1

APA Guide 6
th
Edition: Bases Covered
This document has been compiled from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ with
permission from The Writing Lab & the OWL at Perdue and Perdue Universit. This
material ma not be published! reproduced! broadcasted! rewritten! or redistributed
without permission from The Writing Law & the OWL at Perdue and Perdue
Universit.
"dditionall! the O#$ sta% has added the o&cial "P" corrections. These can be
found on the website or at http://supp.apa.org/stle/pubman'reprint'corrections'for'
(e.pdf.
For a slideshow with a voiceover explaining APA, please visit: http://apastyle.apa.org/
Table of Contents
1. General Format........................................................................................................................3
Title Page............................................................................................................... 3
2. In-Text Citations: The Basics................................................................................................6
3. In-Text Citations: !thor"!thors.......................................................................................#
Citing an !thor or !thors....................................................................................... 8
Citing In$irect %o!rces............................................................................................ 10
&lectronic %o!rces.................................................................................................. 10
'. Footnotes an$ &n$notes.......................................................................................................11
(. )eference *ist.......................................................................................................................12
6. )eference *ist: !thor"!thors.........................................................................................13
#. )eference *ist: rticles in Perio$icals...............................................................................1(
+. )eference *ist: Boo,s..........................................................................................................1#
Basic Format for Boo,s...........................................................................................................1#
-. )eference *ist: .ther Print %o!rces..................................................................................1+
1/. )eference *ist: &lectronic %o!rces...................................................................................1-
1
11. )eference *ist: .ther 0on-Print %o!rces........................................................................2#
12. $$itional )eso!rces.........................................................................................................2-
13. T12es of P Pa2ers..........................................................................................................3/
1'. P %t1listics: 3oi$ing Bias............................................................................................32
1(. P %t1listics: Basics.........................................................................................................3'
16. P 4ea$ings an$ %eriation.............................................................................................36
1#. P Basic Formatting........................................................................................................3+
1+. %am2le P Pa2er.............................................................................................................3+
1-. P Tables an$ Fig!res 1..................................................................................................3+
2/. P Tables an$ Fig!res 2..................................................................................................'3
21. P bbre3iations.............................................................................................................'+
22. %tatistics in P.................................................................................................................(/
23. P Classroom Poster.......................................................................................................(1
1
1. General Format
General P G!i$elines
Your essay should be typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5" x 11") with 1" marins
on all sides. You should use 1!-1" pt. #imes $ew %oman &ont or a similar &ont.
'nclude a 2age hea$er at the top o& e(ery pae. #o create a 2age hea$er, insert pae numbers
&lush riht. #hen type "#'#)* +, Y+-% ./.*%" in the header &lush le&t.
5a6or Pa2er %ections
Your essay should include fo!r ma0or sections1 the Title Page, bstract, 5ain Bo$1, and
)eferences.
Title Page
#he title pae should contain the title o& the paper, the a!thor7s name, and the instit!tional
affiliation. 'nclude the pae header (described abo(e) &lush le&t with the pae number &lush riht
at the top o& the pae. .lease note that on the title pae, your pae header should loo2 li2e this1
%unnin head1 #'#)* +, Y+-% ./.*% (except the words 3%unnin head4 will be deleted
&rom pae " on).
/&ter consultin with publication specialists at the /./, +5) sta&& learned that the /./ 6th
edition sample papers ha(e incorrect examples o& %unnin heads on paes a&ter the title pae.
#his lin, will ta2e to you the /./ site where you can &ind a complete list o& all the errors in the
/./7s 6th edition style uide.
#ype your title in upper and lowercase letters centered in the upper hal& o& the pae. /./
recommends that your title be no more than 1" words in lenth and that it should not contain
abbre(iations or words that ser(e no purpose. Your title may ta2e up one or two lines. /ll text on
the title pae, and throuhout your paper, should be double-spaced.
8eneath the title, type the a!thor7s name1 &irst name, middle initial(s), and last name. 9o not use
titles (9r.) or derees (.h.9.).
8eneath the author7s name, type the instit!tional affiliation, which should indicate the location
where the author(s) conducted the research.
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/./ #itle .ae
bstract
8ein a new pae. Your abstract pae should already include the 2age hea$er (described abo(e).
+n the &irst line o& the abstract pae, center the word 3/bstract4 (no bold, &ormattin, italics,
underlinin, or :uotation mar2s).
8einnin with the next line, write a concise summary o& the 2ey points o& your research. (9o
not indent.) Your abstract should contain at least your research topic, research :uestions,
participants, methods, results, data analysis, and conclusions. You may also include possible
implications o& your research and &uture wor2 you see connected with your &indins. Your
abstract should be a sinle pararaph double-spaced. Your abstract should be between 15! and
"5! words.
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You may also want to list 2eywords &rom your paper in your abstract. #o do this, center the text
and type Keywords: (italicized) and then list your 2eywords. )istin your 2eywords will help
researchers &ind your wor2 in databases.
/./ /bstract .ae
.lease see our %am2le P Pa2er resource to see an example o& an /./ paper. You may also
(isit our $$itional )eso!rces pae &or more examples o& /./ papers.
;ite the .urdue +5) in /./1
.urdue -ni(ersity +nline 5ritin )ab (+5)) ()ast edited date a(ailable in the ray box at the top
o& the resource). Title of resource. %etrie(ed month day, year, &rom http1<<5eb address &or +5)
resource.
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2. In-Text Citations: The Basics
%e&erence citations in text are co(ered on paes "!=-"1> o& the .ublication ?anual. 5hat
&ollows are some eneral uidelines &or re&errin to the wor2s o& others in your essay.
0ote: /./ style re:uires authors to use the past tense or present per&ect tense when usin sinal
phrases to describe earlier research. *.., @ones (1AA8) fo!n$ or @ones (1AA8) has fo!n$...
P Citation Basics
5hen usin /./ &ormat, &ollow the author-date method o& in-text citation. #his means that the
author7s last name and the year o& publication &or the source should appear in the text, *..,
(@ones, 1AA8), and a complete re&erence should appear in the re&erence list at the end o& the
paper.
'& you are re&errin to an idea &rom another wor2 but 0.T directly :uotin the material, or
ma2in re&erence to an entire boo2, article or other wor2, you only ha(e to ma2e re&erence to the
author and year o& publication in your in-text re&erence.
In-Text Citation Ca2itali8ation9 :!otes9 an$ Italics";n$erlining
/lways capitalize proper nouns, includin author names and initials1 9. @ones.
'& you re&er to the title o& a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are &our
letters lon or reater within the title o& a source1 Permanence and hange. *xceptions
apply to short words that are (erbs, nouns, pronouns, ad0ecti(es, and ad(erbs1 !riting
"ew #edia, There $s "othing %eft to %ose.
(0ote: in your %e&erences list, only the &irst word o& a title will be capitalized1 5ritin
new media.)
5hen capitalizin titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word1 "atural&
'orn y(orgs.
;apitalize the &irst word a&ter a dash or colon1 "9e&inin ,ilm %hetoric1 #he ;ase o&
Bitchcoc27s )ertigo."
'talicize or underline the titles o& loner wor2s such as boo2s, edited collections, mo(ies,
tele(ision series, documentaries, or albums1 The losing of the American #indC The
!i*ard of +*C Friends.
.ut :uotation mar2s around the titles o& shorter wor2s such as 0ournal articles, articles
&rom edited collections, tele(ision series episodes, and son titles1 "?ultimedia
$arration1 ;onstructin .ossible 5orlds"C "#he +ne 5here ;handler ;an7t ;ry."
1
%hort :!otations
'& you are directly :uotin &rom a wor2, you will need to include the author, year o& publication,
and the pae number &or the re&erence (preceded by "p."). 'ntroduce the :uotation with a sinal
phrase that includes the author7s last name &ollowed by the date o& publication in parentheses.
/ccordin to @ones (1AA8), "Dtudents o&ten had di&&iculty usin /./ style, especially when it
was their &irst time" (p. 1AA). @ones (1AA8) &ound "students o&ten had di&&iculty usin /./ style"
(p. 1AA)C what implications does this ha(e &or teachersE
'& the author is not named in a sinal phrase, place the author7s last name, the year o& publication,
and the pae number in parentheses a&ter the :uotation.
Dhe stated, "Dtudents o&ten had di&&iculty usin /./ style," but she did not o&&er an explanation
as to why (@ones, 1AA8, p. 1AA).
*ong :!otations
.lace direct :uotations loner than >! words in a &ree-standin bloc2 o& typewritten lines, and
omit :uotation mar2s. Dtart the :uotation on a new line, indented &i(e spaces &rom the le&t
marin. #ype the entire :uotation on the new marin, and indent the &irst line o& any subse:uent
pararaph within the :uotation &i(e spaces &rom the new marin. ?aintain double-spacin
throuhout. #he parenthetical citation should come a&ter the closin punctuation mar2.
@ones7s (1AA8) study &ound the &ollowin1
Dtudents o&ten had di&&iculty usin /./ style, especially when it was their &irst time citin
sources. #his di&&iculty could be attributed to the &act that many students &ailed to purchase a
style manual or to as2 their teacher &or help. (p. 1AA)
%!mmar1 or Para2hrase
'& you are paraphrasin an idea &rom another wor2, you only ha(e to ma2e re&erence to the
author and year o& publication in your in-text re&erence, but /./ uidelines encourae you to
also pro(ide the pae number (althouh it is not re:uired.)
/ccordin to @ones (1AA8), /./ style is a di&&icult citation &ormat &or &irst-time learners.
/./ style is a di&&icult citation &ormat &or &irst-time learners (@ones, 1AA8, p. 1AA).
3. In-Text Citations: !thor"!thors
/./ style has a series o& important rules on usin author names as part o& the author-date system.
#here are additional rules &or citin indirect sources, electronic sources, and sources without
pae numbers.
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Citing an !thor or !thors
<or, b1 T=o !thors: $ame both authors in the sinal phrase or in the parentheses each
time you cite the wor2. -se the word "and" between the authors7 names within the text and use
the ampersand in the parentheses.
%esearch by 5eener and .etty (1AA>) supports...
(5eener F .etty, 1AA>)
<or, b1 Three to Fi3e !thors: )ist all the authors in the sinal phrase or in parentheses the
&irst time you cite the source.
(Gernis, ;ornell, Dun, 8erry, F Barlow, 1AAH)
'n subse:uent citations, only use the &irst author7s last name &ollowed by "et al." in the sinal
phrase or in parentheses.
(Gernis et al., 1AAH)
'n et al., et should not be &ollowed by a period.
%ix or 5ore !thors: -se the &irst author7s name &ollowed by et al. in the sinal phrase or in
parentheses.
Barris et al. ("!!1) arued...
(Barris et al., "!!1)
;n,no=n !thor: '& the wor2 does not ha(e an author, cite the source by its title in the sinal
phrase or use the &irst word or two in the parentheses. #itles o& boo2s and reports are italicized or
underlinedC titles o& articles and chapters are in :uotation mar2s.
/ similar study was done o& students learnin to &ormat research papers ("-sin /./," "!!1).
0ote1 'n the rare case the "/nonymous" is used &or the author, treat it as the author7s name
(/nonymous, "!!1). 'n the re&erence list, use the name /nonymous as the author.
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.rgani8ation as an !thor: '& the author is an oranization or a o(ernment aency, mention
the oranization in the sinal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the &irst time you cite the
source.
/ccordin to the /merican .sycholoical /ssociation ("!!!),...
'& the oranization has a well-2nown abbre(iation, include the abbre(iation in brac2ets the &irst
time the source is cited and then use only the abbre(iation in later citations.
,irst citation1 (?others /ainst 9run2 9ri(in I?/99J, "!!!)
Decond citation1 (?/99, "!!!)
T=o or 5ore <or,s in the %ame Parentheses: 5hen your parenthetical citation includes two
or more wor2s, order them the same way they appear in the re&erence list, separated by a semi-
colon.
(8erndt, "!!"C Barlow, 1A8H)
!thors <ith the %ame *ast 0ame: #o pre(ent con&usion, use &irst initials with the last names.
(*. @ohnson, "!!1C ). @ohnson, 1AA8)
T=o or 5ore <or,s b1 the %ame !thor in the %ame >ear: '& you ha(e two sources by the
same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to order the entries in
the re&erence list. -se the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation.
%esearch by 8erndt (1A81a) illustrated that...
Intro$!ctions9 Prefaces9 Fore=or$s9 an$ fter=ar$s: 5hen citin an 'ntroduction, .re&ace,
,oreword, or /&terward in-text, cite the appropriate author and year as usual.
(,un2 F Golln, 1AA")
Personal Comm!nication: ,or inter(iews, letters, e-mails, and other person-to-person
communication, cite the communicators name, the &act that it was personal communication, and
the date o& the communication. 9o not include personal communication in the re&erence list.
(*. %obbins, personal communication, @anuary >, "!!1).
1
/. .. Dmith also claimed that many o& her students had di&&iculties with /./ style (personal
communication, $o(ember H, "!!").
Citing In$irect %o!rces
'& you use a source that was cited in another source, name the oriinal source in your sinal
phrase. )ist the secondary source in your re&erence list and include the secondary source in the
parentheses.
@ohnson arued that...(as cited in Dmith, "!!H, p. 1!").
0ote: 5hen citin material in parentheses, set o&& the citation with a comma, as abo(e.
&lectronic %o!rces
'& possible, cite an electronic document the same as any other document by usin the author-date
style.
Genneth ("!!!) explained...
;n,no=n !thor an$ ;n,no=n ?ate: '& no author or date is i(en, use the title in your sinal
phrase or the &irst word or two o& the title in the parentheses and use the abbre(iation "n.d." (&or
"no date").
/nother study o& students and research decisions disco(ered that students succeeded with
tutorin ("#utorin and /./," n.d.).
%o!rces <itho!t Page 0!mbers
5hen an electronic source lac2s pae numbers, you should try to include in&ormation that will
help readers &ind the passae bein cited. 5hen an electronic document has numbered
pararaphs, use the @ symbol, or the abbre(iation "para." &ollowed by the pararaph number
(Ball, "!!1, K 5) or (Ball, "!!1, para. 5). '& the pararaphs are not numbered and the document
includes headins, pro(ide the appropriate headin and speci&y the pararaph under that headin.
$ote that in some electronic sources, li2e 5eb paes, people can use the ,ind &unction in their
browser to locate any passaes you cite. /ccordin to Dmith (1AA=), ... (?ind o(er ?atter
section, para. 6).
0ote: $e(er use the pae numbers o& 5eb paes you print outC di&&erent computers print 5eb
paes with di&&erent paination.
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'. Footnotes an$ &n$notes
/./ does not recommend the use o& &ootnotes and endnotes because they are o&ten expensi(e &or
publishers to reproduce. Bowe(er, i& explanatory notes still pro(e necessary to your document,
/./ details the use o& two types o& &ootnotes1 content and copyriht.
5hen usin either type o& &ootnote, insert a number &ormatted in superscript &ollowin almost
any punctuation mar2. ,ootnote numbers should not &ollow dashes ( L ), and i& they appear in a
sentence in parentheses, the &ootnote number should be inserted within the parentheses.
Dcientists examinedLo(er se(eral years
1
Lthe &ossilized remains o& the wooly-wooly ya2.
"

(#hese ha(e now been trans&erred to the ;hauan ?useum.
H
)
/ll &ootnotes should appear on the &inal pae o& your document (usually this is a&ter the
%e&erences pae). ;enter the word 3,ootnotes4 at the top o& the pae. 'ndent &i(e spaces on the
&irst line o& each &ootnote. #hen, &ollow normal pararaph spacin rules. 9ouble-space
throuhout.
1
5hile the method o& examination &or the wooly-wooly ya2 pro(ides important insihts to this
research, this document does not &ocus on this particular species.
Content 0otes
;ontent $otes pro(ide supplemental in&ormation to your readers. 5hen pro(idin ;ontent
$otes, be brie& and &ocus on only one sub0ect. #ry to limit your comments to one small
pararaph.
;ontent $otes can also point readers to in&ormation that is a(ailable in more detail elsewhere.
1
Dee 8lac2mur (1AA5), especially chapters three and &our, &or an insiht&ul analysis o& this
extraordinary animal.
Co21right Permission 0otes
'& you :uote more than 5!! words o& published material or thin2 you may be in (iolation o& 3,air
-se4 copyriht laws, you must et the &ormal permission o& the author(s). /ll other sources
simply appear in the re&erence list.
1
,ollow the same &ormattin rules as with ;ontent $otes &or notin copyriht permissions. #hen
attach a copy o& the permission letter to the document.
'& you are reproducin a raphic, chart, or table, &rom some other source, you must pro(ide a
special note at the bottom o& the item that includes copyriht in&ormation. You should also
submit written permission alon with your wor2. 8ein the citation with 3"ote.4
"ote. ,rom 3#itle o& the article,4 by 5. @ones and %. Dmith, "!!=, @ournal #itle, "1, p. 1"".
;opyriht "!!= by ;opyriht Bolder. %eprinted with permission.
(. )eference *ist: Basic )!les
Your re&erence list should appear at the end o& your paper. 't pro(ides the in&ormation necessary
&or a reader to locate and retrie(e any source you cite in the body o& the paper. *ach source you
cite in the paper must appear in your re&erence listC li2ewise, each entry in the re&erence list must
be cited in your text.
Your re&erences should bein on a new pae separate &rom the text o& the essayC label this pae
"%e&erences" centered at the top o& the pae (do $+# bold, underline, or use :uotation mar2s &or
the title). /ll text should be double-spaced 0ust li2e the rest o& your essay.
Basic )!les
/ll lines a&ter the &irst line o& each entry in your re&erence list should be indented one-hal&
inch &rom the le&t marin. #his is called hanin indentation.
/uthors7 names are in(erted (last name &irst)C i(e the last name and initials &or all
authors o& a particular wor2 unless the wor2 has more than six authors. '& the wor2 has
more than six authors, list the &irst six authors and then use et al. a&ter the sixth author7s
name to indicate the rest o& the authors.
%e&erence list entries should be alphabetized by the last name o& the &irst author o& each
wor2.
'& you ha(e more than one article by the same author, sinle-author re&erences or
multiple-author re&erences with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed
in order by the year o& publication, startin with the earliest.
5hen re&errin to any wor2 that is $+# a 0ournal, such as a boo2, article, or 5eb pae,
capitalize only the &irst letter o& the &irst word o& a title and subtitle, the &irst word a&ter a
colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. 9o not capitalize the &irst letter o& the
second word in a hyphenated compound word.
;apitalize all ma0or words in 0ournal titles.
'talicize titles o& loner wor2s such as boo2s and 0ournals.
1
9o not italicize, underline, or put :uotes around the titles o& shorter wor2s such as 0ournal
articles or essays in edited collections.
6. )eference *ist: !thor"!thors
#he &ollowin rules &or handlin wor2s by a sinle author or multiple authors apply to all /./-
style re&erences in your re&erence list, reardless o& the type o& wor2 (boo2, article, electronic
resource, etc.)
%ingle !thor
)ast name &irst, &ollowed by author initials.
8erndt, #. @. ("!!"). ,riendship :uality and social de(elopment. urrent ,irections in Psychological
-cience, .., =-1!.
T=o !thors
)ist by their last names and initials. -se the ampersand instead o& "and."
5eener, 9. #., F .etty, %. *. (1AA>). ?ood manaement across a&&ecti(e states1 #he hedonic
continency hypothesis. /ournal of Personality 0 -ocial Psychology, 11, 1!H>-1!>8.
Three to %ix !thors
)ist by last names and initialsC commas separate author names, while the last author name is
preceded aain by ampersand.
Gernis, ?. B., ;ornell, 9. .., Dun, ;. %., 8erry, /., Barlow, #., F 8ach, @. D. (1AAH). #here7s more to
sel&-esteem than whether it is hih or low1 #he importance o& stability o& sel&-esteem. /ournal of
Personality and -ocial Psychology, 12, 11A!-1"!>.
5ore Than %e3en !thors
1
?iller, ,. B., ;hoi, ?. @., /neli, ). )., Barland, /. /., Dtamos, @. /., #homas, D. #., . . . %ubin, ).
B. ("!!A). 5eb site usability &or the blind and low-(ision user. Technical ommunication 23,
H"H-HH5.
.rgani8ation as !thor
/merican .sycholoical /ssociation. ("!!H).
;n,no=n !thor
#erriam&!e(ster4s collegiate dictionary (1!th ed.).(1AAH). Dprin&ield, ?/1 ?erriam-5ebster.
0.T&1 5hen your essay includes parenthetical citations o& sources with no author named, use a
shortened (ersion o& the source7s title instead o& an author7s name. -se :uotation mar2s and
italics as appropriate. ,or example, parenthetical citations o& the two sources abo(e would appear
as &ollows1 (#erriam&!e(ster4s, 1AAH) and ("$ew 9ru," 1AAH).
T=o or 5ore <or,s b1 the %ame !thor
-se the author7s name &or all entries and list the entries by the year (earliest comes &irst).
8erndt, #.@. (1A81).
8erndt, #.@. (1AAA).
5hen an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as the &irst author o& a
roup, list the one-author entries &irst.
8erndt, #. @. (1AAA). ,riends7 in&luence on students7 ad0ustment to school. 5ducational Psychologist,
67, 15-"8.
8erndt, #. @., F Gee&e, G. (1AA5). ,riends7 in&luence on adolescents7 ad0ustment to school. hild
,evelopment, 11, 1H1"-1H"A.
%e&erences that ha(e the same &irst author and di&&erent second and<or third authors are arraned
alphabetically by the last name o& the second author, or the last name o& the third i& the &irst and
second authors are the same.
1
5eener, 9. #., Gerr, $. )., ,lemin, ?. /., F .etty, %. *. ("!!!). ,lexible corrections o& 0uror
0udments1 'mplications &or 0ury instructions. Psychology, Pu(lic Policy, 0 %aw, 1, 6"A-65>.
5eener, 9. #., .etty, %. *., F Glein, 9. @. (1AA>). *&&ects o& mood on hih elaboration attitude
chane1 #he mediatin role o& li2elihood 0udments. 5uropean /ournal of -ocial Psychology, 87,
"5->H.
T=o or 5ore <or,s b1 the %ame !thor in the %ame >ear
'& you are usin more than one re&erence by the same author (or the same roup o& authors listed
in the same order) published in the same year, oranize them in the re&erence list alphabetically
by the title o& the article or chapter. #hen assin letter su&&ixes to the year. %e&er to these sources
in your essay as they appear in your re&erence list, e..1 "8erdnt (1A81a) ma2es similar claims..."
8erndt, #. @. (1A81a). /e chanes and chanes o(er time in prosocial intentions and beha(ior
between &riends. ,evelopmental Psychology, .3, >!8->16.
8erndt, #. @. (1A81b). *&&ects o& &riendship on prosocial intentions and beha(ior. hild ,evelopment,
28, 6H6-6>H.
Intro$!ctions9 Prefaces9 Fore=or$s9 an$ fter=ar$s
;ite the publishin in&ormation about a boo2 as usual, but cite 'ntroduction, .re&ace, ,oreword,
or /&terward (whate(er title is applicable) as the chapter o& the boo2.
,un2, %. F Golln, ?. (1AA8). 'ntroduction. 'n *.5. )udlow (*d.), 9nderstanding 5nglish :rammar
(pp. 1-"). $eedham, ?/1 /llyn and 8acon.
#. )eference *ist: rticles in Perio$icals
Basic Form
/./ style dictates that authors are named last name &ollowed by initialsC publication year oes
between parentheses, &ollowed by a period. #he title o& the article is in sentence-case, meanin
only the &irst word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. #he periodical title is run in title
case, and is &ollowed by the (olume number which, with the title, is also italicized or underlined.
1
/uthor, /. /., /uthor, 8. 8., F /uthor, ;. ;. (Year). #itle o& article. Title of Periodical, volume
num(er(issue number), paes.
rticle in Ao!rnal Paginate$ b1 Bol!me
@ournals that are painated by (olume bein with pae one in issue one, and continue numberin
issue two where issue one ended, etc.
Barlow, B. ,. (1A8H). ,undamentals &or preparin psycholoy 0ournal articles. /ournal of
omparative and Physiological Psychology, 22, 8AH-8A6.
rticle in Ao!rnal Paginate$ b1 Iss!e
@ournals painated by issue bein with pae one e(ery issueC there&ore, the issue number ets
indicated in parentheses a&ter the (olume. #he parentheses and issue number are not italicized or
underlined.
Dcruton, %. (1AA6). #he eclipse o& listenin. The "ew riterion, .2(H!), 5-1H.
rticle in a 5aga8ine
Benry, 5. /., '''. (1AA!, /pril A). ?a2in the rade in today7s schools. Time, .62, "8-H1.
rticle in a 0e=s2a2er
-nli2e other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes pae numbers &or a newspaper re&erence in /./
style. Dinle paes ta2e p., e.., p. 8"C multiple paes ta2e pp., e.., pp. 8", 8> or pp. ;1, ;H-;>.
Dchultz, D. ("!!5, 9ecember "8). ;alls made to strenthen state enery policies. The ountry Today,
pp. 1/, "/.
0ote1 8ecause o& issues with html codin, the listins below usin brac2ets contain spaces that
are not to be used with your listins. -se a space as normal be&ore the brac2ets, but do not
include a space &ollowin the brac2et.
*etter to the &$itor
1
?oller, M. ("!!", /uust). %ipples (ersus rumbles I)etter to the editorJ. -cientific American, 8;3("),
1".
)e3ie=
8aumeister, %. ,. (1AAH). *xposin the sel&-2nowlede myth I%e(iew o& the boo2 The self&<nower:
A hero under control J. ontemporary Psychology, 6;, >66->6=.
+. )eference *ist: Boo,s
Basic Format for Boo,s
/uthor, /. /. (Year o& publication). Title of wor<: apital letter also for su(title. )ocation1 .ublisher.
0ote1 ,or ")ocation," you should always list the city, but you should also include the state i& the
city is un&amiliar or i& the city could be con&used with one in another state.
;al&ee, %. ;., F Nalencia, %. %. (1AA1). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for =ournal pu(lication.
5ashinton, 9;1 /merican .sycholoical /ssociation.
&$ite$ Boo,9 0o !thor
9uncan, M. @., F 8roo2s-Munn, @. (*ds.). (1AA=). onse>uences of growing up poor. $ew Yor21
%ussell Dae ,oundation.
&$ite$ Boo, =ith an !thor or !thors
.lath, D. ("!!!). The una(ridged =ournals (G.N. Gu2il, *d.). $ew Yor21 /nchor.
Translation
1
)aplace, .. D. (1A51). A philosophical essay on pro(a(ilities. (,. 5. #ruscott F ,. ). *mory, #rans.).
$ew Yor21 9o(er. (+riinal wor2 published 181>).
0ote1 5hen you cite a republished wor2, li2e the one abo(e, wor2 in your text, it should appear
with both dates1 )aplace (181><1A51).
&$ition .ther Than the First
Bel&er, ?. *., Geme, %. D., F 9ruman, %. 9. (1AA=). The (attered child (5th ed.). ;hicao1
-ni(ersity o& ;hicao .ress.
rticle or Cha2ter in an &$ite$ Boo,
/uthor, /. /., F /uthor, 8. 8. (Year o& publication). #itle o& chapter. 'n /. *ditor F 8. *ditor (*ds.),
Title of (oo< (paes o& chapter). )ocation1 .ublisher.
0ote1 5hen you list the paes o& the chapter or essay in parentheses a&ter the boo2 title, use
"pp." be&ore the numbers1 (pp. 1-"1). #his abbre(iation, howe(er, does not appear be&ore the
pae numbers in periodical re&erences, except &or newspapers.
+7$eil, @. ?., F *an, @. (1AA"). ?en7s and women7s ender role 0ourneys1 ?etaphor &or healin,
transition, and trans&ormation. 'n 8. %. 5ainrib (*d.), :ender issues across the life cycle (pp.
1!=-1"H). $ew Yor21 Dpriner.
5!lti3ol!me <or,
5iener, .. (*d.). (1A=H). ,ictionary of the history of ideas (Nols. 1->). $ew Yor21 Dcribner7s.
-. )eference *ist: .ther Print %o!rces
n &ntr1 in n &nc1clo2e$ia
8ermann, .. M. (1AAH). %elati(ity. 'n The new encyclopedia (ritannica (Nol. "6, pp. 5!1-5!8).
;hicao1 *ncyclopedia 8ritannica.
1
<or, ?isc!sse$ in a %econ$ar1 %o!rce
)ist the source the wor2 was discussed in1
;oltheart, ?., ;urtis, 8., /t2ins, .., F Baller, ?. (1AAH). ?odels o& readin aloud1 9ual-route and
parallel-distributed-processin approaches. Psychological ?eview, .@@, 58A-6!8.
0.T&: Mi(e the secondary source in the re&erences listC in the text, name the oriinal wor2, and
i(e a citation &or the secondary source. ,or example, i& Deidenber and ?c;lelland7s wor2 is
cited in ;oltheart et al. and you did not read the oriinal wor2, list the ;oltheart et al. re&erence
in the %e&erences. 'n the text, use the &ollowin citation1
'n Deidenber and ?c;lelland7s study (as cited in ;oltheart, ;urtis, /t2ins, F Baller, 1AAH), ...
?issertation bstract
Yoshida, Y. ("!!1). *ssays in urban transportation (9octoral dissertation, 8oston ;ollee, "!!1).
,issertation A(stracts $nternational, 18, ==>1/.
Go3ernment ?oc!ment
$ational 'nstitute o& ?ental Bealth. (1AA!). linical training in serious mental illness (9BBD
.ublication $o. /9? A!-16=A). 5ashinton, 9;1 -.D. Mo(ernment .rintin +&&ice.
)e2ort From a Pri3ate .rgani8ation
/merican .sychiatric /ssociation. ("!!!). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with
eating disorders ("nd ed.). 5ashinton, 9.;.1 /uthor.
Conference Procee$ings
Dchnase, @.)., F ;unnius, *.). (*ds.). (1AA5). .roceedins &rom ;D;) 7A51 The First $nternational
onference on omputer -upport for olla(orative %earning. ?ahwah, $@1 *rlbaum.
1/. )eference *ist: &lectronic %o!rces
1
rticle From an .nline Perio$ical
$ote1 'n "!!=, the /./ released se(eral additions<modi&ications &or documentation o& electronic
sources in the /./ Dtyle Muide to *lectronic %e&erences. #hese chanes are re&lected in the
entries below. Please note that there are no spaces used with brac2ets in /./.
+nline articles &ollow the same uidelines &or printed articles. 'nclude all in&ormation the online
host ma2es a(ailable, includin an issue number in parentheses.
/uthor, /. /., F /uthor, 8. 8. (9ate o& publication). #itle o& article. Title of +nline Periodical,
volume num(er(issue number i& a(ailable). %etrie(ed &rom http1<<www.someaddress.com<&ull<url<
8ernstein, ?. ("!!"). 1! tips on writin the li(in 5eb. A %ist Apart: For People !ho #a<e
!e(sites, .7A. %etrie(ed &rom http1<<www.alistapart.com<articles<writeli(in
.nline %cholarl1 Ao!rnal rticle
Dince online materials can potentially chane -%)7s, /./ recommends pro(idin a 9iital
+b0ect 'denti&ier (9+'), when it is a(ailable, as opposed to the -%). 9+'7s are an attempt to
pro(ide stable, lon-lastin lin2s &or online articles. #hey are uni:ue to their documents and
consist o& a lon alphanumeric code. ?any-but not all-publishers will pro(ide an article7s 9+' on
the &irst pae o& the document.
$ote that some online biblioraphies pro(ide an article7s 9+' but may "hide" the code under a
button which may read "/rticle" or may be an abbre(iation o& a (endors name li2e ";ross%e&" or
".ub?ed." #his button will usually lead the user to the &ull article which will include the 9+'.
,ind 9+'7s &rom print publications or ones that o to dead lin2s with ;ross%e&.or7s "9+'
%esol(er," which is displayed in a central location on their home pae.
rticle From an .nline Perio$ical =ith ?.I ssigne$
/uthor, /. /., F /uthor, 8. 8. (9ate o& publication). #itle o& article. Title of /ournal, volume
num(er. doi1!!!!!!!<!!!!!!!!!!!!
8rownlie, 9. #oward e&&ecti(e poster presentations1 /n annotated biblioraphy. 5uropean /ournal of
#ar<eting, 7.(11<1"), 1">5-1"8H. doi11!.11!8<!H!A!56!=1!8"1161
rticle From an .nline Perio$ical =ith no ?.I ssigne$
+nline scholarly 0ournal articles without a 9+' re:uire a -%).
1
/uthor, /. /., F /uthor, 8. 8. (9ate o& publication). #itle o& article. Title of /ournal, volume
num(er. %etrie(ed &rom http1<<www.someaddress.com<&ull<url<
Genneth, '. /. ("!!!). / 8uddhist response to the nature o& human rihts. /ournal of 'uddhist
5thics, ;. %etrie(ed &rom http1<<www.cac.psu.edu<0be<twocont.html
'& the article appears as a printed (ersion as well, the -%) is not re:uired. -se "*lectronic
(ersion" in brac2ets a&ter the article7s title.
5hitmeyer, @.?. ("!!!). .ower throuh appointment I*lectronic (ersionJ. -ocial -cience ?esearch,
8A, 5H5-555.
rticle From a ?atabase
5hen re&erencin material obtained &rom an online database (such as a database in the library),
pro(ide appropriate print citation in&ormation (&ormatted 0ust li2e a "normal" print citation would
be &or that type o& wor2). #his will allow people to retrie(e the print (ersion i& they do not ha(e
access to the database &rom which you retrie(ed the article. You can also include the item number
or accession number in parentheses at the end, but the /./ manual says that this is not re:uired.
,or articles that are easily located, do not pro(ide database in&ormation. '& the article is di&&icult
to locate, then you can pro(ide database in&ormation. +nly use retrie(al dates i& the source could
chane, such as 5i2is. ,or more about citin articles retrie(ed &rom electronic databases, see
paes 18=-1A" o& the .ublication ?anual.
Dmyth, /. ?., .ar2er, /. )., F .ease, 9. ). ("!!"). / study o& en0oyment o& peas. /ournal of
A(normal 5ating, ;(H), 1"!-1"5.
bstract
'& you only cite an abstract but the &ull text o& the article is also a(ailable, cite the online abstract
as other online citations, addin "I/bstractJ" a&ter the article or source name.
.aterson, .. ("!!8). Bow well do youn o&&enders with /sperer Dyndrome cope in custodyE1 #wo
prison case studies I/bstractJ. 'ritish /ournal of %earning ,isa(ilities, 61(1), 5>-58.
8osson, M. *rati(ity in 8as:ue. %inguistics, 88(H), H>1-HA".
1
0e=s2a2er rticle
/uthor, /. /. (Year, ?onth 9ay). #itle o& article. Title of "ewspaper. %etrie(ed &rom
http1<<www.someaddress.com<&ull<url<
.ar2er-.ope, #. ("!!8, ?ay 6). .sychiatry handboo2 lin2ed to dru industry. The "ew Bor< Times.
%etrie(ed &rom http1<<www.nytimes.com
&lectronic Boo,s
*lectronic boo2s may include boo2s &ound on personal websites, databases, or e(en in audio
&orm. -se the &ollowin &ormat i& the boo2 you are usin is only pro(ided in a diital &ormat or is
di&&icult to &ind in print. '& the wor2 is not directly a(ailable online or must be purchased, use
"/(ailable &rom," rather than "%etrie(ed &rom," and point readers to where they can &ind it.
9e Bu&&, *.5. TaytayCs tales: Traditional Pue(lo $ndian tales. %etrie(ed &rom
http1<<diital.library.upenn.edu<women<dehu&&<taytay<
taytay.html
9a(is, @. Familiar (irdsongs of the "orthwest. /(ailable &rom http1<<www.powells.com<ci-
bin<biblioEin2eyO1-
A=8!AH16861!8-!
Cha2ter"%ection of a <eb $oc!ment or .nline Boo, Cha2ter
/uthor, /. /., F /uthor, 8. 8. (9ate o& publication). #itle o& article. 'n Title of (oo< or larger
document (chapter or section number). %etrie(ed &rom http1<<www.someaddress.com<&ull<url<
*nelshcall, %. D. (1AA=). ?odule modPrewrite1 -%) %ewritin *nine. 'n Apache DTTP -erver
)ersion ..6 ,ocumentation (/pache modules.) %etrie(ed &rom
http1<<httpd.apache.or<docs<1.H<mod<modPrewrite.html
.ec2inpauh, @. ("!!H). ;hane in the $ineties. 'n @.D. 8ouh and M.8. 9u8ois (*ds.), A century of
growth in America. %etrie(ed &rom MoldDtar database.
1
0.T&1 -se a chapter or section identi&ier and pro(ide a -%) that lin2s directly to the chapter
section, not the home pae o& the 5eb site.
.nline Boo, )e3ie=s
;ite the in&ormation as you normally would &or the wor2 you are :uotin. (#he &irst example
below is &rom a newspaper articleC the second is &rom a scholarly 0ournal.) 'n brac2ets, write
"%e(iew o& the boo2" and i(e the title o& the re(iewed wor2. .ro(ide the web address a&ter the
words "%etrie(ed &rom," i& the re(iew is &reely a(ailable to anyone. '& the re(iew comes &rom a
subscription ser(ice or database, write "/(ailable &rom" and pro(ide the in&ormation where the
re(iew can be purchased.
Qachare2, D. ("!!8, /pril "=). $atural women I%e(iew o& the boo2 :irls li<e us J. The "ew Bor<
Times. %etrie(ed &rom http1<<www.nytimes.com<"!!8<!><"=<boo2s<re(iew<Qacharec2
-t.htmlEpaewantedO"
;astle, M. ("!!=). $ew millennial @oyce I%e(iew o& the boo2s Twenty&first /oyce, /oyce4s critics:
Transitions in reading and culture, and /oyce4s messianism: ,ante, negative existence, and the
messianic selfE. #odern Fiction -tudies, 2@(1), 16H-1=H. /(ailable &rom .ro0ect ?-D* 5eb site1
http1<<muse.0hu.edu<0ournals<modernP&ictionPstudies<toc<
m&s5".1.html
?issertation"Thesis from a ?atabase
8iswas, D. ("!!8). ,opamine ,6 receptor: A neuroprotective treatment target in Par<inson4s
disease. %etrie(ed &rom .roRuest 9iital 9issertations. (//# H"A5"1>)
.nline &nc1clo2e$ias an$ ?ictionaries
+&ten encyclopedias and dictionaries do not pro(ide bylines (authors7 names). 5hen no byline is
present, mo(e the entry name to the &ront o& the citation. .ro(ide publication dates i& present or
speci&y (n.d.) i& no date is present in the entry. 5hen listin the -%), i(e only the home or
index root as opposed to the -%) &or the entry.
,eminism. (n.d.) 'n 5ncyclopFdia 'ritannica online. %etrie(ed &rom http1<< www.britannica.com
1
.nline Bibliogra2hies an$ nnotate$ Bibliogra2hies
@Srens, %. ("!!5). D$)/A$,- and D) in Prisons: A -elect Annotated 'i(liography. %etrie(ed &rom
http1<<www.hc-sc.c.ca<ahc-asc<altP&ormats<hpb-dps<
pd&<intacti(<hi(-(ih-aids-sida-prison-carceralPe.pd&
?ata %ets
.oint readers to raw data by pro(idin a 5eb address (use "%etrie(ed &rom") or a eneral place
that houses data sets on the site (use "/(ailable &rom").
-nited Dtates 9epartment o& Bousin and -rban 9e(elopment. $ndiana income limits I9ata &ileJ.
%etrie(ed &rom http1<<www.huduser.or<9atasets<')<')!8<inP&y"!!8.pd&
Gra2hic ?ata Ce.g. Interacti3e 5a2s an$ .ther Gra2hic )e2resentations of ?ataD
Mi(e the name o& the researchin oranization &ollowed by the date. 'n brac2ets, pro(ide a brie&
explanation o& what type o& data is there and in what &orm it appears. ,inally, pro(ide the pro0ect
name and retrie(al in&ormation.
Dolar %adiation and ;limate *xperiment. ("!!=). IMraph illustration the D+%;* Dpectral .lot ?ay
8, "!!8J. -olar -pectral ,ata Access from the -$#, -+%-T$5, and GP- $nstruments. %etrie(ed
&rom http1<<lasp.colorado.edu<ci-bin<ion-pEpaeOinputPdataP&orP spectra.ion
:!alitati3e ?ata an$ .nline Inter3ie=s
'& an inter(iew is not retrie(able in audio or print &orm, cite the inter(iew only in the text (not in
the re&erence list) and pro(ide the month, day, and year in the text. '& an audio &ile or transcript is
a(ailable online, use the &ollowin model, speci&yin the medium in brac2ets (e.. I'nter(iew
transcript, 'nter(iew audio &ileJ)1
8utler, ;. ('nter(iewer) F Dte(enson, %. ('nter(iewee). (1AAA). +ral Distory 8 I'nter(iew transcriptJ.
%etrie(ed &rom @ohnson Dpace ;enter +ral Bistories .ro0ect 5eb site1 http1<<
www11.0sc.nasa.o(<history<oralPhistories<oralP
histories.htm
1
.nline *ect!re 0otes an$ Presentation %li$es
5hen citin online lecture notes, be sure to pro(ide the &ile &ormat in brac2ets a&ter the lecture
title (e.. .ower.oint slides, 5ord document).
Ballam, /. ,uality in consumer theory I.9, documentJ. %etrie(ed &rom )ecture $otes +nline 5eb
site1 http1<<www.econ.iastate.edu<classes<econ5!1<Ballam<
index.html
%oberts, G. ,. (1AA8). Federal regulations of chemicals in the environment I.ower.oint slidesJ.
%etrie(ed &rom http1<<siri.u(m.edu<ppt<>!hren(<index.html
0on2erio$ical <eb ?oc!ment9 <eb Page9 or )e2ort
)ist as much o& the &ollowin in&ormation as possible (you sometimes ha(e to hunt around to
&ind the in&ormationC don7t be lazy. '& there is a pae li2e
http1<<www.somesite.com<somepae.htm, and somepae.htm doesn7t ha(e the in&ormation you7re
loo2in &or, mo(e up the -%) to http1<<www.somesite.com<)1
/uthor, /. /., F /uthor, 8. 8. (9ate o& publication). Title of document. %etrie(ed &rom http1<<5eb
address
0.T&1 5hen an 'nternet document is more than one 5eb pae, pro(ide a -%) that lin2s to the
home pae or entry pae &or the document. /lso, i& there isn7t a date a(ailable &or the document
use (n.d.) &or no date.
Com2!ter %oft=are"?o=nloa$e$ %oft=are
9o not cite standard o&&ice so&tware (e.. 5ord, *xcel) or prorammin lanuaes. .ro(ide
re&erences only &or specialized so&tware.
)udwi, #. ("!!"). .sych'n:uiry Icomputer so&twareJ. $ew Yor21 5orth.
Do&tware that is downloaded &rom a 5eb site should pro(ide the so&twareTs (ersion and year
when a(ailable.
Bayes, 8., #esar, 8., F Quraw, G. ("!!H). +#Do&t1 +ptimality #heory Do&tware (Nersion ".1)
IDo&twareJ. /(ailable &rom http1<<www.linuistics.ucla.edu<people<hayes<otso&t<
1
&-mail
*-mails are not included in the list o& re&erences, thouh you parenthetically cite them in your
main text1 (*. %obbins, personal communication, @anuary >, "!!1).
.nline For!m or ?isc!ssion Boar$ Posting
'nclude the title o& the messae, and the -%) o& the newsroup or discussion board. .lease note
that titles &or items in online communities (e.. blos, newsroups, &orums) are not italicized. '&
the author7s name is not a(ailable, pro(ide the screen name. .lace identi&iers li2e post or messae
numbers, i& a(ailable, in brac2ets. '& a(ailable, pro(ide the -%) where the messae is archi(ed
(e.. "?essae posted to..., archi(ed at...").
,roo2, 8. 9. (1AAA, @uly "H). $ew in(entions in the cyberworld o& toylandia I?s "5J. ?essae
posted to http1<<roups.earthlin2.com<&orum<messaes<!!!"5.html
Blog C<eblogD an$ Bi$eo Blog Post
'nclude the title o& the messae and the -%). .lease note that titles &or items in online
communities (e.. blos, newsroups, &orums) are not italicized. '& the authorTs name is not
a(ailable, pro(ide the screen name.
9ean, @. ("!!8, ?ay =). 5hen the sel& emeres1 's that me in the mirrorE ?essae posted to
http1<<www.sprin.or.u2<
the1sttransport. ("!!>, Deptember "6). .sycholoy Nideo 8lo UH INideo ,ileJ. Nideo posted to
http1<<www.youtube.com<watchE(Ol:?A!eRi5-?
<i,is
.lease note that the APA -tyle :uide to 5lectronic ?eferences warns writers that wi2is (li2e
5i2ipedia, &or example) are collaborati(e pro0ects which cannot uarantee the (eri&iability or
expertise o& their entries.
1
+).; .eru</rahuay. (n.d.). %etrie(ed &rom the +).; 5i2i1 http1<<wi2i.laptop.
or<o<+).;P.eru</rahuay
!$io Po$cast
,or all podcasts, pro(ide as much in&ormation as possibleC not all o& the &ollowin in&ormation
will be a(ailable. .ossible addition identi&iers may include .roducer, 9irector, etc.
8ell, #. F .hillips, #. ("!!8, ?ay 6). / solar &lare. -cience H "A-A Podcast. .odcast retrie(ed &rom
http1<<science.nasa.o(<podcast.htm
Bi$eo Po$casts
,or all podcasts, pro(ide as much in&ormation as possibleC not all o& the &ollowin in&ormation
will be a(ailable. .ossible addition identi&iers may include .roducer, 9irector, etc.
Dcott, 9. (.roducer). ("!!=, @anuary 5). #he community collee classroom I*pisode =J. Adventures
in 5ducation. .odcast retrie(ed &rom http1<<www.ad(eeducation.com
,or more help with citin electronic sources, please use these lin2s1
?oc!menting &lectronic %o!rces
P st1le =eb site7s co3erage of electronic references
P FreE!entl1 s,e$ :!estions
11. )eference *ist: .ther 0on-Print %o!rces
Inter3ie=s9 &mail9 an$ .ther Personal Comm!nication
$o personal communication is included in your re&erence listC instead, parenthetically cite the
communicators name, the &act that it was personal communication, and the date o& the
communication in your main text only.
(*. %obbins, personal communication, @anuary >, "!!1).
/. .. Dmith also claimed that many o& her students had di&&iculties with /./ style (personal
communication, $o(ember H, "!!").
1
5otion Pict!re
8asic re&erence list &ormat1
.roducer, .. .. (.roducer), F 9irector, 9.9. (9irector). (9ate o& publication). Title of motion picture
I?otion pictureJ. ;ountry o& oriin1 Dtudio or distributor.
0ote1 '& a mo(ie or (ideo tape is not a(ailable in wide distribution, add the &ollowin to your
citation a&ter the country o& oriin1 (/(ailable &rom 9istributor name, &ull address and zip code).
5otion Pict!re or Bi$eo Ta2e =ith International or 0ational 3ailabilit1
Dmith, @.9. (.roducer), F Dmithee, /.,. (9irector). ("!!1). ?eally (ig disaster movie I ?otion
pictureJ. -nited Dtates1 .aramount .ictures.
5otion Pict!re or Bi$eo Ta2e =ith *imite$ 3ailabilit1
Barris, ?. (.roducer), F #urley, ?. @. (9irector). ("!!"). !riting la(s: A history I?otion pictureJ.
(/(ailable &rom .urdue -ni(ersity .ictures, 5!! +(al 9ri(e, 5est )a&ayette, '$ >=A!=)
Tele3ision Broa$cast or %eries &2iso$e
.roducer, .. .. (.roducer). (9ate o& broadcast or copyriht). #itle o& broadcast I Television (roadcast
or Television series J. ;ity o& oriin1 Dtudio or distributor.
%ingle &2iso$e of a Tele3ision %eries
5riter, 5. 5. (5riter), F 9irector, 9.9. (9irector). (9ate o& publication). #itle o& episode
I#ele(ision series episodeJ. 'n .. .roducer (.roducer), -eries title. ;ity o& oriin1 Dtudio or
distributor.
5endy, D. 5. (5riter), F ?artian, '.%. (9irector). (1A86). #he risin anel and the &allin ape
I#ele(ision series episodeJ. 'n 9. 9ude (.roducer), reatures and monsters. )os /neles1
8elarus Dtudios.
1
Tele3ision Broa$cast
'mportant, '. ?. (.roducer). (1AA!, $o(ember 1). The nightly news hour I#ele(ision broadcastJ. $ew
Yor21 ;entral 8roadcastin Der(ice.
Tele3ision %eries
8ellisario, 9.). (.roducer). (1AA"). 5xciting action show I#ele(ision seriesJ. Bollywood1 /merican
8roadcastin ;ompany.
5!sic )ecor$ing
Donwriter, 5. 5. (9ate o& copyriht). #itle o& son I%ecorded by artist i& di&&erent &rom son
writerJ. +n Title of al(um I?edium o& recordinJ. )ocation1 )abel. (%ecordin date i& di&&erent
&rom copyriht date).
#aupin, 8. (1A=5). Domeone sa(ed my li&e toniht I%ecorded by *lton @ohnJ. +n aptain fantastic
and the (rown dirt cow(oy I;9J. )ondon1 8i .i ?usic )imited.
,or more about citin audio(isual media, see paes "66-"6A o& the .ublication ?anual.
,or in&ormation about citin leal sources in your re&erence list, see the <estfiel$ %tate College
2age on Citing *egal 5aterials in P %t1le.
12. $$itional )eso!rces
't7s always best to consult the .ublication ?anual &irst &or any /./ :uestion. '& you are usin
/./ style &or a class assinment, it7s a ood idea to consult your pro&essor, ad(isor, #/, or other
campus resources &or help with usin /./ styleLthey7re the ones who can tell you how the style
should apply in your particular case. ,or extraordinary :uestions that aren7t co(ered clearly in the
style manual or ha(en7t been answered by your teacher or ad(isor, contact the 5ritin )ab &or
help at (=65) >A>-H="H or email b1 !sing o!r .<* t!tor email form.
Print )eso!rces
Bere are some print resources &or usin /./ style. ;lic2 #he .urdue +5) does not ma2e any
pro&it &rom nor does it endorse these aenciesC lin2s are merely o&&ered &or in&ormation. ?ost o&
1
these boo2s are probably a(ailable in your local library. ,rom the /merican .sycholoical
/ssociation1
Pu(lication #anual of the American Psychological Association (6th edition) ('D8$ 1H1
A=8-1->HH8-!561-5C 'D8$ 1!1 1->HH8-!561-8)
#astering APA -tyle: -tudent4s !or<(oo< and Training :uide ('D8$1 155=A88A1A)
#astering APA -tyle: $nstructor4s ?esource :uide ('D8$1 155=A88A!!)
,isplaying Bour Findings: A Practical :uide for reating Figures, Posters, and
Presentations ('D8$1 155=A8A=88)
,rom other publishers1
The !orld4s 5asiest :uide to 9sing the APA ('D8$1 !A6>H85H1=)
!riting !ith -tyle: APA -tyle #ade 5asy ('D8$1 !5H>H6H65")
!riting !ith -tyle: APA -tyle for -ocial !or< ('D8$1 !5H>"6H11A)
.nline )eso!rces from the P
P %t1le <ebsite
.ther .nline )eso!rces: %t1le Tem2lates an$ %am2le Pa2ers
P %im!late$ Ao!rnal rticle (&rom *lmira ;ollee)
%am2le Pa2er in merican Ps1chological ssociation %t1le (,rom Nalencia
;ommunity ;ollee)
%am2le reference list (&rom Nanier ;ollee)
.ther .nline )eso!rces: ?oc!menting an$ )eferencing %o!rces
;sing P %t1le to Cite an$ ?oc!ment %o!rces (&rom 8ed&ord Dt. ?artin7s +nlineI)
4o= to Cite .nline 0!rsing )eso!rces ;sing P %t1le (&rom the -ni(ersity o&
$e(ada at %eno)
P Citation %t1le: &xam2les for 0!rsing %t!$ents (&rom ;ollee o& Dt. 8enedict<Dt.
@ohn7s -ni(ersity)
Citing *egal 5aterials in P %t1le (5est&ield Dtate ;ollee)
13. T12es of P Pa2ers
#here are two common types o& papers written in &ields usin /./ Dtyle1 the literature re(iew
and the experimental report. *ach has uni:ue re:uirements concernin the sections that must be
included in the paper.
1
*iterat!re )e3ie=
/ literature re(iew is a summary o& what the scienti&ic literature says about your speci&ic topic or
:uestion. +&ten student research in /./ &ields &alls into this cateory. Your pro&essor miht as2
you to write this 2ind o& paper to demonstrate your &amiliarity with wor2 in the &ield pertinent to
the research you hope to conduct.
/ literature re(iew typically contains the &ollowin sections1
title pae
introduction section
list o& re&erences
Dome instructors may also want you to write an abstract &or a literature re(iew, so be sure to
chec2 with them when i(en an assinment. /lso, the lenth o& a literature re(iew and the
re:uired number o& sources will (ary based on course and instructor pre&erences.
0.T&: / literature re(iew and an annotated biblioraphy are not synonymous. '& you are as2ed
to write an annotated biblioraphy, you should consult the Pu(lication #anual &or the /./
,ormat &or /nnotated 8iblioraphies.
&x2erimental )e2ort
'n many o& the social sciences, you will be as2ed to desin and conduct your own experimental
research. '& so, you will need to write up your paper usin a structure that is more complex than
that used &or 0ust a literature re(iew. 5e ha(e a complete resource de(oted to writin an
experimental report in the &ield o& psycholoy here.
#his structure &ollows the scienti&ic method, but it also ma2es your paper easier to &ollow by
pro(idin those &amiliar cues that help your reader e&&iciently scan your in&ormation &or1
why the topic is important (co(ered in your introduction)
what the problem is (also co(ered in your introduction)
what you did to try to sol(e the problem (co(ered in your methods section)
what you &ound (co(ered in your results section)
what you thin2 your &indins mean (co(ered in your discussion section)
#hus an experimental report typically includes the &ollowin sections1
title pae
abstract
introduction
1
method
results
discussion
re&erences
appendixes (i& necessary)
tables and<or &iures (i& necessary)
?a2e sure to chec2 the uidelines &or your assinment or any uidelines that ha(e been i(en to
you by an editor o& a 0ournal be&ore you submit a manuscript containin the sections listed
abo(e.
/s with the literature re(iew, the lenth o& this report may (ary by course or by 0ournal, but most
o&ten it will be determined by the scope o& the research conducted.
.ther Pa2ers
'& you are writin a paper that &its neither o& these cateories, &ollow the uidelines about
General Format, consult your instructor, or loo2 up ad(ice in the .ublication ?anual.
5hen submittin a manuscript to a 0ournal, ma2e sure you &ollow the uidelines described in the
submission policies o& that publication, and include as many sections as you thin2 are applicable
to presentin your material. %emember to 2eep your audience in mind as you are ma2in this
decision. '& certain in&ormation is particularly pertinent &or con(eyin your research, then ensure
that there is a section o& your paper that ade:uately addresses that in&ormation.
1'. P %t1listics: 3oi$ing Bias
%esearchers who use /./ o&ten wor2 with a (ariety o& populations, some o& whom tend to be
stereotyped by the use o& labels and other biased &orms o& lanuae. #here&ore, /./ o&&ers
speci&ic recommendations &or eliminatin bias in lanuae concernin race, disability, and
sexuality.
5a,e $6!stments to *abels
/lthouh you should a(oid labelin whene(er possible, it is sometimes di&&icult to accurately
account &or the identity o& your research population or indi(idual participants without usin
lanuae that can be read as biased. ?a2in ad0ustments in how you use identi&iers and other
linuistic cateories can impro(e the clarity o& your writin and minimize the li2elihood o&
o&&endin your readers.
'n eneral, you should call people what they pre&er to be called, especially when dealin with
race and ethnicity. 8ut sometimes the common con(entions o& lanuae inad(ertently contain
1
biases towards certain populations - e.. usin "normal" in contrast to someone identi&ied as
"disabled." #here&ore, you should be aware o& how your choice o& terminoloy may come across
to your reader, particularly i& they identi&y with the population in :uestion.
You can &ind an in-depth discussion o& this issue and speci&ic recommendations &or how to
appropriately represent people in your text on the /./ website on the &ollowin paes1
)emo3ing Bias in *ang!age: ?isabilities
)emo3ing Bias in *ang!age: )ace F &thnicit1
)emo3ing Bias in *ang!age: %ex!alit1
3oi$ Gen$ere$ Prono!ns
5hile you should always be clear about the sex identity o& your participants (i& you conducted an
experiment), so that ender di&&erences are ob(ious, you should not use ender terms when they
aren7t necessary. 'n other words, you should not use "he," "his" or "men" as eneric terms
applyin to both sexes.
/./ does not recommend replacin "he" with "he or she," "she or he," "he<she," "(s)he," "s<he,"
or alternatin between "he" and "she" because these substitutions are aw2ward and can distract
the reader &rom the point you are tryin to ma2e. #he pronouns "he" or "she" ine(itably cause the
reader to thin2 o& only that ender, which may not be what you intend.
#o a(oid the bias o& usin endered pronouns1
%ephrase the sentence
-se plural nouns or plural pronouns - this way you can use "they" or "their"
%eplace the pronoun with an article - instead o& "his," use "the"
9rop the pronoun - many sentences sound &ine i& you 0ust omit the troublesome "his"
&rom the sentence
%eplace the pronoun with a noun such as "person," "indi(idual," "child," "researcher,"
etc.
,or more about addressin ender in academic writin, (isit the +5)7s handout on non-sexist
lang!age use.
Fin$ lternati3e ?escri2tors
1
#o a(oid unintentional biases in your lanuae, loo2 to the parameters o& your research itsel&.
5hen writin up an experimental report, describe your participants by the measures you used to
classi&y them in the experiment, as lon as the labels are not o&&ensi(e.
&xam2le: '& you had people ta2e a test measurin their reaction times and you were interested in
loo2in at the di&&erences between people who had &ast reaction times and those with slow
reaction times, you could call the &irst roup the "&ast reaction time roup" and the second the
"slow reaction time roup."
/lso, use ad0ecti(es to ser(e as descriptors rather than labels. 5hen you use terms such as "the
elderly" or "the amnesiacs," the people lose their indi(iduality. +ne way to a(oid this is to insert
an ad0ecti(e (e.., "elderly people," "amnesic patients"). /nother way is to mention the person
&irst and &ollow this with a descripti(e phrase (e.., "people dianosed with amnesia"), althouh
it can be cumbersome to 2eep repeatin phrases li2e this.
1(. P %t1listics: Basics
5ritin in /./ is more than simply learnin the &ormula &or citations or &ollowin a certain pae
layout. /./ also includes the stylistics o& your writin, &rom point o& (iew to word choice.
Point of Bie= an$ Boice
5hen writin in /./ Dtyle, you rarely use the &irst person point o& (iew ("' studied ..."). ,irst
person is not o&ten &ound in /./ publications unless the writer is a senior scholar who has earned
some credibility to spea2 as an expert in the &ield.
You should use the third person point o& (iew ("#he study showed ...) unless you are co-
authorin a paper with at least one other person, in which case you can use "we" ("+ur &indin
included ..."). 'n eneral, you should &oreround the research and not the researchers.
Bowe(er, it is a common misconception that &oreroundin the research re:uires usin the
passi(e (oice ("*xperiments ha(e been conducted ..."). #his is inaccurate.
/./ Dtyle encouraes usin the acti(e (oice ("5e conducted an experiment ..."). #he acti(e
(oice is particularly important in experimental reports, where the sub0ect per&ormin the action
should be clearly identi&ied (e.. "5e inter(iewed ..." (s. "#he participants responded ...").
;onsult the +5) handout &or more on the distinction between 2assi3e an$ acti3e 3oice.
Clarit1 an$ Conciseness
1
;larity and conciseness in writin are important when con(eyin research in /./ Dtyle. You
don7t want to misrepresent the details o& a study or con&use your readers with wordiness or
unnecessarily complex sentences.
,or clarity, be speci&ic rather than (aue in descriptions and explanations. -npac2 details
accurately to pro(ide ade:uate in&ormation to your readers so they can &ollow the de(elopment
o& your study.
&xam2le: "'t was predicted that marital con&lict would predict beha(ior problems in school-aed
children."
#o clari&y this (aue hypothesis, use parallel structure to outline speci&ic ideas1
"#he &irst hypothesis stated that marital con&lict would predict beha(ior problems in school-aed
children. #he second hypothesis stated that the e&&ect would be stroner &or irls than &or boys.
#he third hypothesis stated that older irls would be more a&&ected by marital con&lict than
youner irls."
#o be more concise, particularly in introductory material or abstracts, you should pare out
unnecessary words and condense in&ormation when you can (see the +5) handout on
Conciseness in academic writin &or suestions).
&xam2le: #he abo(e list o& hypotheses miht be rephrased concisely as1 "#he authors wanted to
in(estiate whether marital con&lict would predict beha(ior problems in children and they
wanted to 2now i& the e&&ect was reater &or irls than &or boys, particularly when they examined
two di&&erent ae roups o& irls."
8alancin the need &or clarity, which can re:uire unpac2in in&ormation, and the need &or
conciseness, which re:uires condensin in&ormation, is a challene. Dtudy published articles and
reports in your &ield &or examples o& how to achie(e this balance.
<or$ Choice
You should e(en be care&ul in selectin certain words or terms. 5ithin the social sciences,
commonly used words ta2e on di&&erent meanins and can ha(e a sini&icant e&&ect on how your
readers interpret your reported &indins or claims. #o increase clarity, a(oid bias, and control
how your readers will recei(e your in&ormation, you should ma2e certain substitutions1
-se terms li2e "participants" or "respondents" (rather than "sub0ects") to indicate how
indi(iduals were in(ol(ed in your research
-se terms li2e "children" or "community members" to pro(ide more detail about who
was participatin in the study
-se phrases li2e "#he e(idence suggests ..." or "+ur study indicates ..." rather than
re&errin to "proo&" or "pro(es" because no sinle study can pro(e a theory or hypothesis
1
/s with the other stylistic suestions here, you should study the discourse o& your &ield to see
what terminoloy is most o&ten used.
3oi$ing Poetic *ang!age
5ritin papers in /./ Dtyle is unli2e writin in more creati(e or literary styles that draw on
poetic expressions and &iurati(e lanuae. Duch linuistic de(ices can detract &rom con(eyin
your in&ormation clearly and may come across to readers as &orced when it is inappropriately
used to explain an issue or your &indins.
#here&ore, you should1
minimize the amount o& &iurati(e lanuae used in an /./ paper, such as metaphors and
analoies unless they are help&ul in con(eyin a complex idea
a(oid rhymin schemes, alliteration, or other poetic de(ices typically &ound in (erse
use simple, descripti(e ad0ecti(es and plain lanuae that does not ris2 con&usin your
meanin
16. P 4ea$ings an$ %eriation
4ea$ings
/./ Dtyle uses a uni:ue headins system to separate and classi&y paper sections. #here are 5
hea$ing le3els in /./. The 1th edition of the APA manual revises and simplifies previous
heading guidelines. %eardless o& the number o& le(els, always use the headins in order,
beinnin with le(el 1. #he &ormat o& each le(el is illustrated below1
P 4ea$ings
)e(el ,ormat
1 Centere$9 Bol$face9 ;22ercase an$ *o=ercase 4ea$ings
" *eft-aligne$9 Bol$face9 ;22ercase an$ *o=ercase 4ea$ing
H In$ente$9 bol$face9 lo=ercase hea$ing =ith 2erio$.
> Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase heading with period.
5 $ndented, italici*ed, lowercase heading with period.
#hus, i& the article has &our sections, some o& which ha(e subsection and some o& which donTt,
use headins dependin on the le(el o& subordination. Dection headins recei(e le(el one &ormat.
Dubsections recei(e le(el two &ormat. Dubsections o& subsections recei(e le(el three &ormat. ,or
example1
5etho$s ()e(el 1)
1
%ite of %t!$1 ()e(el ")
Partici2ant Po2!lation ()e(el ")
Teachers. ()e(el H)
%t!$ents. ()e(el H)
)es!lts ()e(el 1)
%2atial bilit1 ()e(el ")
Test .ne. (le(el H)
Teachers with experience. ()e(el >)
Teachers in Training. ()e(el >)
Test T=o. ()e(el H)
Ginesthetic bilit1 ()e(el ")
'n /./ Dtyle, the 'ntroduction section ne(er ets a headin and headins are not indicated by
letters or numbers. )e(els o& headins will depend upon the lenth and oranization o& your
paper. %eardless, always bein with le(el one headins and proceed to le(el two, etc.
%eriation
/./ also allows &or seriation in the body text to help authors oranize and present 2ey ideas. ,or
numbered seriation, do the &ollowin1
8ased on the &our enerations o& usability testin on the .urdue +5), the .urdue +5)
-sability #eam recommended the &ollowin1
1. ?o(e the na(iation bar &rom the riht to the le&t side o& the +5) paes.
". 'nterate branded raphics (the 5ritin )ab and +5) loos) into the text on the
+5) homepae.
H. /dd a search box to e(ery pae o& the +5).
>. 9e(elop an +5) site map.
5. 9e(elop a three-tiered na(iation system.
,or lists that do not communicate hierarchical order or chronoloy, use bullets1
1
'n eneral, participants &ound user-centered +5) moc2 up to be easier to use. 5hat &ollows are
samples o& participants7 responses1
"#his (ersion is easier to use."
"Nersion two seems better oranized."
"'t too2 me a &ew minutes to learn how to use this (ersion, but a&ter that, ' &elt more
com&ortable with it."
/uthors may also use seriation &or pararaph lenth text.
,or seriation within sentences, authors may use letters1
8ased on the research conducted by the usability team, +5) sta&& ha(e completed (a) the +5)
site mapC (b) interatin raphics with text on the +5) homepaeC (c) search boxes on all +5)
paes except the orane +5) resources (that is pendinC we do ha(e a search pae)C (d) mo(in
the na(iation bar to the le&t side o& paes on all +5) resources except in the orane area (that
is pendin)C (e) pilotin the &irst phase o& the three-tiered na(iation system, as illustrated in the
new *naement section.
/uthors may also separate points with bullet lists1
8ased on the research conducted by the usability team, +5) sta&& ha(e completed
the +5) site mapC
interatin raphics with text on the +5) homepaeC
search boxes on all +5) paes except the orane +5) resources (that is pendinC we do
ha(e a search pae)C
mo(in the na(iation bar to the le&t side o& paes on all +5) resources except in the
orane area (that is pendin)C
pilotin the &irst phase o& the three-tiered na(iation system, as illustrated in the new
*naement section.
1#. P Basic Formatting
Periods
Periods at the end of sentences are to be followed by two spaces, as they were in
editions previous to the ffth, rather than the single space Edition 5 dictated.
owever, 1 space is still the rule for periods after author initials and other parts of
reference citations !pp. 8"#88$. %or periods in abbreviations !e.g., &.'.$ no space
occurs after the period !p. 88$.
Numbers and Numerals
1
Previously nu(erals were used for any nu(bers indicating (easure(ent !e.g., 3
wee)s$. *ow when nu(bers are used for appro+i(ations of days, (onths, or years,
they are to be written out !e.g., appro+i(ately three wee)s, p. 11-$. *ote. *u(erals
10 or above are still written as nu(erals.
1+. %am2le P Pa2er
;lic2 on the lin2 abo(e in the ?edia box to download the pd& handout, Dample /./ .aper.
1-. P Tables an$ Fig!res 1
#he purpose o& tables and &iures in documents is to enhance your readers7 understandin o& the
in&ormation in the document. ?ost word processin so&tware a(ailable today will allow you to
create your own tables and &iures, and e(en the most basic o& word processors permit the
embeddin o& imaes, thus enablin you to include tables and &iures in almost any document.
General G!i$elines
0ecessit1. Nisual material such as tables and &iures can be used :uic2ly and e&&iciently to
present a lare amount o& in&ormation to an audience, but (isuals must be used to assist
communication, not to use up space, or disuise marinally sini&icant results behind a screen o&
complicated statistics. /s2 yoursel& this :uestion &irst1 is the table or &iure necessaryE ,or
example, it is better to present simple descripti(e statistics in the text, not in a table.
)elation of Tables or Fig!res an$ Text. 8ecause tables and &iures supplement the text, re&er in
the text to all tables and &iures used and explain what the reader should loo2 &or when usin the
table or &iure. ,ocus only on the important point the reader should draw &rom them, and lea(e
the details &or the reader to examine on her own.
?oc!mentation. '& you are usin &iures, tables and<or data &rom other sources, be sure to ather
all the in&ormation you will need to properly document your sources.
Integrit1 an$ In$e2en$ence. *ach table and &iure must be intelliible without re&erence to the
text, so be sure to include an explanation o& e(ery abbre(iation (except the standard statistical
symbols and abbre(iations).
.rgani8ation9 Consistenc1 an$ Coherence. $umber all tables se:uentially as you re&er to them
in the text (#able 1, #able ", etc.), li2ewise &or &iures (,iure 1, ,iure ", etc.). /bbre(iations,
terminoloy, probability le(el (alues must be consistent across tables and &iures in the same
article. )i2ewise, &ormats, titles, and headins must be consistent. 9o not repeat the same data in
di&&erent tables.
1
Tables
Table Chec,list
's the table necessaryE
's the entire table double spaced (includin the title, headins, and notes)E
/re all comparable tables presented consistentlyE
's the title brie& but explanatoryE
9oes e(ery column ha(e a column headinE
/re all abbre(iationsC special use o& italics, parentheses, and dashesC and special symbols
explainedE
/re all probability le(el (alues correctly identi&ied, and are asteris2s attached to the
appropriate table entriesE 's a probability le(el assined the same number o& asteris2s in
all the tables in the same documentE
/re the notes oranized accordin to the con(ention o& eneral, speci&ic, probabilityE
/re all (ertical rules eliminatedE
'& the table or its data are &rom another source, is the source properly citedE
's the table re&erred to in the textE
Tables
9ata in a table that would re:uire only two or &ewer columns and rows should be presented in the
text. ?ore complex data is better presented in tabular &ormat. 'n order &or :uantitati(e data to be
presented clearly and e&&iciently, it must be arraned loically, e.. data to be compared must be
presented next to one another (be&ore<a&ter, youn<old, male<&emale, etc.), and statistical
in&ormation (means, standard de(iations, $ (alues) must be presented in separate parts o& the
table. '& possible, use canonical &orms (such as /$+N/, reression, or correlation) to
communicate your data e&&ecti(ely.
1
#able 1
Table %tr!ct!re
#he &ollowin imae illustrates the basic structure o& tables.
#able "
0!mbers. $umber all tables with arabic numerals se:uentially. 9o not use su&&ix letters (e..
#able Ha, Hb, Hc)C instead, combine the related tables. '& the manuscript includes and appendix
with tables, identi&y them with capital letters and /rabic numerals (e.. #able /1, #able 8").
Titles. )i2e the title o& the paper itsel&, each table must ha(e a clear and concise title. 5hen
appropriate, you may use the title to explain an abbre(iation parenthetically.
*xample1 omparison of #edian $ncome of Adopted hildren JAK v. Foster hildren JFK
4ea$ings. Geep headins clear and brie&. #he headin should not be much wider than the widest
entry in the column. -se o& standard abbre(iations can aid in achie(in that oal. /ll columns
1
must ha(e headins, e(en the stub column (see example structure), which customarily lists the
ma0or independent (ariables.
Bo$1. 'n reportin the data, consistency is 2ey1 $umerals should be expressed to a consistent
number o& decimal places that is determined by the precision o& measurement. $e(er chane the
unit o& measurement or the number o& decimal places in the same column.
%2ecific T12es of Tables
nal1sis of Bariance C0.BD Tables. #he con(entional &ormat &or an /$+N/ table is to list
the source in the stub column, then the derees o& &reedom (d&) and the F ratios. Mi(e the
between-sub0ect (ariables and error &irst, then within-sub0ect and any error. ?ean s:uare errors
must be enclosed in parentheses. .ro(ide a eneral note to the table to explain what those (alues
mean (see example). -se asteris2s to identi&y statistically sini&icant F ratios, and pro(ide a
probability &ootnote.
#able H /$+N/ #able
)egression. ;on(entional reportin o& reression analysis &ollows two &ormats. '& the study is
purely applied, list only the raw or unstandardized coe&&icients ('). '& the study is purely
theoretical, list only the standardized coe&&icients (V). '& the study was neither purely applied nor
theoretical, then list both standardized and unstandardized coei&&icents. Dpeci&y the type o&
analysis, either hierarchical or simultaneous, and pro(ide the increments o& chane i& you used
hierarchical reression.
1
#able > %eression #able
0otes in Tables
#here are three types o& notes &or tables1 eneral, speci&ic, and probability notes. /ll o& them
must be placed below the table in that order.
General notes explain, :uali&y or pro(ide in&ormation about the table as a whole. .ut
explanations o& abbre(iations, symbols, etc. here.
*xample1 "ote. #he racial cateories used by the -D ;ensus (/&rican-/merican, /sian
/merican, )atinos<-as, $ati(e-/merican, and .aci&ic 'slander) ha(e been collapsed into the
cateory 3non-5hite.4 * O excludes respondents who sel&-identi&ied as 35hite4 and at least one
other 3non-5hite4 race.
%2ecific notes explain, :uali&y or pro(ide in&ormation about a particular column, row, or
indi(idual entry. #o indicate speci&ic notes, use superscript lowercase letters (e..
a
,
b
,
c
), and
order the superscripts &rom le&t to riht, top to bottom. *ach tableTs &irst &ootnote must be the
superscript a.
*xample1
a
n O 8"H.
b
+ne participant in this roup was dianosed with schizophrenia durin the
sur(ey.
Probabilit1 notes pro(ide the reader with the results o& the texts &or statistical sini&icance.
/steris2s indicate the (alues &or which the null hypothesis is re0ected, with the probability (p
(alue) speci&ied in the probability note. Duch notes are re:uired only when rele(ant to the data in
the table. ;onsistently use the same number o& asteris2s &or a i(en alpha le(el throuhout your
paper.
1
Dample #able $otes
'& you need to distinuish between two-tailed and one-tailed tests in the same table, use asteris2s
&or two-tailed p (alues and an alternate symbol (such as daers) &or one-tailed p (alues.
?ore #able $otes
Tables from .ther %o!rces
'& usin tables &rom a source, copy the structure o& the oriinal exactly, and cite the source in
accordance with P st1le.
2/. P Tables an$ Fig!res 2
Fig!res
Fig!re Chec,list
's the &iure necessaryE
's the &iure simple, clean, and &ree o& extraneous detailE
/re the data plotted accuratelyE
's the rid scale correctly proportionedE
's the letterin lare and dar2 enouh to readE 's the letterin compatible in size with the
rest o& the &iureE
/re parallel &iures or e:ually important &iures prepared accordin to the same scaleE
/re terms spelled correctlyE
/re all abbre(iations and symbols explained in a &iure leend or &iure captionE /re the
symbols, abbre(iations, and terminoloy in the &iure consistent with those in the &iure
captionE 'n other &iuresE 'n the textE
/re the &iures numbered consecuti(ely with /rabic numeralsE
/re all &iures mentioned in the textE
/s tables supplement the text, so should each &iure.
T12es of Fig!res
1
Gra2hs are ood at :uic2ly con(eyin relationships li2e comparison and distribution. #he most
common &orms o& raphs are scatter plots, line raphs, bar raphs, pictorial raphs, and pie
raphs. ,or more details and speci&ics on what 2ind o& in&ormation, relations, and meanin can
be expressed with the di&&erent types o& raphs, consult your textboo2 on :uantitati(e analysis.
Dpreadsheet prorams, such as ?icroso&t *xcel, can enerate the raphs &or you.
%catter 2lots are composed o& indi(idual dots that represent the (alue o& a speci&ic e(ent on the
scale established by the two (ariables plotted on the x- and y-axes. 5hen the dots cluster
toether, a correlation is implied. +n the other hand, when the dots are scattered randomly, no
correlation is seen.
Dcatter .lot Mraph
*ine gra2hs depict the relationship between :uantitati(e (ariables. ;ustomarily, the independent
(ariable is plotted alon the x-axis (horizontally) and the dependent (ariable is plotted alon the
y-axis ((ertically). Dee example ,iure 1...
Bar gra2hs come in three main types1 1) solid (ertical or horizontal bars, ") multiple bar raphs,
and H) slidin bars. 'n solid bar raphs, the independent (ariable is cateorical, and each bar
represents one 2ind o& datum, e. . a bar raph o& monthly expenditures. / multiple bar raph can
show more complex in&ormation than a simple bar raph, e. . monthly expenditures di(ided into
cateories (housin, &ood, transportation, etc.). 'n slidin bar raphs, the bars are di(ided by a
horizontal line which ser(es as the baseline, enablin the representation o& data abo(e and below
a speci&ic re&erence point, e. . hih and low temperatures (. a(erae temperature.
1
8ar Mraph
8ar Mraph by #ype
Pictorial gra2hs can be used to show :uantitati(e di&&erences between roups. .ictorial raphs
can be (ery decepti(e1 i& the heiht o& an imae is doubled, its area is :uadrupled. #here&ore,
reat care should be ta2en that imaes representin the same (alues must be the same size.
1
Circle C2ieD gra2hs are used to represent percentaes and proportions. ,or the sa2e o&
readability, no more than &i(e (ariables should be compared in a sinle pie raph. #he sements
should be ordered (ery strictly1 beinnin at twel(e oTcloc2, order them &rom the larest to the
smallest, and shade the sements &rom liht to dar2 (i. e. the smallest sement should be the
dar2est). )ines and dots can be used &or shadin in blac2 and white documents.
;ircle (or .ie) Mraph
Charts are used to represent the components o& larer ob0ects or roups (e. . a tribal hierarchy),
the steps in a process (as in a &low-chart), or the schematics o& an ob0ect (the components o& a
cell phone).
;hart
?ra=ings an$ 2hotogra2hs can be used to communicate (ery speci&ic in&ormation about a
sub0ect. #han2s to so&tware, both are now hihly manipulable. ,or the sa2e o& readability and
simplicity, line drawins should be used, and photoraphs should ha(e the hihest possible
contrast between the bac2round and &ocal point. ;roppin, cuttin out extraneous detail, can be
can be (ery bene&icial &or a photoraph. -se so&tware li2e Mraphic;on(erter or .hotoshop to
1
con(ert color photoraphs to blac2 and white be&ore printin on a laser printer. +therwise most
printers will produce an imae with poor contrast.
.hotoraph
Pre2aring Fig!res
'n preparin &iures, communication and readability must be the ultimate criteria. /(oid the
temptation to use the special e&&ects a(ailable in most ad(anced so&tware pac2aes. 5hile three-
dimensional e&&ects, shadin, and layered text may loo2 interestin to the author, o(eruse,
inconsistent use, and misuse may distort the data, and distract or e(en annoy readers. 9esin
properly done is inconspicuous, almost in(isible, because it supports communication. 9esin
improperly, or amateurishly, done draws the readerTs attention &rom the data, and ma2es him or
her :uestion the authorTs credibility.
#he /./ has determined speci&ications &or the size o& &iures and the &onts used in them. ,iures
o& one column must be between " and H."5 inches wide (5 to 8.>5 cm). #wo-column &iures must
be between >."5 and 6.8=5 inches wide (1!.6 to 1=.5 cm). #he heiht o& &iures should not
exceed the top and bottom marins. #he text in a &iure should be in a san seri& &ont (such as
Bel(etica, /riel, or ,utura). #he &ont size must be between eiht and &ourteen point. -se circles
and s:uares to distinuish cur(es on a line raph (at the same &ont size as the other labels). (Dee
examples abo(e.)
Ca2tions an$ *egen$s
,or &iures, ma2e sure to include the &iure number and a title with a leend and caption. #hese
elements appear belo= the (isual display. ,or the &iure number, type Figure G. #hen type the
title o& the &iure in upper and lowercase letters. ,ollow the title with a leend that explains the
symbols in the &iure and a caption that explains the &iure1
1
Figure .. Bow to create &iures in /./ style. #his &iure illustrates e&&ecti(e elements in /./
style &iures.
;aptions ser(e as a brie&, but complete, explanation and as a title. ,or example, 3Figure 71
.opulation4 is insu&&icient, whereas 3Figure 71 .opulation o& Mrand %apids, ?' by race (1A8!)4
is better. '& the &iure has a title in the imae, crop it.
Mraphs should always include a leend that explains the symbols, abbre(iations, and terminoloy
used in the &iure. #hese terms must be consistent with those used in the text and in other &iures.
#he letterin in the &iure should be o& the same type and size as that used in the &iure.
21. P bbre3iations
'n /./, abbre(iations should be limited to instances when a) the abbre(iation is standard and
will not inter&ere with the readerTs understandin and b) i& space and repetition can be reatly
a(oided throuh abbre(iation.
#here are a &ew common trends in abbre(iatin that you should &ollow when usin /./, thouh
there are always exceptions to these rules. 5hen abbre(iatin a term, use the &ull term the &irst
time you use it, &ollowed immediately by the abbre(iation in parentheses.
/ccordin to the /merican .sycholoical /ssociation (/./), abbre(iations are best used only
when they allow &or clear communication with the audience.
5xceptions1 Dtandard abbre(iations li2e units o& measurement and states do not need to be
written out. /./ also allows abbre(iations that appear as words in #eriam&!e(sterCs ollegiate
,ictionary to be used without explanation ('R, %*?, /'9D, B'N).
9o not use periods or spaces in abbre(iations o& all capital letters, unless it is a proper name or
re&ers to participants usin identity-concealin labels1
?/, ;9, B#?), /./
.. 9. @ames, @. %. %. #ol2ien, *. 8. 5hite or ,.'.?., D.5.,.
5xceptions1 -se a period when abbre(iatin the -nited Dtates as an ad0ecti(e (-.D. ?arines or
-.D. Denator)
-se a period i& the abbre(iation is )atin abbre(iation or a re&erence abbre(iation1
1
etc., e.., a.m. or Nol. =, p. 1", >th ed.
9o not use periods when abbre(iated measurements1
cd, &t, lb, mi, min
5xceptions1 -se a period when abbre(iated inch (in.) to a(oid con&usion.
-nits o& measurement and statistical abbre(iations should only be abbre(iated when
accompanied by numerical (alues1
= m, 1" mi, # O =.5
measured in millirams, se(eral miles a&ter the exit, the means were determined
+nly certain units o& time should be abbre(iated.
9o not abbre(iate1
day, wee2, month, year
9o abbre(iate1
hr, min, ms, ns, s
#o &orm the plural o& abbre(iations, add s alone without apostrophe or italicization.
(ols., 'Rs, *ds.
5xception1 9o not add s to pluralize units o& measurement (1" m not 1" ms).
bbre3iations in Citations
;itations should be as condensed as possible, so you should 2now the basic rules o& abbre(iation
endorsed by the /./ to pro(ide your readers with re&erence in&ormation.
/lways abbre(iate the &irst and middle names o& authors, editors, etc.
Dha2espeare, 5., ;homs2y, $.
1
-se the &ollowin abbre(iations within citations (ta2e note o& capitalization)1
P Citation bbre3iations
'oo< Part A((reviation
edition ed.
re(ised edition %e(. ed.
Decond *dition "
nd
ed.
*ditor(s) *d. or *ds.
#ranslator(s) #rans.
$o date n.d.
.ae(s) p. or pp.
Nolume(s) Nol. or Nols.
$umber $o.
.art .t.
#echnical %eport #ech. %ep.
Dupplement Duppl.
22. %tatistics in P
5hen includin statistics in written text, be sure to include enouh in&ormation &or the reader to
understand the study. /lthouh the amount o& explanation and data included depends upon the
study, /./ Dtyle has uidelines &or the representation o& statistical in&ormation1
9o not i(e re&erences &or statistics unless the statistic is uncommon, used
uncon(entionally, or is the &ocus o& the article
9o not i(e &ormulas &or common statistics (i.e. mean, t test)
9o not repeat descripti(e statistics in the text i& theyTre represented in a table or &iure
-se terms li2e respecti(ely and in order when enumeratin a series o& statisticsC this
illustrates the relationship between the numbers in the series.
P!nct!ating %tatistics
-se parentheses to enclose statistical (alues1
...pro(ed to be statistically sini&icant (p O .>") with all (ariables.
1
-se parentheses to enclose derees o& &reedom1
t(>5) O >.H5
F(H, 8=) O ".11
-se brac2ets to enclose limits o& con&idence inter(als1
8AW ;'s IH.>5, ".=J, I-6.!, H.8AJ, and I-=."H, 1.8AJ
-se standard type&ace (no boldin or italicization) when writin Mree2 letters, subscripts that
&unction as identi&iers, and abbre(iations that are not (ariables.
-se bol$face &or (ectors and matrices1
B9 H
-se italics &or statistical symbols (other than (ectors and matrices)1
t, F, "
-se an italici*ed, uppercase " in re&erence to number o& sub0ects or participants in the total
sample.
" O H"8
9se an italici*ed, lowercase n in reference to only a portion of the sample.
n O >"
23. P Classroom Poster
#he /./ poster at the lin2 below is a printable 0p &ile you may download and print out at
di&&erent sizes &or use in classrooms, writin centers, or as a poc2et re&erence. .lease 2eep in
mind that the &ile size, as a print-:uality resource (1"! dpi), is lare, so it may ta2e a while to
download. You may ad0ust the print size o& the poster &rom your print menu. /s is, the poster is
"=xH6 inches.
/lso please note that the poster only contains (asic /./ uidelines. ,or detailed instructions,
please see the complete +5) /./ resources here.
1
#he .urdue +5) /./ ;lassroom .oster was de(eloped by Gate 8ouwens &or the .urdue
.ro&essional 5ritin - .urdue +5) 'nternship class, *nlish >A!, in sprin "!!A.