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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN ANCIENT INDIA

There are many books in Sanskrit devoted to science and technology such as Yantra
Sarvaswa, Samarngana Stradhra, Tantra Pradpica, Prchna-Sdhana, Silptantra
Rahasya, Yukti Kalpataru etc.
Several other books pertaining to other sciences also contain technical sections such as Artha
Sstra, Rasa Sstra, Ganita Sstra, Drutantra, Vstu Tantra, Sthapatya Sstra etc.
We shall see the development of these technologies one by one.
Ceramics and Pottery
These are very primitive technical developments of man. A potter is supposed to be the first
engineer indeed ! His wheel may be considered as the first machine in the world as its
principle is still used for our main machine tool- The Lathe. In the Vedas the potter (Kulla) is
mentioned and even the Creator is compared with him. They also mention about the burnt
pots and other forms of clay materials. Much can be learnt from the Indus Valley studies.
Generally the pots were made of black or red clay and then they were burnt in special kilns
whose shapes were generally cylindrical, pear-shaped or round. They were lined with bricks
made of mica, sand and lime-stones. Even the pots were glazed and painted in an attractive
fashion. For giving different shades to the pots they used several chemicals such as Copper
Oxide for blue shades, Iron Oxide for bluish-green shades, Manganese for dark maroon shades
etc. This is confirmed by the recent Dwraka excavations.
Temporary controlling was done for glazing and the chemicals used were 25.2% FeO, 46.55%
SiO
2
, 15.53% Al
2
O
3
, 4.74% CaCO
3
, and 3.43% Magnesia. The most complicated and
geometrical shapes of the pots throw light on the Harappan skill and the process's technical
soundness. Some of the pot sections can be studied from the Figures (i) to (vii) (Plate I).
The seals made of terra-cotta very well depict the craftsmanship and glazing skill of the Indus
people. The marvelous shapes engraved in the clay pieces are the best proofs.
The blending of clay with other ingredients and making a compact paste like slurry were all
made according to the pre-determined standards.
Indus civilization is also famous for its burnt bricks. The bricks were made of clay, silica, lime
stone and others, the dimensions of which are given in the Ksyapa Samhita (11.72" x 5.25"x
7.5"; 11.55" x 7.75"; 10.5" x 5.5" x 7.5"). This steadiness in dimensions shows their high level
of Civil Engineering skill. Invariably wooden moulds were used to make these bricks and then
they were burnt in special kilns. Before the Egyptian civilization, Indians had acquired a high
degree of mastery over ceramics, pottery and brick making.
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Metallurgy and Metal Casting
The gvedic civilization, reveals some primitive and noteworthy points with reference to
metallurgy and metal casting. The "Srmyam Suiramiva " hymn (1-69-12) is one such
example. At that time the use of Cu, Ag, Au, Fe, Pb, Sn and other metals were known.
In the Atharvan period, the technique was highly improved including preparations of alloys.
Mining and other techniques were also known to the Vedic people.
In gveda it is often described that Indra destroyed the Ayasepurs (metallic towns) of Dasyus.
Herodotus (500 BC) mentions about the high quality of Indian iron. Quintus Curtis says about
the purity of gold and steel alloys given by Pourava to Alexander. Pliny refers to the fine
quality of steel products in India. Even the Romans imported steel from India for its high
quality and they were using this steel for their armours and other military equipments.
The abundant usage of Iron is confirmed by the archaeological excavations at Delhi, Roopar,
Nasik, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Taxila, Orissa and other places, where iron pillars, arrows,
nails, hooks, bars, spikes, daggers, bowls, tongs, chisels, anvils, hoes, adzes and several others
were found in large numbers.
Metal casting - considered to be the oldest of all production techniques - evolved considerably
in ancient India. From early Vedic time we can trace its development. In gveda some
equipments used for casting - Dhamatri (Cupola), Bhastri (Blower), Titau (Seives), Shrpa
(Trays), Gharma Ayanmaya (Crucible) etc., - are mentioned. In gvedic period Copper,
Bronze, Gold, Silver and later Iron were used along with other metals for casting purposes.
The axes, ploughs, and other domestic implements and many sacrificial equipments were
made of cast metals (Fig II). The yreperdyu method along with some other methods was
extensively used for casting. This was called Madhccita Vidhna (investing casting). Here
model or pattern was made of bee wax and Sla Vrka Rasa. Then the moulding sand (a fine
blend of clay, sand, charcoal, husk, cowdung, gingillee oil, salt and others) was pasted on it.
After drying, by external heating of the mould, the wax inside was melted and taken out
through a hole and pouring basin already made in the mould. Then the actual molten metal to
be cast is poured in the mould cavity. Even now, this method is used for making our finest art
pieces in metal without any change (See Fig III). This method, with some minor changes is still
universally used in our casting industries. This investment casting method is the most ideal one
for getting intricate, preferably dimensioned, complex, highly smooth and defectless castings.
In the Harappan civilization, we also notice their proficiency in core making and casting, using
different core boxes. First, the cores were made out of a special type of foundry sand which
involved clay, sand, charcoal, gingillee oil, cowdung, sla-vrka rasa etc., and several needles
were pierced inside with some portion of them projecting outwards. On this core, the required
form was coated and shaped. Then the moulding sand was pasted on it with all the gatting
systems provided. After this, as usual, the mould was dried; the wax was removed and thus the
system will be made ready for pouring (See Fig IV).
Open cast or mould, closed mould, double moulds were some other techniques of moulding.
Generally wooden and clay patterns were used, but iron or steel patterns were also in use.
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Figs. V & VI illustrate ancient furnaces. Their construction and working principles are still
conversant with the modern furnaces. Especially, the second furnace resembles our Cupola in
many ways. The capacity of the first furnace is about 100 lbs. metal or ore, 240 lbs, with
charcoal and some amount of lime as flux. The capacity of the second furnace is much more
than the previous one.
According to the norms laid down by Viswa Karma, Maya, Viswarupa etc., the idols were cast
and carved. Accordingly, every sculpture should be perfect in tlmana, mudra, bhangi, bhva
and other details. Thus perfection was the aim. The results of this skill are the wonderful
Natarjas, Klya Mardanas, Nymphs, Lamps, doors & frames, carts and cars and still many
others.
One of the best evidence for the metal casting and forging skill is the wrought iron pillar at
Delhi, near Qutub Minar (4th century A.D). Its height is 24'3", with 1' 8" ground, 16.4" to
12.05" from base to apex. Sp.gr. of this is 7.5 and the total weight is 6 tonnes. The composition
is - Iron 99.72%, Carbon 0.08%, Silicon 0.046%, Sulphur 0.006%, Phosphorus 0.114%,
Nitrogen 0.32%, Copper 0.034% and Manganese nil. The pillar is free from rusting and
corrosion to this day. High phosphorus and low sulphur percentage may be the reason for its
non-rusting quality. But the technique is still unknown !
Especially at the time of Mughals many military equipments were made of casting. The Malik-
I-Maidan, Bulan-Darwaza cannon are some striking examples. Undoubtedly, our ancient metal
casting technology was very high and it is beyond the limit of this article to go into much more
details ( Ref . Figs. VII & VIII).
Material Science and Metal Working
Indians were well versed in material science and metal working since g Veda. The
fundamental five element concept (Pancabhta) and the Vaieika theory (very close to the
atomic theory) of Kanda laid a strong basis for developments in this field. The suddha and
panckrta forms of pancabhtas were also helpful. Gurutva (gravity), Dravatva (fluidity),
Snigdhatva (viscosity), Sthitisthpakatva (elasticity), Samyoga - Viyoga (Conjunction and
disjunction), Utkepa, Adhahkepa, kuncana, Prasrana, Bhramaa, Gamana, Sthay,
vartana (these are the various modes of movements in the micro and macro states);
Pluakava(Springing capacity), Vakrbhvanam (Refraction or bending), Virpam
(deformation), Draghanam (tension), Pranam (compression) and many other technical terms
throw light on the knowledge of material behaviour. They knew rusting and corrosion and also
its prevention.
They had skill in metal working. Forging was the earliest technology. Loha Kra or the Karma
Kra was their blacksmith. yohata was the term used for forging. The divine blacksmith
(Twta) was recognised as a God and he had a share in the sacrifices and this invariably
indicates the importance given for this work. Many of the agricultural and military equipments
were made by forging. In the Atharva Vedic period forging and other engineering techniques
were well advanced. Anvil, tongs, hammer and all the other equipments were made of metal.
As usual, temperature recrystallization was practised. Cold working and work hardening were
also in practice. This is now confirmed by the metallographic examinations of the samples
found in Harappa. Plastic deformation, annealing, grain growth, twinning of grains were seen
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in Indus metal pieces. Vatsyayana in his Kmastra includes metal working in the list of sixty-
four arts. In the later days forging evolved and competed with casting in practice and use (
Ref. Fig. IX).
The other forms of metal working such as drilling, drawing, polishing etc., were also in
extensive use. In gvedic time the skilled gold working exhibited all the minute techniques of
drawing, drilling, etching, polishing etc. The splendid Indian clothes made of pure silver and
gold threads were very famous abroad with their names Swarna-t or Swarnapateh or
Kncana Vastra. The various forms of gold coins such as Hiranya-Nika, Hiranya pinda,
Suvarna, atamna, Pada etc., show their skill in coining and gold working. Especially the
coins of Aoka, Samudra Gupta, Harsha and of Vijayanagar Kings show the remarkable skills
of Indians in coin technique ( Ref. Fig. XI).
Various forms of beads of different sizes found in Indus valley throw light on our ancients'
skill in carving, shaping, drilling and boring. The Fig. IX shows several drills used for making
very narrow holes which just allow the hair to pass through them (Fig. X). A chain of 30-40
beads would be less than 1" in length. Each bead was 1/34" long. Compound beads were also
made. These precious stone beads were highly polished and polishing and buffing techniques.
It is difficult to imagine the handling devices which were used to hold the minute beads for
drilling them. The same process which existed around 2500 B.C. in India still used now at
Cambay for diamond dressing. The Indus people were using Sphatika - Kca or magnifying
glasses for their precision works. The drills used for these works were 0.93", 0.25", in length
and 0.08" in q. Delicate saws were used to cut the beads.
Boring and reaming were also common. Most of the long necked tall vessels were made by
spinning knives, arrow heads, razors and others were chiseled out from metal sheets of
different thickness. By "sinking", deep pots and pans were obtained. By "raising" techniques,
cups and basins were made. Lapping and wire drawing were exactly similar to the modern
methods. Metals etching by using sharp tools and acid-wax process was very common. Even
now in many parts of India especially in South India, Orissa, and in Rajasthan, fascinating
artistic pieces are produced by the above-mentioned old methods in brass, bronze, copper,
silver and gold. The most intricate, minute and attractive filigree work in gold and silver is still
prevailing.
Machines, Vehicles, Wood Carving, Links, Joints and others
(1) ri banhurna riv Rahna ri cakra Suvta Ytmarvk.
Janawam Vjinvaamarvan Vardhayatmasmina Vramasm.
( I-118-2) g Veda.
(2) Asvinrasam Rahamanwam Vjinvat tnham Bhri Craa.
( I-120-10) g Veda.
(3) Prav Vyum Rahmajam Kudvam ( V-41-6) g Veda.
(4) Tantr pte ri bandhur Rath ( IX-62-17) Rig Veda.
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In these verses some aeronautical machinery's description is interpreted by Pandit Jayadeva
Sharma Vidyalankar. Likewise the concept of missile throwing device is also explained in the
Ramayana Siva Karmuka. In the Vedas we have many references for flying objects and war-
weapons. Along with these, we have some practical designs for chariot, also. In lva Sutras
we have a perfect design with all its dimensions ( Ref. Fig. XIII). Beside these chariots, they
had Ghatyantras or Jala yantras for lifting water from deep wells. These were primitive
pumps working on man or animal power. Even wind power was also used. There were ships
built out of wood and metal. They were both rowed and wind power motivated (ataritra,
atasphya are some names given to them). Fine looms were made from local wood. For this
many mechanisms were required and invariably they were skilled in those. Spinning devices
were known. Leather tanning was one of the engineering materials.
In the Atharva Vedic period, this mechanism gradually increased.
Engineering drawing was also indicated in Jymiti or Rajjugaita. Even the orthographic
projection technique was known to Indians and many of the paintings evolved from the native
styles confirm this. Later researches in mathematics was not only for the advancement of
Astronomy and Astrology but for the development of applied science also. 500 Years before
Newton, Bhaskara-II put fourth the fundamental steps in calculus and many Kerala works
such as Tantra Sangraha, Karana paddhati, Sadratna mla, Yukti Bh and others
developed this subject and applied in several ways. These include the design of beams
columns, studs, shafts etc. Their technical tensile shear, torsional and compressional strengths
were calculated so as to see that they will be within the safer limits when loaded or used. The
practical proofs for these are the immovable metallic beams and columns, used in the
construction of buildings and Temples at many places in ancient India. One such example is
the Gunduchiburi temple at Puri which contains 239 iron beams designed with all engineering
techiniques each one having a length of 17' and C/Ss varying from 6 "x 4" to 5" x 6". The 29
iron beams of Konark temple having length 18' to 35' are also remarkable.
By various ancient Buddhist scriptures it is known that the Indian carpentry was one of the
highly evolved workshop practices. Pallanka or paryanka (Cot), sandi (Chair), sandaka
(easy chair), Koccaham (Cane Chair) etc., are some examples.
For selecting the proper wood they had a good knowledge of Timber technology also.
Vaynurpa dsyant varth dru majjau.
Nynam pancaat tm na rtam dru karmai
(Samarngaa Sutradhra)
i.e . a tree's trunk which possesses less than 50 annular rings is undesirable for wood works.
Vivakarma Samhita gives best preservative for wood, iron and even for stones also. The
composition for modern cement is also given in it. 'Silpa Tantra Rahasya' deals with fluid
mechanics and hydrostatics. This is a Kannada work. A telugu work Pracena Sdhanamu
deals with structures and industrial buildings. It is notable that in Sukranti Srah (about 400
BC) the method of gunpowder manufacturing is given.
Survaciavat panca palni gandhakt palam
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Antardhma vipakvarka snuhy dangratah palam
Suddht sagrhya sanchrya sammlya praputdrasaih
Snhyakm rasonyasya saydtapna ca
Pita arkaravaccaitat Agni cram bhavt khalu
Five units of salt-petre, one unit of sulphur, one unit of charcoal made from arka plant
prepared so that the smoke does not escape; all these taken, cleansed with water, powdered
and mixed together and squeezed with the juices of arka, mandagalli and garlic ; and dried in
the sun, then ground like sugar, it becomes gun powder.
Without cannons and other blasting equipments preparations of gun powder is meaningless.
Thus, the names ataghn, Sahasraghn, Agnivaraka and others appearing in
Koutilyrthaastra and in many other texts make it evident that the manufacturing of these
sophisticated equipments involved high technology and precision.
Now we shall look at the mechanical contrivances which used the links and pulleys in a
sophisticated way for several purposes. Many of these are mentioned in the ancient texts. The
major works include Arthaastra, Samarngana Stradhra, Viwarupa Samhita, Yantra
Tantra Pradepika etc.
Koutilya describes about the construction of Kings' palace in detail and states that some
mechanism is to be provided by virtue of which the whole palace should fall within seconds
when operated in severe conditions. For this a highly evolved mechanism is essential. The
various mechanical devices such as Viwsa Ghti, Bhoomukha (crane), Agnivaraka,
Parjanyaka and others used in wars needed wonderful technical aid. Samarngana S
tradhra mentions all these in detail and it also presents the classification of machines into
two (i) Swayamvhaka (automatic) and (ii) akrprnya. Here again two types. Antarita or
Alakshya (hidden), Vykta or Lakshya (open). There are still other divisions according to the
five fundamental elemental concept i.e., Prthiva, Taijasa, Jalya, Vyavya etc. The
definition of machine is given as Ym Tryat Yantram i.e., a machine is one which ( by our
controlling ) protects us.
The 20 qualities (gunas) desired in a machine given by Bhoja in the same bok are still valuable
and are essential in modern machines also. They include the most basic and technical qualities
such as vibration control, smooth working, non-friction, noiselessness, easy operation, good
finish, easy start, durability etc.
In pure literature also several tit-bits are seen as the Tantranla Kuvalaya (mechanised blue
elephant for deceiving king Udyana) in Bhasa's Pratigy Ntika and the Jalayantra putrik (a
fountain) working similar to the modern ones on the principle of suction and vacuum pumping
in the same play (II act). The Druvarma Nirmta Yantra traa (a mechanised automatic
beam structure designed by Druvarma - The technician) in Visakadatta's Mudr Rkasa
Ntakam; the aerial device by which King Sriharsha used to travel as seen in Harsha Carita
of Bana Bhatta etc.
Somadeva's Kathsaritsgara, a Sanskrit version of Gunadhya's Bhatkath in Paisaci gives
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some information about automatic machines. Accordingly, some dolls - after switching them
properly, due to the internal joints framed mechanically - were bringing water, garlands, food
etc., and were even talking (K.S.S., Madanmanchuka lambaka Taranga III - 18,19,20). Again
in the same taranga, verses 43 to 48 deal with the machines constructed on the basis of
Panchabhtas. In Ratnaprabha lambaka, third taranga's 38-44 verses explain a Vyantra
(wind machine).
Even we find primitive aeronautical science in ancient India. A noteworthy book - the
Vaimnika astra of Bharadwja Mahari is an unique work. By its language and style, it is
dated back to 5th Century. According to this text, Viwakarma, Chypurua, Manu, Maya
and several others were experts in this science. Here the controlling of a Vimna while flying
in critical places, between the clouds are all narrated. There are numerous terminologies
pertaining to the various parts in a Vimna. Some of them are :
Viwa Kriya Darpaa infront of the driver, besides this the Saktykaraa yantra, the
Parivea yantra in all four sides of the Vimna, Vairupya darpana and Vtarodhaka klakas
below, Vidyut yantra in the north-east direction etc.
The driver should be conversant with the Ktaka, Antarla and Drya rahasy. The material
used for the construction of a Vimna is an alloy of Soumaka, Soundalika and Mourtwika
lohas. The resulting alloy according to the text, will be very light and resistive to aerodynamic
friction and other calamities. For processing this alloy the required method is given in
Lohakalpa and Samskra Darpaa.
Udgama and Panjar were the two forms of energies responsible for take-off and landing of a
Vimna. There were various forms of acrobatics such as Dayana (coming down), Uddayana
(flying above), Sundhna (hitting the target with high speed), Knda (raising suddenly),
Vynda(coming down quickly), Krpostika (flying still),Smasrin mandalvartin (spiral or
circling flight). These were used in the common situations. But Udvnta, Prnta, pluta,
viddha, Prasta, Samuttra were used while fighting.
Bharadwja explains many types of Vimnas such as akuna Sundara, Rukma, Tripura,
Vairjika, Garuda and many others. He also gives the detailed description of different
machinery parts and mechanisms viz. Keelaka (Gear Mechanism and other handles of levers),
Oumaka Yantrika (Drying machine), Vatanala ( air duct ), Jalavarana nala ( cooling water
circulating circuit ), Tailaptra ( oil tank ), Vta-pcaka-tantre-nala ( air filter or air fuel mixer
), Agnisthana (Engine), Vidyut yantra ( Batteries ), Vata-codana-yantra(Propellers),
Disapracodakayantra ( steering wheel type direction changer ), Suryasaktya-
Karsanadarpana and Souramani ( Solar mirror and solar cell ), Dhumanirgamanala ( Exhaust
outlet ) etc.
Yati Baodhananda, a commentator of these works gives some names of the books which were
concerned with the mathematical analysis of Indian aeronautics. They are Darpana
Prakarmam, Vimna Candrika, Vyomayna Prakaa, Saktibejam, Loharahasyam, Sakti
sutram, Dhumaprakaranam, Valmeki ganitam etc. Even Samarangana Sutradhara, Amsu
Bodhini etc., deal in some parts of the texts, the same subject.
Measurements
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The distances like Yojana. Krosa, Dhnus, Angula, Hasta, Rajas etc. and the units like pala,
bhara, anu etc., were known to the ancients. The stone-made weights were ranging from
1,2,8/3, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 160, 200, 350......1200 gms. had a basic weight of 0.8565 gms. as their
gradient. The markings on measuring yards were precise to 0.003 m.!!! The smallest bead's
length was 1/34". For alloying, perfect balances were used to maintain standard proportions as
desired.
Measurements of Weights
10 ma or 5 gunja = 1 Suvarna ma.
16 Suvarna masa = 1 Suvarna Karsa.
4 Kara = 1 Palam.
88 Sarapa = 1 Rajata Ma.
16 Rajata ma = 1 dharana tandula.
20 Dharana tandula = 1 dharana tandula .
from 1/2 ma 1, 2, 4, 8 mas, 1 suvarna Kara, 2, 4, 8, 10, 20, 40, 100....were the
weight in use .
Kautilya also describes the method of calibration of weights and he describes perfect balances
and their standard dimension also. The Samarvrtta balance resembles the modern physical
balance; Parimani still sophisticated one. The Vyavaharike is the modern simple balance.
Bhajine, Antahpura-Bhajine were some other types.
The Volumetric Measuring Scales
200 palam = 1 Dra (used for revenue purposes)
187 1/2 palam = 1 Srvatrika Dra ( for public purposes)
162 1/2 palam = 1 Bhajine Dra
1 daka = 1/2 Dra, 1 Prastha = 1/4 daka
1 Kudumba = 1/4 Prastha, 16 Dra = 1 Khare
20 Dra = 1 Kumbha, 10 Kumbha = 1 Vaha...
Distance Measurement Scales
8 Paramanu = 1 Kana = 1 Lka
8 Lka = 1 Yka, 8 Yka = 1 Yava , 8 Yava = 1 Angula
4 Angula = 1 Dhanugraha, 8 Angula = 1 Dhanurmuti
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12 Angula = 1 Vitasti, 14 Angula = 1 Sama, Sala or Pda
2 Vitasti = 1 Aratni
2 Vitasti + 1 Dhanurmuti = 1 Kamsa
42 Angula = 1 Kamsa, 54 Angula = 1 Hasta, 84 Angula = 1 Vyma
4 Aratni = 1 Danda, 1 Dhanus, 1 Nalika or 1 Pourua
108 Angulas = Garhapatya Dhanus = 1 Porura
6 Kamsa = 192 Angula = 1 Danda , 10 Danda = 1 Rajju
2 Rajju = 1 Parida , 3 Rajju = 1 Nivartana
3 Rajju + 2 Danda = 1 Bahu
200 Dhanus = 1 Goruta etc ......
Time was measured as
2 Truti = 1 Lava, 2 Lava = 1 nimia , 5 nimia = 1 Kta
30 Kta = 1 Kala , 40 Kala = 1 Nalika
2 Nalika = 1 Muhurta , 15 Muhurta = 1 Day or Night
Thus we had various forms of scientific measurements.
Gaah sangitah Kopi
Tantra gnynrthi pmarah
Cakrdam swamdartham
Anugrnhantu Kovidh
Bhrat Bhratyanm
Bhti Bhmou bahuttam
Tm turyrya tantrm
tantr tulym nammyaham.



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