ISA Saint Louis Exceptional Opportunities Short Course Day 1

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ISA Saint Louis Short Course Dec 6-8, 2010
Exceptional Process Control
Opportunities - An Interactive
Exploration of Process Control
Improvements - Day 1
Welcome
Gregory K. McMillan
Greg is a retired Senior Fellow from Solutia/Monsanto and an ISA Fellow.
Presently, Greg contracts as a consultant in DeltaV R&D via CDI Process &
Industrial. Greg received the ISA Kermit Fischer Environmental Award for pH
control in 1991, the Control Magazine Engineer of the Year Award for the
Process Industry in 1994, was inducted into the Control Process Automation
Hall of Fame in 2001, was honored by InTech Magazine in 2003 as one of the
most influential innovators in automation, and received the ISA Life
Achievement Award in 2010. Greg is the author of numerous books on process
control, his most recent being Essentials of Modern Measurements and Final
Elements for the Process Industry. Greg has been the monthly Control Talk
columnist for Control magazine since 2002. Gregs expertise is available on the
web site: http://www.modelingandcontrol.com/
Top Ten Things You Dont Want to Hear
in a Project Definition Meeting
(10) I dont want any smart instrumentation talking back to me
(9) Lets study each loop to see if the valve really needs a positioner
(8) Lets slap an actuator on our piping valves and use them for control
valves
(7) We just need to make sure the control valve spec requires the
tightest shutoff
(6) What is the big deal about process control, we just have to set the
flow per the PFD
(5) Cascade control seems awfully complex
(4) The operators can tune the loops
(3) Lets do the project for half the money in half the time
(2) Lets go with packaged equipment and let the equipment supplier
select and design the automation system
(1) Lets go out for bids and have purchasing pick the best deal
Without deadtime I would be out of a job
Fundamentals
A more descriptive name would be total loop deadtime. The loop deadtime is the amount
of time for the start of a change to completely circle the control loop and end up at the
point of origin. For example, an unmeasured disturbance cannot be corrected until the
change is seen and the correction arrives in the process at the same point as the
disturbance.
Process deadtime offers a continuous train of values whereas digital devices and
analyzers offer non continuous data values at discrete intervals, these delays add a phase
shift and increase the ultimate period (decrease natural frequency) like process deadtime.
Goals
Minimize delay (the loop cannot do anything until it sees and enacts change)
Sources
Pure delay from process deadtimes and discontinuous updates
Piping, duct, plug flow reactor, conveyor, extruder, spin-line, and sheet transportation delays (process
deadtimes set by mechanical design - remaining delays set by automation system design)
Digital device scan, update, reporting, and execution times (0.5T)
Analyzer sample processing and analysis cycle time (1.5T)
Sensitivity-resolution limits
Backlash-deadband
Equivalent delay from lags
Mixing, column trays, dip tube size and location, heat transfer surfaces, and volumes in series (process
lags set by mechanical design - remaining lags set by automation system design)
Thermowells
Electrodes
Transmitter damping
Signal filters
(1) - Delay
Top Ten Concepts
Speed kills - (high speed processes and disturbances and low
speed control systems can kill performance)
Fundamentals
The rate of change in 4 deadtime intervals is most important. By the end of 4 deadtimes,
the control loop should have completed most of its correction. Thus, the short cut tuning
method (near-integrator) is consistent with performance objectives.
Goals
Make control systems faster and make processes and disturbances slower
Sources
Control system
PID tuning settings (gain, reset, and rate)
Slewing rate of control valves and velocity limits of variable speed drives
Disturbances
Steps - Batch operations, on-off control, manual actions, SIS, startups, and shutdowns
Oscillations - limit cycles, interactions, and excessively fast PID tuning
Ramps - reset action in PID
Process
Degree of mixing in volumes due to agitation, boiling, mass transfer, diffusion, and migration
(2)- Speed
Top Ten Concepts
All is lost if nothing is gained
Fundamentals
Gain is the change in output for a change in input to any part of the control system. Thus
there is a gain for the PID, valve, disturbance, process, and measurement. Knowing the
disturbance gain (e.g. change in manipulated flow per change in disturbance) is important
for sizing valves and feedforward control.
Goals
Maximize control system gains (maximize control system reaction to change) and
minimize process and disturbance gains (minimize process reaction to change).
Sources
PID controller gain
Inferential measurements (e.g. temperature change for composition change in distillation
column)
Slope of control valve or variable speed drive installed characteristic (inherent
characteristic & system loss curve)
Measurement calibration (100% / span). Important where accuracy is % of span
Process design
Attenuation by upstream volumes (can be estimated)
Attenuation by upstream PID loops (transfer of PV variability to controller output)
For a discussion of unifying concepts check out Deminar #9
Process Control Improvement Primer Sept 8, 2010 Recording:
http://modelingandcontrol.com/
(3) - Gain
Top Ten Concepts
(4) - Resonance
Dont make things worse than they already are
Fundamentals
Oscillation period close to ultimate period can be amplified by feedback control
Goals
Make oscillation period slower or control loop faster
Sources
Control loops in series with similar loop deadtimes (e.g. multiple stage pH
control)
Control loops in series with similar tuning and valve sticktion and backlash
Day to night ambient changes to slow loops (e.g. column temperature control)
Top Ten Concepts
(4) - Resonance
Top Ten Concepts
1
Ultimate
Period
1
1
Faster
Tuning
Log of Ratio of
closed loop amplitude
to open loop amplitude
Log of ratio of
disturbance period
to ultimate period
no attenuation
of disturbances
resonance (amplification)
of disturbances
amplitude ratio is
proportional to ratio of
break frequency lag to
disturbance period
1
no better than manual worse than manual improving control
For all of you frequency response and Bode Plot Fans
(5) Attenuation
If you had a blend tank big enough you would not need control
Fundamentals
Attenuation increases as the volume of the blend tank increases and the
ultimate period of the control loop decreases.
Goals
Maximize attenuation by increasing volume and mixing and making loops faster
Sources
Mixed volume size and degree of mixing
Control loop speed
Top Ten Concepts
f
o
o f
t
A A

=
2
*
The attenuation of oscillations can be estimated from the expression of the Bode plot
equation for the attenuation of oscillations slower than the break frequency where (
f
) is
the filter time constant, electrode or thermowell lag, or a mixed volume residence time
Equation is also useful for estimating original process oscillation amplitude
from filtered oscillation amplitude to better know actual process variability
(measurement lags and filters provide a attenuated view of real world)
(5) Attenuation
Top Ten Concepts
(6) Sensitivity- Resolution
You cannot control what you cannot see
Fundamentals
Minimum change measured or manipulated - once past sensitivity limit full
change is seen or used but resolution limit will quantize the change (stair step
where the step size is the resolution limit). Both will cause a limit cycle if there is
an integrator in the process or control system.
Goals
Improve sensitivity and resolution
Sources
In measurements, minimum change detected and communicated (e.g. sensor
threshold and wireless update trigger level) and quantized change (A/D & D/A)
Minimum change that can be manipulated (e.g. valve stick-slip sensitivity and
speed resolution)
Top Ten Concepts
Top Ten Concepts
o
x
x
o
x
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
ox
x
x
x
x
x x
x
Actual
Transmitter
Response
True
Process
Variable
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Digital Updates
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0.00%
0.09%
0.08%
0.07%
0.06%
0.05%
0.04%
0.03%
0.02%
0.01%
1.00%
Sensitivity
Top Ten Concepts
Digital Updates
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
o
x
Actual
Transmitter
Response
True
Process
Variable
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.00%
0.09%
0.08%
0.07%
0.06%
0.05%
0.04%
0.03%
0.02%
0.01%
1.00%
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Resolution
(7) Hysteresis-Backlash
No problem if you dont ever change direction
Fundamentals
Hysteresis is the bow in a response curve between full scale traverses in both
directions. Normally much smaller and less disruptive than backlash
Backlash (deadband) is minimum change measured or manipulated once the
direction is changed - once past backlash-deadband limit you get full change
Both Hysteresis and backlash will cause a limit cycle if there are 2 or more
integrators in the process or control system.
Goals
Minimize backlash and deadband
Sources
Pneumatic instrument flappers, links, and levers (hopefully these are long gone)
Rotary valve and damper links, connections, and shaft windup
Variable speed drive setup parameter to eliminate hunting and chasing noise
Top Ten Concepts
Top Ten Concepts
Digital Updates
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Actual
Transmitter
Response
True
Process
Variable
0%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
100%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Hysteresis
Hysteresis
Top Ten Concepts
Backlash (Deadband)
Deadband is 5% - 50%
without a positioner !
Deadband
Signal
(%)
0
Stroke
(%)
Digital positioner
will force valve
shut at 0% signal
Pneumatic positioner
requires a negative %
signal to close valve
(8) Repeatability-Noise
The best thing you can do is not react to noise
Fundamentals
Noise is extraneous fluctuations in measured or manipulated variables
Repeatability is difference in readings for same true value in same direction
Often repeatability is confused with noise
Goals
Minimize size and frequency of noise and do not transfer noise to process
Sources
Noise
Bubbles
Concentration and temperature non-uniformity from imperfect mixing
Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
Ground loops
Interferences (e.g. sodium ion on pH electrode)
Velocity profile non-uniformity
Velocity impact on pressure sensors
Repeatability
Sensitivity and resolution
Top Ten Concepts
Top Ten Concepts
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Digital Updates
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0%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
100%
0
Repeatability
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Actual
Transmitter
Response
True
Process
Variable
Official definition of repeatability
obtained from calibration tests
Top Ten Concepts
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Digital Updates
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
100%
Repeatability
0
x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Actual
Transmitter
Response
True
Process
Variable
Practical definition of repeatability
as seen on trend charts
Top Ten Concepts
Noise as seen on trend charts
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Digital Updates
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0%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
100%
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Noise
Actual
Transmitter
Response
True
Process
Variable
There is always an offset and drift, it is matter of size and consequence
Fundamentals
The deviation of the peak in the distribution of actual values from true value
Drift shows up as a slowly changing offset
Goals
Minimize offset and nonlinearity by smart transmitters and sensor matching and
smart tuned digital positioners with accurate internal closure member feedback
Sources
Manufacturing tolerance, degradation, de-calibration, and installation effects
(process and ambient conditions and installation methods and location)
(9) Offset-Drift
Top Ten Concepts
(9) Offset-Drift
Top Ten Concepts
0%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
100%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Digital Updates
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Bias
Actual
Transmitter
Response
True
Process
Variable
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
0
Offset (Bias)
(9) Offset-Drift
Top Ten Concepts
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Months
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
100%
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Actual
Transmitter
Response
True
Process
Variable
x
Drift =1% per month
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Drift (Shifting Bias)
(10) Nonlinearity
Not a problem if the process is constant, but then again if the process is
constant, you do not need a control system
Fundamentals
While normally associated with a process gain that is not constant, in a broader
concept, a nonlinear system occurs if a gain, time constant, or delay changes
anywhere in the loop. All process control systems are nonlinear to some degree.
Goals
Minimize nonlinearity by process and equipment design (e.g. reagents and heat
transfer coefficients), smart transmitters and sensor matching, valve selection,
signal characterization, and adaptive control
Sources
Control valve and variable speed drive installed characteristics (flat at high flows)
Process transportation delays (inversely proportional to flow)
Digital and analyzer delays (loop delay depends upon when change arrives in
discontinuous data value update interval)
Inferred measurement (conductivity or temperature vs. composition plot is a curve)
Logarithmic relationship (glass pH electrode and zirconium oxide oxygen probe)
Process time constants (proportional to volume and density)
Top Ten Concepts
(10) Nonlinearity
Top Ten Concepts
0%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
100%
0
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Digital Updates
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Nonlinearity
Actual
Transmitter
Response
True
Process
Variable
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
0
Good Accuracy and Good Precision
2-Sigma
Bias
2-Sigma
True and
Measured
Values
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True
Value
Measured
Values
Good Accuracy and Poor Precision
2-Sigma 2-Sigma
Bias
True and
Measured
Values
True
Value
Measured
Values
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Poor Accuracy and Good Precision
2-Sigma
Bias
2-Sigma
True and
Measured
Values
True
Value Measured
Values
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Poor Accuracy and Poor Precision
2-Sigma 2-Sigma
Bias
True and
Measured
Values
True
Value
Measured
Values
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Accuracy and Precision
Top Ten Concepts
Time (seconds)
% Controlled Variable (CV)
or
% Controller Output (CO)
CO
CV
p2
K
p
= CV / CO
0.63CV
CO
CV
Self-regulating process
open loop
negative feedback time constant
Self-regulating process gain (%/%)
Response to change in controller output with controller in manual
observed
total loop
deadtime
o
or
Maximum speed
in 4 deadtimes
is critical speed
Self-Regulating Process Open Loop Response
Improving Dynamics
Time (seconds)
o
K
i
= { [ CV
2
/ t
2
] [ CV
1
/ t
1
] } / CO
CO
ramp rate is
CV
1
/ t
1
ramp rate is
CV
2
/ t
2
CO
CV
Integrating process gain (%/sec/%)
or
observed
total loop
deadtime
Maximum speed
in 4 deadtimes
is critical speed
Integrating Process Open Loop Response
Improving Dynamics
p2
Noise Band
Acceleration
CV
CO
1.72CV
K
p
= CV / CO
Runaway process gain (%/%)
or
Time (seconds)
observed
total loop
deadtime
runaway process
open loop
positive feedback time constant
For safety reasons, tests are
terminated after 4 deadtimes
o
or
Maximum speed
in 4 deadtimes
is critical speed
Runaway Process Open Loop Response
Improving Dynamics
CV = change in controlled variable (%)
CO = change in controller output (%)
K
c
= controller gain (dimensionless)
K
i
= integrating process gain (%/sec/% or 1/sec)
K
p
= process gain (dimensionless) also known as open loop gain
DV = disturbance variable (engineering units)
MV = manipulated variable (engineering units)
PV = process variable (engineering units)
t = change in time (sec)
t
x
= execution or update time (sec)

o
= total loop dead time (sec)

f
= filter time constant or well mixed volume residence time (sec)

m
= measurement time constant (sec)

p2
= primary (large) self-regulating process time constant (sec)

p2
= primary (large) runaway process time constant (sec)

p1
= secondary (small) process time constant (sec)
T
i
= integral (reset) time setting (sec/repeat)
T
d
= derivative (rate) time setting (sec)
t
o
= oscillation period (sec)
= Lambda (closed loop time constant or arrest time) (sec)

f
= Lambda factor (ratio of closed to open loop time constant or arrest time)
Nomenclature
Improving Dynamics
Phase Shift () and Amplitude Ratio (B/A)
A
B
time
phase
shift
oscillation
period T
o
If the phase shift is -180
o
between the process input Aand output B, then the total shift
for a control loop is -360
o
and the output is in phase with the input (resonance) since
there is a -180
o
from negative feedback (control error = set point process variable).
This point sets the ultimate gain and period that is important for controller tuning.
Improving Dynamics
For frequency response and Bode plot fans
Basis of First Order Approximation
= Tan
-1
( ) negative phase shift
(as approaches infinity, approaches -90
o
phase shift)
t = (-360 / ) T
o
time shift
B 1
AR = ---- = ----------------------- amplitude ratio
A [1 + ( )
2
]
1/2
Amplitude ratios are multiplicative (AR = AR
1
AR
2
) and phase shifts are additive ( =
1
+
2
)
asis of first order approx method where gains are multiplicative and dead times are additive
Improving Dynamics
For a self-regulating process
p1
p2
p2
K
pv
p1
c1
m2
m2
m1
m1
K
cv
c2
K
c
T
i
T
d
Valve Process
Controller
Measurement
K
mv
v
K
L
L
Load Upset
CV
CO
MV
PV
PID
Delay
Lag
Delay Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
Lag Lag
Lag
Lag Lag Lag
Lag
Gain
Gain
Gain
Gain
Local
Set Point
DV
First Order Approximation:
o

v
+
p1
+
p2
+
m1
+
m2
+
c
+
v
+
p1
+
m1
+
m2
+
c1
+
c2
(set by automation system design for flow, pressure, level, speed, surge, and static mixer pH control)
%
%
%
Delay <=> Dead Time
Lag <=>Time Constant
For integrating processes: K
i
= K
mv
(K
pv
/
p2
) K
cv
100% / span
Loop Block Diagram (First Order Approximation)
Hopefully
p2
is the largest lag in the loop
Improving Dynamics
CV = change in controlled variable (%)
CO = change in controller output (%)
K
c
= controller gain (dimensionless)
K
i
= integrating process gain (%/sec/% or 1/sec)
K
p
= process gain (dimensionless) also known as open loop gain
DV = disturbance variable (engineering units)
MV = manipulated variable (engineering units)
PV = process variable (engineering units)
t = change in time (sec)
t
x
= execution or update time (sec)

o
= total loop dead time (sec)

f
= filter time constant or well mixed volume residence time (sec)

m
= measurement time constant (sec)

p2
= primary (large) self-regulating process time constant (sec)

p2
= primary (large) runaway process time constant (sec)

p1
= secondary (small) process time constant (sec)
T
i
= integral (reset) time setting (sec/repeat)
T
d
= derivative (rate) time setting (sec)
t
o
= oscillation period (sec)
= Lambda (closed loop time constant or arrest time) (sec)

f
= Lambda factor (ratio of closed to open loop time constant or arrest time)
Nomenclature
Improving Dynamics
o
p o
o
x
E E
+
=
) (
o
p o
o
i
E E
+
=
) (
2

Peak error is proportional to the ratio of loop deadtime to 63% response time
(Important to prevent SIS trips, relief device activation, surge prevention, and RCRA pH violations)
Integrated error is proportional to the ratio of loop deadtime squared to 63% response time
(Important to minimize quantity of product off-spec and total energy and raw material use)
For a sensor lag (e.g. electrode or thermowell lag) or signal filter that is much larger
than the process time constant, the unfiltered actual process variable error can be
found from the equation for attenuation
Ultimate Limit to Loop Performance
Total loop deadtime
that is often set by
automation design
Largest lag in loop
that is ideally set by
large process volume
Improving Dynamics
o L
E e E
L o
=
) 1 (
/
Effect of load disturbance lag (
L
) on peak error can be estimated by replacing the
open loop error with the exponential response of the disturbance during the loop deadtime
Disturbance Speed and Attenuation
For E
i
(integrated error), use closed loop time constant instead of deadtime
Improving Dynamics
Effect of Disturbance Lag on Integrating Process
Periodic load disturbance time constant
increased by factor of 10
Adaptive loop
Baseline loop
Adaptive loop
Baseline loop
Primary reason why bioreactor control loop
tuning and performance for load upsets is a
non issue!
Improving Dynamics
Accessing On-Demand and Adaptive Tuning
Click on magnifying glass to get
detail view of limits and tuning
Click on Duncan to get DeltaV Insight for
On-Demand and Adaptive tuning
Improving Dynamics
Effect of Dynamics Lab
Objective Show the effect of deadtime on ultimate period and tuning
Activities:
1. Go to Main Display, select Single Loop Lab01,
2. Click on AC1-1 PID Faceplate and Click on magnifying glass icon to get Detail display
3. Click on Duncan icon for Tune with Insight and click on top tab On Demand Tuning
4. Verify expert option is checked and click on Test for On Demand Tuning
5. Note ultimate period and Ziegler-Nichols - PI tuning settings
6. Update PID tuning settings and change mode from Explore to Run
7. After run is finished, note metrics, and then click on any block in block diagram of loop
8. Click on top tab for Process detail and increase Primary Delay from 1 to 5 sec
9. Click on Test for On Demand Tuning
12. After run is finished, note metrics, and decrease Primary Delay from 5 to 1 sec
13. Click on top tab for Measurements detail and increase Delay from 0 to 4 sec
14. Click on Test for On Demand Tuning
17. After run is finished, note metrics, and decrease Measurement Delay from 4 to 0 sec
18. Restore PID gain to 1.0 and reset time to 10 sec
Improving Dynamics
Top Ten Things Missing in University
Courses on Process Control
(10) Control valves with stick-slip and deadband
(9) Measurements with repeatability errors and turndown limits
(8) Volumes with variable mixing and transportation delays
(7) Process input load disturbance
(6) Control action (direct & reverse) & valve action (inc-open & inc-close)
(5) PID algorithms using percent
(4) PID structure, anti-reset windup, output limits, and dynamic reset
(3) Industry standards for function blocks and communication
(2) Control Talk
(1) My books
Improving Tuning - Part 1
Contribution of Each PID Mode
Proportional (P mode) - increase in gain increases P mode contribution
Provides an immediate reaction to magnitude of measurement change to minimize
peak error and integrated error for a disturbance
Too much gain action causes fast oscillations (close to ultimate period) and can make
noise and interactions worse
Provides an immediate reaction to magnitude of setpoint change for P action on Error
to minimize rise time (time to reach setpoint)
Too much gain causes falter in approach to setpoint
Integral (I mode) - increase in reset time decreases I mode contribution
Provides a ramping reaction to error (SP-PV) to minimize integrated error if stable (since
error is hardly ever exactly zero, integral action is always ramping the controller output)
Too much integral action causes slow oscillations (slower than ultimate period)
Too much integral action causes an overshoot of setpoint (no sense of direction)
Derivative (D mode) - increase in rate time increases D mode contribution
Provides an immediate reaction to rate of change of measurement change to minimize
peak error and integrated error for a disturbance
Too much rate action causes fast oscillations (faster than ultimate period) and can make
noise and interactions worse
Provides an immediate reaction to rate of change of setpoint change for D action on
Error to minimize rise time (time to reach setpoint)
Too much rate causes oscillation in approach to setpoint
Contribution of Each PID Mode
CO
2
= CO
1
SP
seconds/repeat
CO
1
Time
(seconds)
Signal
(%)
0
kick from
proportional
mode
bump from
filtered
derivative
mode
repeat from
integral
mode
Contribution of Each PID Mode for a Step
Change in the Set Point
(=1 and =1)
SP PV IVP
52 48 ?
TC-100
Reactor Temperature
steam
valve
opens
water
valve
opens
50%
set point
temperature
time
PV
Should steam or water valve be open ?
Reset Gives Operations What They Want
Open Loop Time Constant (controller in manual)
CO
Time
(seconds)
Signal
(%)
0
o
Dead Time
(Time Delay)
p
Open Loop
(process)
Time Constant
(Time Lag)
CV
SP
Controller is in Manual
Open Loop
Error E
o
(%)
0.63E
o
Closed Loop Time Constant (controller in auto)
CO
Time
(seconds)
Signal
(%)
0
o
Dead Time
(Time Delay)
c
Closed Loop
Time Constant
(Time Lag)
Lambda ()
CV
SP
Controller is in Automatic
SP (%)
0.63SP
Conversion of Signals for PID Algorithm
Sensing
Element
Control
Valve
AO PID
SCLR
AI
SCLR
SCLR
%
% %
SUB
CV
SP
%
CO OUT
(e.u.)
Process
Equipment
Smart
Transmitter
PV - Primary Variable
SV - Second Variable*
TV - Third Variable*
FV - Fourth Variable*
PV
(e.u.)
PID
DCS
MV
(e.u.)
The scaler block (SCLR) that convert between engineering units of application and % of scale
used in PID algorithm is embedded hidden part of the Proportional-Integral-Derivative block (PID)
Final Element
Measurement
* - additional HART variables
PV
(e.u.)
To compute controller tuning settings, the process variable and controller output
must be converted to % of scale and time units of deadtimes and time constants
must be same as time units of reset time and rate time settings!
o
c p
x
E
K K
E
+
=
) 1 (
1
o
c p
f x i
i
E
K K
t T
E
+ +
=
Peak error decreases as the controller gain increases but is essentially the
open loop error for systems when total deadtime >> process time constant
Integrated error decreases as the controller gain increases and reset time decreases
but is essentially the open loop error multiplied by the reset time plus signal
delays and lags for systems when total deadtime >> process time constant
Peak and integrated errors cannot be better than ultimate limit - The errors predicted
by these equations for the PIDPlus and deadtime compensators cannot be better
than the ultimate limit set by the loop deadtime and process time constant
Practical Limit to Loop Performance
Open loop error for
fastest and largest
load disturbance
) ( 5 . 0
o i
+ =
Slow tuning (large Lambda) creates an implied deadtime where the loop performs
about the same as a loop with fast tuning and an actual deadtime equal to the
implied deadtime (
i
)
Implied Deadtime from Slow Tuning
For most aggressive tuning Lambda is set equal to observed deadtime
(implied deadtime is equal to observed deadtime)
Money spent on improving measurement and process dynamics
(e.g. reducing measurement delays and process deadtimes)
will be wasted if the controller is not tuned faster to take
advantage of the faster dynamics
You can prove most any point you want to make in a comparison
of control system performance, by how you tune the PID.
Inventors of special algorithms as alternatives to the PID
naturally tend to tune the PID to prove their case. For example
Ziegler-Nichols tuning is often used to show excessive
oscillations that could have be eliminated by cutting gain in half
In this self-regulating process the original process delay (dead time) was 10 sec.
Lambda was 20 sec and the sample time was set at 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 80 sec (Loops 1 - 6)
The loop integrated error increased slightly by 1%*sec for a sample time of 10 sec which corresponded to a
total deadtime (original process deadtime + 1/2 sample time) equal to the implied deadtime of 15 seconds.
http://www.modelingandcontrol.com/repository/AdvancedApplicationNote005.pdf
sample time = 0 sec
sample time = 5 sec
sample time = 10 sec
Effect depends on tuning, which leads to miss-guided generalities based on process dynamics
Effect of Implied Deadtime on
Allowable Digital or Analyzer Delay
Lambda Tuning for Self-Regulating Processes
CO
CV
K
p
=
) (
o p f p
i
c
K
T
K
+
=
p i
T =
Self-Regulation Process Gain:
Controller Gain
Controller Integral Time
p f
=
Lambda (Closed Loop Time Constant)
Lambda tuning excels at coordinating loops for blending,
fixing lower loop dynamics for model predictive control,
and reducing loop interaction and resonance
Lambda Tuning for Integrating Processes
Integrating Process Gain:
Controller Gain:
Controller Integral (Reset) Time:
Lambda (closed loop arrest time) is defined in terms of a Lambda factor (
f
):
i f
K / =
Closed loop arrest time
for load disturbance
CO
t CV t CV
K
i
%
/ % / %
1 1 2 2

=
2
] ) / [(
o i f i
i
c
K K
T
K
+
=
o i f i
K T + = ) / ( 2
Controller Derivative (Rate) Time:
p d
T =
To prevent slow rolling oscillations:
i
i c
K
T K
2
* >
secondary lag
Fastest Possible Tuning (Lambda Tuning Method)
o i
c
K
K

=
1
5 . 0
o p f
= =
For max load rejection set lambda equal to deadtime
p i
T =
o
=
p
p
i
K
K
=
Substitute
) (
o p
i
c
K
T
K
+
=
Into
Tuning for max disturbance rejection
(Ziegler Nichols reaction curve method gain factor would be 1.0 instead of 0.5)
o i
T = 4
o i
T =10
For setpoint response to minimize overshoot
Near Integrator Approximation (Short Cut Tuning Method)
CO t CV Max
K
K
p
p
i
/ ) / ( = =
For Near Integrating gain approximation use maximum

ramp rate divided by change in controller output
The above equation can be solved for the process time constant by
taking the process gain to be 1.0 or for more sophistication as the
average ratio of the controlled variable to controller output
Tuning test can be done for a setpoint change
if the PID gain is > 2 and the PID structure is
PI on Error D on PV so you see a step change
in controller output from the proportional mode
Fastest Controller Tuning (ultimate oscillation method*)
K
c
= 0.25 K
u
T
i
= 1.0 *
u
T
d
= 0.1
u
For integrating processes or for self-regulating processes where
p
>>
o
,
double the factor for reset time (0.5 => 1.0) and add rate time if the process
noise is negligible.
The oscillations associated with quarter amplitude decay is about the ultimate gain.
Thus if we use quarter amplitude decaying oscillations for the test, we take of the
controller gain that caused these oscillations to get of the ultimate gain
These tuning equations provide maximum
disturbance rejection but will cause
some overshoot of setpoint response
* - Ziegler Nichols method closed loop modified
to be more robust and less oscillatory
o p
p
c
K
K
=
2
4 . 0
o i
T = 4
1 d p
T =
For runaway processes:
For self-regulating processes:
o i
c
K
K

=
1
5 . 0
o i
T = 4
1 d p
T =
o i
c
K
K

=
1
6 . 0
o i
T = 40
1 d
2
p
T =
For integrating processes:
o p
p
c
K
K
=
2
'
6 . 0
o i
c
K
K

=
1
4 . 0
Near integrator (
p2
>>
o
):
o i
T = 5 . 0
Near integrator (
p2
>>
o
):
Deadtime dominant (
p2
<<
o
):
0
d
= T
p
c
K
K
1
4 . 0 =
Fastest Controller Tuning (reaction curve method*)
These tuning equations provide maximum
disturbance rejection but will cause
some overshoot of setpoint response
* - Ziegler Nichols method closed loop modified
to be more robust and less oscillatory
Ultimate Period and Ultimate Gain
Time
(min)
Measurement
(%)
Ultimate Gain is Controller Gain that Caused
these Nearly Equal Amplitude Oscillations (K
u
)
Set Point
Ultimate Period
T
u
0
If
p
>>
o
then T
u
= 4
If
p
<<
o
then
u
= 2
Set Point
Time
(min)
Measurement
(%)
Offset
110%
of
o
Quarter Amplitude
Period T
q
0
Damped Oscillation - (Proportional Only Control)
1. Put the controller in auto at normal setpoint.
2. Choose largest step change in controller setpoint that is safe. Increase the reset
time by a factor of 10x for test.
3. Add a PV filter to keep the controller output fluctuations from noise within the valve
deadband.
4. Step the controller setpoint. If the response is non-oscillatory, increase the
controller gain and step the controller setpoint in opposite direction. Repeat until
you get a slight oscillation (ideally amplitude decay). Make sure the controller
output is not hitting the controller output limits and is on the sensitive part of the
control valves installed characteristic.
5. Estimate the period of the oscillation. Reduce the controller gain until the oscillation
disappears ( current gain), set the reset time equal to the period, and the rate
time equal to of the reset time. If the oscillation is noisy or resembles a square
wave or the controller gain is high (e.g. > 10), set the rate time to zero. The factors
are the ultimate period and twice the ultimate gain factors because the controller
gain that triggered the amplitude oscillation is about the ultimate gain and the
amplitude period is larger than the ultimate period.
6. If a high controller gain is used (e.g. > 10) use setpoint rate of change (velocity)
limits if a big kick in the controller output for setpoint changes from proportional
action on error ( > 0) is disruptive to operations.
7. Make setpoint changes across the range of operation to make sure an operating
point with a higher controller gain or larger process deadtime does not cause
oscillations. Monitor the loop closely over several days of operation.
Damped Oscillation Tuning Method
Traditional Open Loop Tuning Method
1. Choose largest step change in controller output that is safe.
deadband.
3. Make a change in controller output in manual.
4. Note the time it take for the process variable to get out of the noise band as the
loop deadtime.
5. Estimate the process time constant as the time to reach 63% of the final value.
6. Estimate the process gain as final change in the process variable (%) after it
reaches a steady state divided by change in the controller output (%).
7. To use reaction curve tuning, set the controller gain equal to the process time
constant divided by the product of the process gain and deadtime.
8. If the process lag is much larger than the loop deadtime, set the reset time setting
equal to 4x the deadtime and set the rate time setting equal to the deadtime. If
process lag is much smaller than the loop deadtime, set the reset time to 0.5x the
loop deadtime and the rate time to zero.
9. If a high controller gain is used (e.g. > 10) use setpoint rate of change (velocity)
limits if a big kick in the controller output for setpoint changes is disruptive to
operations (for PID structures with > 0).
Short Cut Ramp Rate Tuning Method
1. Choose largest step change in controller output and setpoint that is safe. If the test is
to be made in auto, increase the reset time by factor of 10x for test.
deadband. Measure the initial rate of change of the process variable (PV
1
/t).
3. Make a either a change in controller output in manual or change in set point in auto
4. Note the time it take for the for the process variable to get out of the noise band as
the loop deadtime.
5. Estimate the rate of change of the process variable (PV
2
/t) over successive
deadtime intervals (at least two). Choose the largest rate of change. Subtract this
from initial rate of change of the process variable and divide the result by the step
change in controller output to get the integrating process gain.
6. To use reaction curve tuning, set the controller gain equal to 0.4 the inverse of the
product of integrating process gain and loop deadtime (Equation 7).
If the inverse of the integrating gain is much larger than the loop deadtime, set the reset time
setting equal to 4x the process deadtime and set the rate time setting equal to the process
deadtime, otherwise set the reset time to 0.5x the process deadtime and the rate time to zero
7. If a high controller gain is used (e.g. > 10) use setpoint rate of change (velocity) limits
if a big kick in the controller output for setpoint changes is disruptive to operations
(for PID structures with > 0)
Manual Tuning Lab
Objective Gain experience with manual tuning methods to appreciate auto tuning
Activities:
1. Go to Main Display, and select Single Loop Lab01
2. Click on any block in block diagram
3. In Process detail, set Primary Process Lag 2 = 30 sec for Inc and Dec
4. Click on AC1-1 PID Faceplate and Click on magnifying glass icon to get Detail display
5. Tune PID with damped oscillation method and note tuning settings
6. Tune PID with traditional open loop method and note tuning settings
7. Tune PID with short cut tuning method and note tuning settings
On-Demand Tuning Algorithm
Time
(min)
Ultimate Period
T
u
0
Set Point
d
a
Ultimate Gain
4 d
K
u
=
e
n
e = sq rt (a
2
- n
2
) If n = 0, then e = a
alternative to n is a filter to smooth PV
Signal
(%)
Adaptive Tuning Algorithm
Pensacola Reactor Adaptive Control Beta Test
Pensacola Reactor Adaptive Control Beta Test
pH
Level
Temperature
Slurry Feed
Reactor Control After
Broadley-James Corporation Bioreactor Setup
Hyclone 100 liter
Single Use
Bioreactor (SUB)
Rosemount
WirelessHART
gateway and
transmitters for
measurement
and control of pH
and temperature.
(pressure
monitored)
BioNet lab
optimized control
system based on
DeltaV
Bioreactor Adaptive Control Performance
Bioreactor Adaptive Tuning Setup
Bioreactor Adaptive Model Viewing
Bioreactor Adaptive Learning Setup
Output comes off high limit at 36.8
o
C
0.30
o
C overshoot
Bioreactor Adaptive Tuning Gain 40 Reset 500
o
C
0.12
o
C overshoot
Bioreactor Adaptive Tuning Gain 40 Reset 5,000
0.13
o
C overshoot
o
C
0.20
o
C overshoot
o
C
0.11
o
C overshoot
o
C
Integrating and Runaway Process Tuning
It is difficult to prevent overshoot in processes without self-regulation
Controller gain adds self-regulation via closed loop response
Examples of integrating processes (ramping response) are
Liquid and solids level
furnace, column, or vessel pressure
batch composition, pH, or temperature
Examples of runaway processes (accelerating response) are
exothermic reactor temperature
strong acid - strong base pH
exponential growth phase biomass
compressor speed during surge
An overdrive of the controller output beyond its resting value is needed to reach a
set point or compensate for a disturbance (achieved by high controller gain)
The maximum allowable controller gain for many integrating processes is well
beyond the comfort level of most users. Measurement noise and resolution often
sets the practical high limit to the controller gain rather than process dynamics
Too much reset action (too small of a reset time) cause severe overshoot
A higher controller gain creates more overdrive for small setpoint changes and gets
controller off its output limit sooner for large setpoint changes
There is a window of allowable controller gains.
Instability from too high of a controller gain (not likely for industrial processes)
Slow rolling oscillations from too low of a controller gain (common case) that slowly decay for
integrating processes but can grow for runaway processes till it hits physical limits
MIT Anna India University Lab Setup
http://www.controlglobal.com/articles/2010/LevelControl1002.html
Gravity discharge flow makes the level response self-regulating
(increase in level head increases flow through discharge valve)
Increase in cross sectional area with level
increases process time constant
making process response slower
Conical Tank Detail
Conical Tank Linear Level Controller Performance
Conical Tank Adaptive Level Controller Models
Conical Tank Adaptive Level Controller Performance
Nonlinear Control Valve Lab
Equal Percentage
Flow Characteristic
click on PID tag
and then Tune
click on PID tag
and then Tune
Process gain is
approximately
proportional
to flow for
equal percentage
flow characteristic
Identification
Out Limit that
sets deadzone
should be set
approximately
equal to valve
deadband and
stick-slip near
closed position
Objective - Show adaptive control of fast nonlinear self-
regulating processes (fast loop with equal percentage valve)
Activities:
1. Go to Main Display, select Cascade Loop Lab02
2. Click on any block, in Control Valve detail set Equal % Characteristic in Table
3. Click on secondary loop AC1-2 PID Faceplate and put PID in Auto
4. Click on magnifying glass icon to get Detail display
5. Click on Duncan icon for Tune with Insight
6. Run On-Demand Tuner (set Ziegler-Nichols - PI factors: 0.2*Ku and 0.6*Tu)
7. In Models Viewing , set number of regions = 5 and state parameter as OUT
8. Go to settings, and set boundaries for each region
1. Region 1 0 => 35%
2. Region 2 35 => 60%
3. Region 3 60 => 75%
4. Region 3 75 => 90%
5. Region 3 90 => 100%
9. In Adaptive Tuner, set Lambda time = reset time
10.With Adaptive Mode Off make 2 setpoint changes in each region
11.Review Adaptive Control screen
12.Review Model Viewing screen
13.Review Simulate screen
14.With Adaptive Mode Partial make same setpoint changes in each region

ISA Saint Louis Exceptional Opportunities Short Course Day 1

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For Near Integrating gain approximation use maximum

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