it

usually involves a comparison of the total chemical energy in the
fuels, and the useful energy abstracted from the fuels in the form
of kinetic energy. The most fundamental and abstract discussion
of engine efficiency is the thermodynamic limit for abstracting
energy from the fuel defined by a thermodynamic cycle. The
most comprehensive is the empirical fuel economy of the total
engine system for accomplishing a desired task; for example, the
miles per gallon accumulated.

Internal combustion engines are primarily heat engines and as

such the phenomenon that limits their efficiency is described by
thermodynamic cycles. None of these cycles exceed the limit
defined by the Carnot cycle which states that the overall
efficiency is dictated by the difference between the lower and
upper operating temperatures of the engine. A terrestrial engine
is usually and fundamentally limited by the upper thermal
stability derived from the material used to make up the engine.
All metals and alloys eventually melt or decompose and there is
significant researching into ceramic materials that can be made
with higher thermal stabilities and desirable structural
properties. Higher thermal stability allows for greater
temperature difference between the lower and upper operating
temperatures—thus greater thermodynamic efficiency.

The thermodynamic limits assume that the engine is

operating in ideal conditions. A frictionless world, ideal gases,
perfect insulators, and operation at infinite time. The real world
is substantially more complex and all the complexities reduce the
efficiency. In addition, real engines run best at specific loads and
rates as described by their power curve. For example, a car
cruising on a highway is usually operating significantly below its
ideal load, because the engine is designed for the higher loads
desired for rapid acceleration. The applications of engines are
used as contributed drag on the total system reducing overall
efficiency, such as wind resistance designs for vehicles. These
and many other losses result in an engines' real-world fuel
economy that is usually measured in the units of miles per gallon
(or kilometers per liter) for automobiles. The miles in, "MPG"
represents a meaningful amount of work and the volume of
hydrocarbon implies a standard energy content.

Most steel engines have a thermodynamic limit of 37%. Even

when aided with turbochargers and stock efficiency aids, most
engines retain an average efficiency of about 18%-20%.
 There are many inventions concerned with increasing
the efficiency of IC-Engines. In general, practical engines are
always compromised by trade-offs between different properties
such as efficiency, weight, power, heat, response, exhaust
emissions, or noise. Sometimes economy also plays a role in not
only in the cost of manufacturing the engine itself, but also
manufacturing and distributing the fuel. Increasing the engines'
efficiency brings better fuel economy but only if the fuel cost per
energy content is the same.

Seebeck effect
The See beck effect is the conversion
of temperature differences directly
into electricity.
Seebeck discovered that a
compass needle would be deflected
when a closed loop was formed of
two metals joined in two places with
a temperature difference between
the junctions. This is because the
metals respond differently to the
temperature difference, which
creates a current loop, which
produces a magnetic field. Seebeck,
however, at this time did not
recognize there was an electric
current involved, so he called the
phenomenon the thermomagnetic
effect, thinking that the two metals
became magnetically polarized by the
temperature gradient. The Danish
physicist Hans Christia Ørsted played
a vital role in explaining and
conceiving the term
"thermoelectricity".

The effect is that a voltage, the

thermoelectric EMF, is created in the
presence of a temperature difference
between two different metals or
semiconductors. This causes a
continuous current in the conductors
if they form a complete loop. The
voltage created is of the order of
several microvolts per kelvin
difference. One such combination,
copper-constantan, has a Seebeck
coefficient of 41 microvolts per kelvin
at room temperature.
In the circuit:
(which can be in several different
configurations and be governed by
the same equations), the voltage
developed can be derived from:

SA and SB are the Seebeck coefficients

(also called thermoelectric power or
thermopower) of the metals A and B
as a function of temperature, and T1
and T2 are the temperatures of the
two junctions. The Seebeck
coefficients

are non-linear as a function of

temperature, and depend on the
conductors' absolute temperature,
material, and molecular structure. If
the Seebeck coefficients are
effectively constant for the measured
temperature range, the above
formula can be approximated as:

The Seebeck effect is commonly used

in a device called a thermocouple
(because it is made from a coupling
or junction of materials, usually
metals) to measure a temperature
difference directly or to measure an
absolute temperature by setting one
end to a known temperature. Several
thermocouples when connected in
series are called a thermopile, which
is sometimes constructed in order to
increase the output voltage since the
voltage induced over each individual
couple is small.
This is also the principle at work
behind thermal diodes and
thermoelectric generators (such as
radioisotope thermoelectric
generators or RTGs) which are used
for creating power from heat
differentials.
The Seebeck effect is due to two
effects: charge carrier diffusion and
phonon drag (described below). If
both connections are held at the
same temperature, but one
connection is periodically opened and
closed, an AC voltage is measured,
which is also temperature dependent.

This application of the Kelvin probe is

sometimes used to argue that the
underlying physics only needs one
junction. And this effect is still visible
if the wires only come close, but do
not touch, thus no diffusion is
needed.

Thermopower
The thermopower, or thermoelectric
power, or Seebeck coefficient of a
material measure the magnitude of
an induced thermoelectric voltage in
response to a temperature difference
across that material. The
thermopower has units of (V / K),
though in practice it is more common
to use microvolts per kelvin. Values
in the hundreds of μV/K, negative or
positive, are typical of good
thermoelectric materials. The term
thermopower is a misnomer since it
measures the voltage or electric field
induced in response to a temperature
difference, not the electric power. An
applied temperature difference
causes charged carriers in the
material, whether they are electrons
or holes, to diffuse from the hot side
to the cold side, similar to a classical
gas that expands when heated.
Mobile charged carriers migrating to
the cold side leave behind their
oppositely charged and immobile
nuclei at the hot side thus giving rise
to a thermoelectric voltage
(thermoelectric refers to the fact that
the voltage is created by a
temperature difference). Since a
separation of charges also creates an
electric potential, the buildup of

charged carriers onto the cold side

eventually ceases at some maximum
value since there exists an equal
amount of charged carriers drifting
back to the hot side as a result of the
electric field at equilibrium. Only an
increase in the temperature
difference can resume a buildup of
more charge carriers on the cold side
and thus lead to an increase in the
thermoelectric voltage. Incidentally
the thermopower also measures the
entropy per charge carrier in the
material. To be more specific, the
partial molar electronic heat capacity
is said to equal the absolute
thermoelectric power multiplied by
the negative of Faraday's constant.

The thermopower of a
material, represented by S (or
sometimes by α), depends on the
material's temperature and crystal
structure. Typically metals have small
thermopowers because most have
half-filled bands. Electrons (negative
charges) and holes (positive charges)
both contribute to the induced
thermoelectric voltage thus canceling
each other's contribution to that
voltage and making it small. In
contrast, semiconductors can be
doped with an excess amount of
electrons or holes and thus can have
large positive or negative values of
the thermopower depending on the
charge of the excess carriers. The
sign of the thermopower can
determine which charged carriers
dominate the electric transport in
both metals and semiconductors.

If the temperature difference ΔT

between the two ends of a material is
small, then the thermopower of a
material is defined (approximately)
as:

and a thermoelectric voltage ΔV is

seen at the terminals.
This can also be written in relation to
the electric field E and the
temperature gradient , by the
approximate equation:
In practice one rarely measures the
absolute thermopower of the material
of interest. This is because electrodes
attached to a voltmeter must be
placed onto the material in order to
measure the thermoelectric voltage.
The temperature gradient then also
typically induces a thermoelectric
voltage across one leg of the
measurement electrodes. Therefore
the measured thermopower includes
a contribution from the thermopower
of the material of interest and the
material of the measurement
electrodes.
The measured thermopower is then a
contribution from both and can be
written as:

Superconductors have zero

thermopower since the charged
carriers produce no entropy. This
allows a direct measurement of the
absolute thermopower of the material
of interest, since it is the
thermopower of the entire
thermocouple as well. In addition, a
measurement of the Thomson
coefficient, μ, of a material can also
yield the thermopower through the
relation:
The thermopower is an important
material parameter that determines
the efficiency of a thermoelectric
material. A larger induced
thermoelectric voltage for a given
temperature gradient will lead to a
larger efficiency. Ideally one would
want very large thermopower values
since only a small amount of heat is
then necessary to create a large
voltage. This voltage can then be
used to provide power.

Charge-carrier diffusion
Charge carriers in the materials
(electrons in metals, electrons and
holes in semiconductors, ions in ionic
conductors) will diffuse when one end
of a conductor is at a different
temperature than the other. Hot
carriers diffuse from the hot end to
the cold end, since there is a lower
density of hot carriers at the cold end
of the conductor. Cold carriers diffuse
from the cold end to the hot end for
the same reason.

If the conductor were left to reach

thermodynamic equilibrium, this
process would result in heat being
distributed evenly throughout the
conductor. The movement of heat (in
the form of hot charge carriers) from
one end to the other is called a heat
current. As charge carriers are
moving, it is also an electrical
current.
In a system where both ends are kept
at a constant temperature difference
(a constant heat current from one
end to the other), there is a constant
diffusion of carriers. If the rate of
diffusion of hot and cold carriers in
opposite directions were equal, there
would be no net change in charge.
However, the diffusing charges are
scattered by impurities,
imperfections, and lattice vibrations
(phonons). If the scattering is energy
dependent, the hot and cold carriers
will diffuse at different rates. This
creates a higher density of carriers at
one end of the material, and the
distance between the positive and
negative charges produces a
potential difference; an electrostatic
voltage.
This electric field, however, opposes
the uneven scattering of carriers, and
an equilibrium is reached where the
net number of carriers diffusing in
one direction is canceled by the net
number of carriers moving in the
opposite direction from the
electrostatic field. This means the
thermopower of a material depends
greatly on impurities, imperfections,
and structural changes (which often
vary themselves with temperature
andzelectric field), and the
thermopower of a material is a
collection of many different effects.
Early thermocouples were metallic,
but many more recently developed
thermoelectric devices are made from
alternating p-type and n-type
semiconductor elements connected
by metallic interconnects as pictured
in the figures below. Semiconductor
junctions are especially common in
power generation devices, while
metallic junctions are more common
in temperature measurement. Charge
flows through the n-type element,
crosses a metallic interconnect, and
passes into the p-type element. If a
power source is provided, the
thermoelectric device may act as a
cooler, as in the figure to the left
below. This is the Peltier effect,
described in the next section.
Electrons in the n-type element will
move opposite the direction of
current and holes in the p-type
element will move in the direction of
current, both removing heat from one
side of the device. If a heat source is
provided, the thermoelectric device
may function as a power generator,
as in the figure to the right below.
The heat source will drive electrons
in the n-type element toward the
cooler region, thus creating a current
through the circuit. Holes in the p-
type element will then flow in the
direction of the current. The current
can then be used to power a load,
thus converting the thermal energy
into electrical energy.

Much research in thermoelectric materials

has focused on increasing the Seebeck
 coefficient and reducing the thermal
conductivity, especially by
manipulating the nanostructure of the
materials Peltier effect
This effect bears the name of Jean-Charles
Peltier (a french physicist) who discovered in
1834, the calorific effect of an electrical current
at the junction of two different metals. When a
current I is made to flow through the circuit,
heat is evolved at the upper junction (at T2),
and absorbed at the lower junction (at T1). The
Peltier heat absorbed by the lower junction per
unit time, is equal to

Where Π is the Peltier coefficient ΠAB of the

entire thermocouple, and ΠA and ΠB are the
coefficients of each material. P-type silicon

typically has a positive Peltier coefficient

(though not above ~550 K), and n-type silicon
is typically negative, as the names suggest.
The Peltier coefficients represent how much
heat current is carried per unit charge through
a given material. Since charge current must be
continuous across a junction, the associated
heat flow will develop a discontinuity if ΠA and
ΠB are different. This causes a non-zero
divergence at the junction and so heat must
accumulate or deplete there, depending on the
sign of the current. Another way to understand
how this effect could cool a junction is to note
that when electrons flow from a region of high
density to a region of low density, they expand
(as with an ideal gas) and cool.
The conductors are attempting to return to the
electron equilibrium that existed before the
current was applied by absorbing energy at
one connector and releasing it at the other.
The individual couples can be connected in
series to enhance the effect.
An interesting consequence of this effect is
that the direction of heat transfer is controlled
by the polarity of the current; reversing the
polarity will change the direction of transfer
and thus the sign of the heat
absorbed/evolved.
A Peltier cooler/heater or thermoelectric heat
pump is a solid-state active heat pump which
transfers heat from one side of the device to
the other. Peltier cooling is also called thermo-
electric cooling (TEC).
Thomson effect
The Thomson effect was predicted and
subsequently experimentally observed by
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1851. It
describes the heating or cooling of a current-
carrying conductor with a temperature
gradient.
Any current-carrying conductor (except for
a superconductor), with a temperature
difference between two points, will either
absorb or emit heat, depending on the
material.
If a current density J is passed through a
homogeneous conductor, heat production per
unit volume is:

where
ρ is the resistivity of the material
dT/dx is the temperature gradient along the
wire
μ is the Thomson coefficient.
The first term ρ J² is simply the Joule heating,
which is not reversible.
The second term is the Thomson heat, which
changes sign when J changes direction.
In metals such as zinc and copper, which have
a hotter end at a higher potential and a cooler
end at a lower potential, when current moves
from the hotter end to the colder end, it is
moving from a high

to a low potential, so there is an evolution of

heat. This is called the positive Thomson
effect.
In metals such as cobalt, nickel, and iron,
which have a cooler end at a higher potential
and a hotter end at a lower potential, when
current moves from the hotter end to the
colder end, it is moving from a low to a high
potential, there is an absorption of heat. This is
called the negative Thomson effect.
The Thomson coefficient is unique among the
three main thermoelectric coefficients because
it is the only thermoelectric coefficient directly
measurable for individual materials. The Peltier
and Seebeck coefficients can only be
determined for pairs of materials. Thus, there
is no direct experimental method to determine
an absolute Seebeck coefficient (i.e.
thermopower) or absolute Peltier coefficient for
an individual material. However, as mentioned
elsewhere in this article there are two
equations, the Thomson relations, also known
as the Kelvin relations (see below), relating the
three thermoelectric coefficients. Therefore,
only one can be considered unique.
If the Thomson coefficient of a material is
measured over a wide temperature range,
including temperatures close to zero, one can
then integrate the Thomson coefficient over
the temperature range using the Kelvin
relations to determine the absolute (i.e. single-
material) values for the Peltier and Seebeck
coefficients. In principle, this need only be
done for one material, since all other values
can be determined by measuring pairwise
Seebeck coefficients in thermocouples
containing the reference material and then
adding back the absolute thermoelecric power
(thermopower) of the reference material.

It is commonly asserted that lead has a zero

Thomson effect. While it is true that the
thermoelectric coefficients of lead are small,
they are in general non-zero. The Thomson
coefficient of lead has been measured over a
wide temperature range and has been
integrated to calculate the absolute
thermoelectric power (thermopower) of lead as
a function of temperature.
Unlike lead, the thermoelectric coefficients of
all known superconductors are zero.

The Thomson relationships

The Seebeck effect is actually a combination of
the Peltier and Thomson effects. In fact, in
1854 Thomson found two relationships, now
called the Thomson or Kelvin relationships,
between the corresponding coefficients. The
absolute temperature T, the Peltier coefficient
Π and Seebeck coefficient S are related by the
first Thomson relation

which predicted the Thomson effect before it

was actually formalized. These are related to
the Thomson coefficient μ by the second
Thomson relation

Thomson's theoretical treatment of

thermoelectricity is remarkable in the fact that
it is probably the first attempt to develop a
reasonable theory of irreversible
thermodynamics (non-equilibrium
thermodynamics). This occurred at about the
time that Clausius, Thomson, and others were
introducing and refining the concept of
entropy.
Figure of merit
The figure of merit for thermoelectric devices is
defined as

,
where σ is the electrical conductivity, λ is the
thermal conductivity, and S is the Seebeck
coefficient or thermopower (conventionally in
μV/K). This is more commonly expressed as the
dimensionless figure of merit ZT by multiplying
it with the average temperature ((T2 + T1) / 2).
Greater values of ZT indicate greater
thermodynamic efficiency, subject to certain
provisions, particularly the requirement that
the two materials of the couple have similar Z
values. ZT is therefore a very convenient figure
for comparing the potential efficiency of
devices using different materials. Values of
ZT=1 are considered good, and values of at
least the 3–4 range are considered to be
essential for thermoelectrics to compete with
mechanical generation and refrigeration in
efficiency. To date, the best reported ZT values
have been in the 2–3 range.
thermocouples
In electrical engineering and industry,
thermocouples are a widely used type of
temperature sensor and can also be
used as a means to convert thermal
potential difference into electric
potential difference. They are cheap
and interchangeable, have standard
connectors, and can measure a wide
range of temperatures. The main
limitation is accuracy; System errors of
less than one Kelvin (K) can be difficult
to achieve.[ [

Principle of operations
In 1821, the German–Estonian physicist
Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when
any conductor (such as a metal) is subjected to
a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage.
This is now known as the thermoelectric effect
or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this
voltage necessarily involves connecting
another conductor to the "hot" end. This
additional conductor will then also experience
the temperature gradient, and develop a
voltage of its own which will oppose the
original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the
effect depends on the metal in use. Using a
dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates
a circuit in which the two legs generate
different voltages, leaving a small difference in
voltage available for measurement. That
difference increases with temperature, and can
typically be between 1 and 70 microvolts per
degree Celsius (µV/°C) for the modern range of
available metal combinations. Certain
combinations have become popular as industry
standards, driven by cost, availability,
convenience, melting point, chemical
properties,

stability, and output. This coupling of two

metals gives the thermocouple its name.
Thermocouples measure the temperature
difference between two points, not absolute
temperature. In traditional applications, one of
the junctions—the cold junction—was
maintained at a known (reference)
temperature, while the other end was attached
to a probe.
Having available a known temperature cold
junction, while useful for laboratory
calibrations, is simply not convenient for most
directly connected indicating and control
instruments. They incorporate into their circuits
an artificial cold junction using some other
thermally sensitive device, such as a
thermistor or diode, to measure the
temperature of the input connections at the
instrument, with special care being taken to
minimize any temperature gradient between
terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known
cold junction can be simulated, and the
appropriate correction applied. This is known
as cold junction compensation.
Additionally, a device can perform cold junction
compensation by computation. It can translate
device voltages to temperatures by either of
two methods. It can use values from look-up
tables or approximate using polynomial
interpolation.
A thermocouple can produce current, which
means it can be used to drive some processes
directly, without the need for extra circuitry
and power sources. For example, the power
from a thermocouple can activate a valve when
a temperature difference arises. The electric
power generated by a thermocouple is a
conversion of the heat energy that one must
continuously supply to the hot side of the
thermocouple to maintain the electric
potential. The flow of heat is necessary
because the current flowing through the
thermocouple

tends to cause the hot side to cool down and

the cold side to heat up (the Peltier effect).
Thermocouples can be connected in series with
each other to form a thermopile, where all the
hot junctions are exposed to the higher
temperature and all the cold junctions to a
lower temperature. The voltages of the
individual thermocouples add up, allowing for a
larger voltage and increased power output,
thus increasing the sensitivity of the
instrumentation. With the radioactive decay of
transuranic elements providing a heat source
this arrangement has been used to power
spacecraft on missions too far from the Sun to
utilize solar power.

Voltage–temperature relationship
The relationship between the temperature
difference and the output voltage of a
thermocouple is nonlinear and is approximated
by polynomial:
The coefficients an are given for N from zero to
between five and nine.
To achieve accurate measurements the
equation is usually implemented in a digital
controller or stored in a look-up table.[4] Some
older devices use analog filters.

Types Of Thermocouple

Type E

The Type E thermocouple is suitable for use at temperatures up

to 900°C (1650°F) in a vacuum, inert, mildly oxidizing or
reducing atmosphere. At cryogenic temperatures, the
thermocouple is not subject to corrosion. This thermocouple has
the highest EMF output per degree of all the commonly used
thermocouples.

Type J

The Type J may be used, exposed or unexposed, where there is a

deficiency of free oxygen. For cleanliness and longer life, a
protecting tube is recommended. Since JP (iron) wire will oxidize
rapidly at temperatures over 540°C (1000°F), it is recommended
that larger gauge wires be used to compensate. Maximum
recommended operating temperature is 760°C (1400°F).

Type K
Due to its reliability and accuracy, Type K is used extensively at
temperatures up to 1260°C (2300°F). It's good practice to protect
this type of thermocouple with a suitable metal or ceramic
protecting tube, especially in reducing atmospheres. In oxidizing
atmospheres, such as electric furnaces, tube protection is not
always necessary when other conditions are suitable; however, it
is recommended for cleanliness and general mechanical
protection. Type K will generally outlast Type J because the JP
(iron) wire rapidly oxidizes, especially at higher temperatures.

Type N

This nickel-based thermocouple alloy is used primarily at high

temperatures up to 1260°C (2300°F). While not a direct
replacement for Type K, Type N provides better resistance to
oxidation at high temperatures and longer life in applications
where sulfur is present.

Type T

This thermocouple can be used in either oxidizing or reducing

atmospheres, though for longer life a protecting tube is
recommended. Because of its stability at lower temperatures, this
is a superior thermocouple for a wide variety of applications in
low and cryogenic temperatures. It's recommended operating
range is— -200° to 350°C (-330° to 660°F), but it can be used to
-269°C (-452°F) (boiling helium).

Types S, R and B

Maximum recommended operating temperature for Type S or R

is 1450°C (2640°F); Type B is recommended for use at as high
as 1700°C (3100°F). These thermocouples are easily
contaminated. Reducing atmospheres are particularly damaging
to the calibration. Noble metal thermocouples should always be
protected with a gas-tight ceramic tube, a secondary tube of
alumina and a silicon carbide or metal outer tube as conditions
require.

W-5 Percent Re/W-26 Percent Re (Type C*)

This refractory metal thermocouple may be used at temperatures

up to 2315°C (4200°F). Because it has no resistance to
oxidation, its use is restricted to vacuum, hydrogen or inert
atmospheres.

Thermopile
A thermopile is an electronic device that
converts thermal energy into electrical
energy. It is composed of thermocouples
connected usually in sfries, or less
commonly in parllel. Thermopiles do not
measure the absolute temperature, but
generate an output voltage proportional
to a local tempreture difference or
temperature gradient. Thermopiles are
the key component of the infrared
thermometers that are widely used by
medical professionals to measure body
temperature via the ear. They are also
used widely in heat flux sensors and gas
burner safety controls. The output of a
thermopile is usually in the range of tens
or hundreds of millivolts. As well as
increasing the signal level, the device
may be used to provide spatial
temperature averaging.
Basics of minor :

Above discussed topis as :

Thermopile
Thermocouple
and the principles of Seeback and Peltier
are the basic concept of the minor project.
Minor project:
This project is the basic of utilising the heat and colness
of the engine or of the vehicle, so thet a thermocouple can
be made ythus producing the electricity
Now the question arises how to genrate electricity?
Electricity can be produced using thermopile making a
thermocouple.genuinely maximum temp. of the vehicle
lies in the engine but cant be used at all, so then utilising
the heat of the exhoust manifold which is round 1500`c
and then the internal minimum temp. of the vehicle is
round 70`c that is of radiating fluid in the radiator.
Now making a junction in this hot and cold part of the
vehoicle as shown in the dia. This junction is made by the
us4e of the thermopile by using a thihck copper wire
which is to carry the lightest ev of current. This finally
contributes to the thermocouple which genrates electricity
acting as a thermogenrator.and finally this electric
current is shifted to battery in order to get it charged .
When the battery gets charged then it comes to reduce the
load on the engine and rather vehicle also.this is done by
reducing the size of the alternator which derives motion
from the engine. Thus increasing ingines thermal
efficiency and also the fuel efficiency.
Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:
1. Increase in the efficiency of the engine.
2. Decrease in load appearance on engine.
3. Decrease in gross weight of an automobile.
4. Effective electronic and electrical system of an
automobile.
5. Increase in fuel efficiency of the engine.

Disadvantages:
1. Difficulties in utilizing low volts of charge
generated.
2. Proper metallic connections are required.
3. Complex connection of wires involved in engine