Fundamentals of Photoelasticity

Some Useful Definitions

Strainoptic Technologies, Inc.

Principles of Photoelasticity

Stress Measurement Techniques

How Stress Is Calculated

esidual Stress

Polari!ed "i#ht

Inde$ of efraction

Photoelasticity

%irefrin#ence

Stress&'ptical Constant

etardation
Some Useful Definitions

esidual Stress
esidual stress is an intrinsic tension or compression
which e$ists in a material without an e$ternal load (ein#
applied) In #lass* so&called permanent residual stress is
induced in the primary manufacturin# process) It is
relie+ed throu#h annealin# or su(sequently added in
secondary thermal processin# operations to impart
desired mechanical characteristics)


esidual Stress
,hen there is an equili(rium (etween the tensile and
compressi+e stresses* the #lass is said to (e sta(le) -n
im(alance in residual stresses can cause une$pected
wea.ness or spontaneous (rea.a#e)

Polari!ed "i#ht

"i#ht mo+es throu#h transparent materials in the form

of wa+es) The frequency of the wa+eform +aries with
the type of li#ht) The standard wa+elen#th for white
li#ht throu#h #lass is /0/ nanometers 123
&4
meters5)
"i#ht
Source
Propa#ation
of li#ht
(eam

These wa+es are omnidirectional and 6+i(rate7 out at a

perpendicular an#le from the direction 1propa#ation5 of
the li#ht (eam)

Polari!ed "i#ht
,hen li#ht passes throu#h a polari!in# lens* all
components of the li#ht wa+e are (loc.ed e$cept for
the components of the li#ht wa+e in the plane of
+i(ration allowed to pass (y the polari!in# filter)
"i#ht
Source
Pri+ile#ed
-$is of
Polari!er 2
'mnidirectional
8ectors of "i#ht

Polari!ed "i#ht
In 6plane7 or linear polari!ation* only the components
of the li#ht +ector parallel to the pri+ile#ed a$is of the
polari!er pass throu#h) "i#ht may also (e su(9ect to
6circular7 and 6elliptical7 polari!ation methods* which
in+ol+e addin# de+ices to the li#ht path which alter its
characteristics)
"i#ht
Source
Pri+ile#ed
-$is of
Polari!er 2
'mnidirectional
8ectors of "i#ht
Plane
Polari!ed
"i#ht

Polari!ed "i#ht
If another polari!in# filter is placed in the path of the
polari!ed li#ht (eam* and rotated 43: 1perpendicular5
to the polari!in# a$is of the first filter* all li#ht will (e
(loc.ed)

"i#ht
Source
Pri+ile#ed
-$is of
Polari!er 2
Pri+ile#ed
-$is of
Polari!er ;
rotated 43
de#rees to the
polari!in# a$is
of the first
filter)
'mnidirectional
8ectors of "i#ht
Plane
Polari!ed
"i#ht
<o "i#ht
1Dar. Field5

Polari!ed "i#ht
If the second polari!in# filter is rotated to an an#le
less than or #reater than 43: relati+e to the first
polari!in# lens* only the components of the li#ht wa+e
+i(ratin# in that plane will pass throu#h the filter)

"i#ht
Source
Pri+ile#ed -$is of
Polari!er ;
=>43 De#rees
elati+e to
Polari!er 2
Plane
Polari!ed
"i#ht
-ttenuated "i#ht
18aria(le Field5

Inde$ of efraction
- material?s inde$ of refraction is defined as the speed of
li#ht throu#h a +acuum @ $ 23
A
metersBsec di+ided (y the
speed of li#ht throu#h the material)

Photoelasticity
The property e$hi(ited (y some transparent
solids* where(y they (ecome dou(ly refracti+e*
or 6(irefrin#ent*7 when su(9ected to stress)

%irefrin#ence
"i#ht
Source
Plane
Polari!ed
"i#ht

1
Direction of Stress
eference
Direction

2
Direction
of Stress
Point of
Interest
,hen polari!ed li#ht passes throu#h a stressed
material* the li#ht separates into two wa+efronts
tra+elin# at different +elocities* each oriented
parallel to a direction of principal stress 1
1
*
2
5
in the material* (ut perpendicular to each other)

%irefrin#ence
%irefrin#ence results in the stressed material
ha+in# two different indices of refraction
1n
2
* n
;
5)
In most materials* the inde$ of refraction
remains constantC howe+er* in #lass and
plastics* the inde$ +alue +aries as a function of
the stress applied) This #a+e rise to the
Stress&'ptic* or 6%rewster?s7 "aw )

The Stress&'ptic 1%rewster?s5 "aw
1n
2
D n
;
5 E C
%
(
2

;
)
WHERE
n
2
*n
;
E Indices of refraction
C
%
E Stress&optical constant*
in %rewsters

2*

;
E Principal stresses

The Stress&'ptic "aw
This law esta(lished that (irefrin#ence is
directly proportional to the difference of
principal stresses* which is equal to the
difference (etween the two indices of
refraction* n
2
&n
;
* e$hi(ited (y a stressed
material)
Therefore* (irefrin#ence can (e calculated
(y determinin# Fn)

etardation
The phase difference (etween the two li#ht
+ectors tra+elin# throu#h the material at
different +elocities 1fast* slow5 is .nown as
retardation* commonly represented (y the
sym(ol delta* .
The retardation +alue di+ided (y a material?s
thic.ness is proportional to the difference
(etween the two indices of refraction* i)e)*
/t = n

etardation of Polari!ed "i#ht
Throu#h a Stressed Material
"i#ht
Source
eference
Direction
Plane
Polari!ed
"i#ht
Point of
Interest
etardation

How Stress Is Calculated

etardation
Thic.ness G Stress&'ptical Constant
Stress E
The Stress Hquation

The Stress Hquation
= /tC
%
WHERE
E Stress 1in MPaG5
E etardation 1in nanometers5
t E Thic.ness
C
%
E Stress&optical constant
1in %rewsters5
G12 MPa E 2I/ psi5

Principles of Photoelasticity
Instruments desi#ned to o(ser+e o(9ects under
polari!ed li#ht are called polariscopes or strain
viewers) The first* or fi$ed* polari!in# filter is .nown
as the 6polari!er)7 The second* or rotatin#* polari!in#
filter is .nown as the 6analy!er)7 If the analy!er has a
cali(rated scale that can (e used for ma.in#
quantitati+e measurements* it is called a polarimeter)

Principles of Photoelasticity
%y rotatin# the second polari!in# filter 1analyzer5* the
user can control the amount 1intensity5 of li#ht
allowed to pass throu#h) The components of the two
li#ht wa+es that do pass throu#h at any #i+en an#le
of analy!er rotation interfere with each other*
resultin# in a characteristic color spectrum)
Plane
Polari!ed
"i#ht
Point of
Interest
etardation

-naly!er

Principles of Photoelasticity
The intensity of colors displayed when a stressed
transparent or translucent material is +iewed under
polari!ed li#ht is modulated (y the retardation)

Principles of Photoelasticity
Hach inte#er multiple of the standard wa+elen#th of
li#ht 1 E /0/ nm for #lassC /J3 nm for plastics5 is
called a fringe (N).

Principles of Photoelasticity
The intensity of the colors diminishes as the
retardation or frin#e order increases)

Principles of Photoelasticity
The photoelastic color sequence 1showin# increasin# stress5 isK
%lac. 1!ero5
Lellow
ed
%lue&Mreen
Lellow
ed
Mreen
Lellow
ed
Mreen
Lellow
ed
Nero 'rder
First 'rder
Second 'rder
Third 'rder

Principles of Photoelasticity
These color patterns* +isi(le when usin# polari!ed
li#ht* can (e used to o(ser+e and ma.e a qualitati+e
e+aluation of stress in an o(9ect) This method is +ery
su(9ecti+e and requires e$perience and trainin#)

Principles of Photoelasticity
- quantitati+e measurement of residual stress can (e
o(tained usin# a polarimeter* an instrument that
measures retardation* which is proportional to stress)

Principles of Photoelasticity
Plane Polari!ation
and
Circular Polari!ation

Principles of Photoelasticity
To determine the direction of principal stresses in a
sample* a plane polari!ation technique is typically
used) To do this usin# plane&polari!ed li#ht* it is
important to first orient the sample such that the point
of interest 1P'I5 e$hi(its minimum li#ht intensity)

Principles of Photoelasticity
In this orientation* a direction of principal stress at the
point of interest 1either $ or y5 will (e parallel to the
a$es of the analy!er and polari!er)

Principles of Photoelasticity
otatin# the sample I/ de#rees places the sample
in the proper position for measurin# retardation)

Principles of Photoelasticity
Usin# circularly polari!ed li#ht* the measurement is
independent of the direction of the principal stresses
at the point of interest) To chan#e a plane polarimeter
to a circular polarimeter* two O&wa+e plates
are added to the li#ht path as shown (elow)
Point of
Interest
-$is of
Polari!ation
1Plane
Polari!er5
-$is of
Polari!ation
1-naly!er5
First
2BI&,a+e
Plate
-dded
etardation
15
Second
2BI&,a+e
Plate
-dded
etardation
15

Principles of Photoelasticity
The relation used for calculatin# the retardation of
polari!ed li#ht transmitted throu#h a stressed material isK

= C
%
t 1
$
D
y
5
WHERE
E etardation 1in nanometers5
C
%
E %rewster Constant
t E Material Thic.ness

$*y
E Principal Stresses


Measurin# Techniques
'(ser+ation of Color Pattern Method
Compensator Method

-naly!er otation Method

'(ser+ation of Color Pattern Method
Strain 8iewerB
Polariscope

'(ser+ation of Color Pattern Method
,hite li#ht produces a complete spectrum
of li#ht) This includes the +isi(le spectrum
of I33 nm to J33 nm)

'(ser+ation of Color Pattern Method
The intensity of the li#ht is modulated (y
the retardation e$hi(ited (y the sample)

'(ser+ation of Color Pattern Method

esults are hi#hly

su(9ecti+e to interpretation

Can only (e used for

qualitati+e measurements

Compensator Method
Compensator

Compensator Method

Simplest method of measurin#

retardation

Compensator 1wed#e5 is a
cali(rated* handheld de+ice
that optically adds a retardation
of equal* (ut opposite si#n to the
sample)

The net result is a li#ht intensity

of !ero* which is easily
reco#ni!ed +isually as (lac.
in the color pattern)

Compensator Method
There are two types of compensators in common usa#eK

%a(inet or 6,ed#e7 compensator 1scale readout5

%a(inet&Soleil or 6Dou(le&,ed#e7 compensator

1di#ital readout5

-naly!er otation Method
-naly!er
Polarimeter 1with microscope option5

-naly!er otation Method
The -naly!er otation Method uses a circular
polarimeter setup as shown (elow) This is called the
7Tardy7 method) ,hen only one O&wa+e plate is
used* it is called the 6Senarmont6 method)
Point of
Interest
-$is of
Polari!ation
1Plane
Polari!er5
-$is of
Polari!ation
1-naly!er5
First
2BI&,a+e
Plate
-dded
etardation
15
Second
2BI&,a+e
Plate
-dded
etardation
15

-naly!er otation Method

The analy!er rotation method is #enerally used

to measure fractional le+els of retardation 1=/J3 nm5)

The analy!er is rotated until a minimum li#ht

intensity is o(ser+ed)

The sample is then rotated I/ de#rees from the

reference a$is)

The sample is first positioned parallel to the reference

a$is of the polari!er and analy!er)

-naly!er otation Method
etardation is calculated from the fractional frin#e
order that is read directly from the dial)
509 nm =
0.9 x 565

-naly!er otation Method
This measurement 1/34 nm of retardation5 is then
con+erted to stress usin# the equation (elow or
referrin# to a con+ersion chart)
= /tC
%
WHERE
E Stress 1in MPa5
E etardation 1in nanometers5
t E Thic.ness
C
%
E %rewster Constant
12 MPa E 2I/ psi5

-naly!er otation Method
Example:

etardation 1) E /34 nm
Thic.ness 1t5 E 0 mm
C
%
E
;)/I
E /tC
%
E /34B10)3 $ ;)/I5
E 509B2/);I
E @@)I MPa or IAI@ psi