Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe

The struggle to belong

Dealing with diversity in 21st century urban settings.
Amsterdam, 7-9 July 2011
The Struggle for Social Autonomy:
What a!e We "earnt a#out $r#an %olitics from S&uatting in 'uro(e )
*iguel *art+ne,
%a(er (resented at the -nternational ./21 conference 2011
Session: 101 $r#an (olitics #et2een contention and control1 .T1012 .adical %otential1
*iguel *art+ne,
Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain)
Departamento Sociologa II
Facultad de Ciencias Polticas Sociologa
Campus de Somosaguas s/n
2!22" Madrid
miguelam#cps$ucm$es
%%%$miguelangelmartinez$net
3ote
& 'irst re(ision o' t)is article )as *een made t)an+s to t)e +ind contri*ution o' &lan Moore$ Pre(ious ideas %ere
presented and discussed in se(eral meetings o' S,-. (S/uatting -urope .ollecti(e) *et%een 2000 and 2011$ 1)us2 I
am in de*t %it) all mem*ers o' t)is net%or+ 'or t)eir (alua*le contri*utions during t)ese encounters$ Despite o' m
personal responsi*ilit 'or t)e present %riting2 man o' t)ese ideas too+ 'orm t)an+s to t)at collecti(e %or+$
1
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
A#stract
S/uatting empt properties 'or li(ing or to de(elop pu*lic acti(ities )as lasted in -uropean cities 'or
more t)an t)ree decades$ &lt)oug) local and national conte3ts di''er signi'icantl2 t)ere are also
some general trends and patterns t)at deser(e sociological attention$ 4)en s/uatting occasionall
appears in pu*lic de*ates2 contro(ers is generated and man gaps open *et%een academic2 social
and political perceptions$ In t)is paper I use e(idence 'rom se(eral -uropean cities to argue t)at t)e
s/uatters5 mo(ement )as produced an original impact in ur*an politics$ 1)e main 'eature o' t)is
impact )as *een to legitimate a relati(el %ide autonomous and mainl non6institutional mode o'
citizen participation2 protest and sel'6management$ 7o% )as t)is *een possi*le8 4)ic) are t)e
speci'ic contri*utions made * t)is ur*an mo(ement8 I propose to ans%er t)ese /uestions * going
a step *eond t)e le't radical claims e3pressed * political s/uatters$ 1)us2 'our modes o'
articulation *et%een discourses2 practices2 conte3ts and actors in(ol(ed ma *e distinguis)ed9 1)
opportunities and actions: 2) local and glo*al dimensions: ") social di(ersit2 %ea+ ties and
contentious politics: ;) and t)e con'licti(e edge o' institutionalization$ 1)ese analtical dimensions
are com*ined in order to e3plain *ot) t)e main 'actors2 conditions and opportunities *e)ind
s/uatting in -urope2 and t)e (alua*le e''ects in ur*an politics t)at are usuall )idden2
misunderstood or %idel repressed * aut)orities$
-ntroduction
1)e occupation o' empt *uildings and )ouses in order to satis' )ousing needs or to de(elop social
acti(ities2 )as *een a %idel spread practice all o(er -urope since t)e 10<0s2 alt)oug) it also
occurred occasionall in t)e past (=aile 10<"2 4ates et al$ 10!02 Colin 2010)$ >arious aut)ors
identi'ied t)is %a(e o' s/uatting during t)e last 'our decades as a ne% ur*an mo(ement (?o%e
10!@2 Auggiero 20002 PruiBt 200"2 Martinez 200<) rat)er t)an as isolated social practices
c)aracterised *9 a) its mostl illegal nature (s/uatting as a (iolation o' pri(ate propert): *) t)e
su*cultural aspects o' s/uatters5 dress2 discourse and li'estle: and c) e3clusi(el in(ol(ing
oungsters$
&s an ur*an mo(ement2 s/uatting *egan to gro% in -uropean countries li+e Cet)erlands2 Derman2
Enited .ingdom2 France2 S%itzerland and Ital 'rom t)e late 10@0s and earl 10<0s on%ards$
2
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
Despite particular ccles o' e(olution in di''erent cities2 t)e tide o' s/uatting rolled t)roug) ot)er
countries in t)e coming decades suc) as Denmar+2 Spain2 Dreece2 Poland2 etc$ 1)ere is good
e(idence (.oopmans 100F2 7erreros 200;2 Martinez 2002) t)at t)is e3pansion %as due to
transnational imitation and multiple personal connections %)ic) constituted di''use social and
political net%or+s$
Since t)e seminal %or+ o' Castells (10!")2 de*ates on t)e de'inition o' ur*an mo(ements )a(e *een
ongoing (Pic+(ance 200"2 Maer 200@)$ 4)ile Castells emp)asized t)e e''ects o' mo(ements on
5structural social c)ange5 and 5ur*an meaning52 ot)er aut)ors 'ocused more2 'or instance2 on
constraints coming 'rom a %ider conte3t2 organisational resources and internal dnamics (>illasante
10!;: Pic+(ance 10!F2 10!@: Fainstein and 7irst 100F)$ 4)at are2 t)en2 t)e main 'eatures o'
s/uatting as an ur*an mo(ement8 Firstl2 s/uatting o' empt *uildings encompasses *ot) )idden
and (isi*le actions$ 1)e latter emerge %)en a set o' organised groups ma+es pu*lic claims 'or t)e
legitimac o' s/uatting 66*anners and 'lags on t)e %alls2 or lea'lets distri*uted to neig)*ours are
're/uent indicators$ =ot) long6lasting political organizations 'or %)om s/uatting is a central
struggle and coordination plat'orms set up * s/uats at cit %ide or district le(els2 are also proo's o'
t)e consistenc o' social net%or+s lin+ing s/uatters %it) eac) ot)er$ In addition2 man in(isi*le
s/uatters are )elped * political acti(ists and ma+e use o' in'ormal ties t)at allo% t)em to s/uat2
remain2 and oppose t)reats o' e(iction$ Secondl2 *eond t)e immediate satis'action o' s/uatters5
material needs2 a more general political 'rame underlies e(er %a(e o' s/uatting initiati(es$
&ccording to t)is 'rame2 s/uatting c)allenges )ousing s)ortages2 ur*an speculation2 a*solute pri(ate
propert rig)ts2 and t)e capitalist production o' ur*an space as it is conducted * t)e State and
pri(ate interests$ 1)us2 s/uatting 'its into t)e *road categor o' le't6li*ertarian social mo(ements
(Della Porta and Auc)t 100F)$
S/uatting is an ur*an mo(ement in %)ic) t)ere is a close connection *et%een a *road range o'
political acti(ities (meetings2 demonstrations2 direct actions2 campaigning2 etc$) and a practical
de(elopment o' collecti(e sel'6management on man dimensions o' li'e$ 1)ese include t)e
re)a*ilitation o' *uildings2 t)e s)aring o' 'ood and (arious resources2 t)e et)ics o' do6it6oursel'
and mutual6aid2 t)e promotion o' counter6cultural e3pressions and radical le't ideas2 etc$
(Mc.a100!2 Cotes 'rom Co%)ere 200") 1)is connection indicates t)e constitution o' a persistent
autonomous and radical ur*an mo(ement %it) a pragmatic orientation2 alt)oug) some institutional
"
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
*onds and constraints can also pla a signi'icant role in its e3pansion$
Strong repression and generalised attempts to legalise s/uats2 'or instance2 can reduce t)e autonom
and radicalism o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement (Mi++elsen and .arpantsc)o' 2001)$ Pri(atization and
outsourcing o' collecti(e consumption can also t)reaten t)e in'luential model o' sel'6organisation at
s/uatted social centres (Moroni et al$ 100@2 Mem*retti 200<)$ &ccording to Castells (10!"9 "22)2
autonom means2 *asicall2 a neat separation o' institutionalised actors li+e political parties and
unions$ 1)is also implies serious attempts to set up *ot) mo(ements5 o%n cultural identit and
political2 local2 decentralised2 and sel'6managed institutions$ Mo(ements5 ideological and
organizational autonom cannot a(oid connection to t)e societ at large t)roug) some institutional
actors2 pro'essionals and communication media$ Since some aut)ors )a(e criticized t)e term
5autonom5 *ecause is c)arged %it) t)e *urden o' a li*eral and indi(idualistic a''iliation (=oo+c)in
100!)2 t)e e3pression 5social autonom5 can still preser(e t)e emp)asis on t)e dialectic dependence
o' indi(iduals upon societ2 and (ice(ersa2 %)ic) is 'amiliar to 5social anarc)ism5 as t)e setting up
o' an anti6capitalist ur*an communities o' e/uals (i*id$)$ Social autonom also recalls t)e Italian
Gperaist re'usal o' an institutional representation o' class struggles (Mitropoulos 200<)2 and t)e
Situationists5 claims 'or a total participation in ur*an a''airs (.na** 100<)$
S/uatting can *e understood also as an immediatist struggle in t)e sense t)at Foucault means it9 HIn
suc) struggles people criticize instances o' po%er %)ic) are t)e closest to t)em2 t)ose %)ic)
e3ercise t)eir action on indi(iduals$ 1)e do not loo+ 'or t)e 5c)ie' enem5 *ut 'or t)e immediate
enem$ Cor do t)e e3pect to 'ind a solution to t)eir pro*lem at a 'uture date (t)at is2 li*erations2
re(olutions2 end o' class struggle)$I (Foucault 10!2) S/uatting is2 a*o(e all2 direct action aimed to
satis' a collecti(e need t)roug) social diso*edience against t)e oppressi(e protection o' propert
rig)ts$ 1)e mostl temporar appropriation o' a*andoned spaces is a partial attac+ on t)e unBust
distri*ution o' ur*an goods2 *ut it is also a grassroots political inter(ention at t)e core o' ur*an
politics$ S/uatters de' t)e rules o' t)e ur*an gro%t) mac)ine *ot) 'or t)e sa+e o' t)eir o%n needs
and to promote citizens5 protests t)at can *e easil imitated until t)e last (acant space is reclaimed
* t)ose %)o are dispossessed (Pi(en and Clo%ard 10<02 &l'ord and Friedland 10!F2 >itale 200<)$
Instead o' loo+ing at t)e speci'ic unintended conse/uences o' s/uatting in some processes o' ur*an
rene%al and gentri'ication (Eitermar+ 200;2 7olm and .u)n 2010)2 or at ot)er internal
;
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
contradictions in terms o' segregation and t)e reproduction o' ine/ualities (?o%e 10!@2 &dil+no
100;2 Martinez 20022 G%ens 20002 &guilera 2010)2 in t)is paper I %ill emp)asize %)at made
s/uatting possi*le and %)at social benefits it )as )ad 'or *ot) t)e people in(ol(ed and ur*an politics
in general$ 1)is re'lection distinguis)es 'our modes o' articulation *et%een discourses2 practices2
conte3ts and actors in(ol(ed (see Figure 1)9 1) opportunities and actions (conditions 'or t)e
mo(ement5s emergence and e3pansion): 2) local and glo*al dimensions (conte3t singularities): ")
social di(ersit2 %ea+ ties and contentious politics (social construction o' identities): ;) t)e
con'licti(e edge o' institutionalization (as part o' t)e di''erent impacts produced * t)e s/uatters5
mo(ement)$ For t)e sa+e o' *re(it2 I %ill concentrate m e''orts in ans%ering t)e t%o main
/uestions 66%)at made s/uatting possi*le and %)at %as s/uatting 'or66 %)ile com*ining t)ese 'our
analtical dimensions$
& s)ort remar+ on met)odolog9 I )a(e *een researc)ing on s/uatting in Spain since 100!2
collecting documents2 inter(ie%ing acti(ists2 attending acti(ities in s/uats and participating msel'
as an acti(ist in se(eral s/uatted social centres$ In Januar 2000 S,-. (S/uatting -urope
.ollecti(e) %as 'ounded2 and no% includes more t)an ;0 mem*ers$ 1)e meetings promoted * t)is
net%or+ (in Madrid2 Milan2 ?ondon2 =erlin and &msterdam) ga(e me an opportunit to contrast m
data and interpretations o' s/uatting in Spain %it) ot)er sc)olars and acti(ists across -urope$
Aegular de*ates2 site (isits and t)e reciprocal e3c)ange o' insig)t'ul papers %ere an e3cellent
inspiration$ M present depiction o' a 'e% patterns o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement in -uropean cities is
still a %or+ in progress2 *ut stems 'rom t)e participator acti(ist6researc) %e de(eloped in S,-.
during t)e last t%o and a )al' ears$ &ccordingl2 I 'ound t)at /uestions a*out t)e social conditions
o' possi*ilit o' s/uatting and a*out its social and political impacts2 %ere some o' t)e most rele(ant
ones 'or *ot) acti(ists and researc)ers$ 1)ere'ore I re'lect on t)em no% and s+ip ot)er aspects or
side e''ects o' t)is mo(ement$
F
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
4igure 11 Analytical frame2or5 for researching on the s&uatters6 mo!ement
Source9 aut)or$
17 What ma5es s&uatting (ossi#le)
&*o(e all2 s/uatting consists o' a set o' collecti(e actions aimed to use empt or a*andoned
properties 'or )ousing purposes and/or 'or t)e promotion o' social acti(ities$ 1)e +ind o' o%ner and
t)e duration o' (acanc (aries$ 1)e important condition )ere is t)e e3istence o' a su''icient amount
o' *uildings a*le to *e occupied directl or a'ter lig)t %or+s o' re)a*ilitation$ S/uatters tend to do a
serious researc) on t)e speci'ic legal and economic situation o' eac)2 apparentl in disuse2 *uilding$
Fre/uentl2 neig)*ours are t)e *est source o' in'ormation$ 7ig)er proportions o' (acanc correlate
%it) se(eral 'actors apart 'rom t)e acti(ists5 %is)es9 economic crisis and slumping construction2
reduction in rental )ousing stoc+2 pri(atization o' 'ormerl pu*lic )ouses2 increasing le(els o'
pri(ate o%ners)ip o' )ousing2 c)anges o' use in speci'ic *uildings2 decline o' industrial acti(ities2
ur*an rene%al processes2 etc$ &ccordingl2 t)e opportunities 'or s/uatters see+ing a place depend
upon t)ese macro dnamics to pro(ide a /uantit o' e''ecti(e spaces read to *e s/uatted$
@
Ccles o' e(olution o' t)e S/uatters5 Mo(ement
Socio6Cultural2
Er*an2
Political K
?egal
/onte8t
Singularities
/onditions and 9((ortunities
'or -mergence and -3pansion
Social
/onstruction
of -dentities9
Practices2
Discourses and
Cet%or+s
-nstitutionali,ation
.egimes9 Interactions
*et%een &cti(ists /
State / G%ners
Social, %olitical and $r#an -m(acts9
Socialization2 Inno(ation2 Participation2
Protest2 Socio6Spatial Aestructuring
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
Fortunatel 'or s/uatters2 capitalist ur*an speculation is *ased on a con(enient stoc+ o' empt
*uildings %)ic) allo%s o%ners to dela %or+s or sales 'or a certain period o' time2 %)ile
negotiating t)e *etter price$ 1)e ideal speculator %ants )is or )er o%ners)ip to *e rene%ed2 sold or
rented at t)e )ig)est price and at t)e earliest moment$ 1)is %ould result in a total occupation o' t)e
*uilt en(ironment in a gi(en moment2 %it)out an loss or %aste o' o%ned space2 and s/uatting
%ould *e impossi*le$ ,uite t)e contrar2 t)at ideal situation ne(er occurs and permanent *lac+ )oles
%it)in pri(ate and pu*lic real6estate mar+ets are usuall protected * la%s$ &s a conse/uence2 all
t)e in'ormation t)at s/uatters o*tain a*out t)at essential gap and tensions %it)in t)e process o'
capitalist accumulation (7ar(e 10!F9 1F0)2 %ill open a %indo% 'or going a)ead %it) s/uatting
actions (Martnez 200;2 PLc)u 200@)$
1)e crucial 'actor o' emptiness o'ten depends upon ur*an planning and restructuring o' speci'ic
areas$ Displacement o' industrial 'actories2 (acant sc)ools or pu*lic 'acilities %)ic) )a(e mo(ed to
a di''erent location2 residential units su*Bect to ne% regulations 6all o'ten occur %)en a %)ole area
)as *een designed 'or accomplis)ing ne% 'unctions$ &ut)orities2 planners and in(estors %ould
argue t)at old6'as)ioned areas2 po(ert2 crime2 ruins2 su*6standard )ousing and pollution demand a
trans'ormation o' pu*lic space and2 simultaneousl2 o' t)e residential *uildings and e3isting
population t)ere in$ Ce% roads or mega proBects (li+e museums2 stadiums2 %ater'ronts2 commercial
malls2 etc$) ma also account 'or t)e elites6dri(en (acanc o' a great part o' d%ellings in a particular
ur*an area (Fainstein 100;2 Martin and Moroni 200<)$ 1)e slo%er is t)e r)t)m o' t)ese
recon'igurations2 t)e )ig)er are t)e opportunities 'or s/uatting and campaigning against t)e plans$
Gld o%ners and tenants appear as t)e natural allies o' s/uatters opposing t)e aut)oritarian (or e(en
t)e restricted participator) manner o' t)ese ur*an inter(entions (Maer 100")$
Since I contend t)at s/uatting in -urope is deploed as an ur*an mo(ement and t)is is more t)an
t)e sum o' indi(idual s/uatting actions2 I suggest a t)ird condition o' possi*ilit9 s/uatters pursue
multiple goals o' social c)ange *eond t)e rig)t to a 'ree or a''orda*le (mostl ur*an) space$ 1)is is
a common ingredient o' radical le't and countercultural mo(ements (Auc)t 10002 .oopmas
100F9212 "26"F) in contrast to t)e single6issue orientation attri*uted to ot)er ne% social mo(ements
suc) as en(ironmentalists2 %omen and paci'ists (G''e 10!F)$ Dlo*al (or2 *etter2 alter6glo*al)
concerns and t)e contestation o' li*eral democracies and capitalism are usuall claimed * s/uatters
(4a+e'ield 100F2 Cotes 'rom Co%)ere 200"2 Martinez 200<)$ 1)is implies a coe3istence o' *ot)
<
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
local and glo*al perspecti(es$ -ac) s/uat )as local6ur*an roots in a speci'ic neig)*our)ood$
S/uatting is2 t)us2 an end itsel' once is pu*licl claimed and de'ended$ 4it)out losing t)is local
ground2 s/uatting is also a means to 'oster ot)er local protests2 *ut some more general class and
glo*al struggles too$ 1actics and strateg2 t)en2 rein'orce eac) ot)er$ 1)is discourse per(ades t)e
pu*lic 'ace o' most political s/uatters2 *ut it is not necessaril accepted or reproduced * man o'
t)e di''erent groups %)o s/uat or participate in s/uats$ &mong t)e internal di(ersit o' s/uatters2
some can emp)asize s/uatting onl as an ends2 %)ile ot)ers emp)asize s/uatting solel as a means$
In addition2 t)ese di''erent political identities %it)in t)e mo(ement are im*ricated %it) conte3t
'actors relating to t)e cit or t)e %orld at large$ 1)e easiest %a o' disco(ering t)is im*rication is
attending to t)e multiple connections t)at s/uatters )a(e %it) ot)er alternati(e or counter6cultural
social mo(ements$ 1)e latter2 as I %ill argue later2 is %ell pro(en %)en 5social centres5 ac/uire a
prominent (isi*ilit %it)in and outside t)e mo(ement (Martinez 200;2 Mudu 200;2 7od+inson and
C)atterton 200@, Mem*retti 200<)$
Concerning t)e legal issues t)ere are2 t)eoreticall2 t)ree options9 a) strong criminal persecution2 *)
lig)t criminal persecution2 c) speci'ic legal re/uirements t)at permit s/uatting occasionall$ 4)en
t)e 'irst option applies and aut)orities %or+ )ard to implement t)at legislation2 s/uatting *ecomes
too di''icult2 marginal and in're/uent2 alt)oug) not a*solutel impossi*le$ Denmar+2 Derman and
S%eden2 'or e3ample2 are t)e national conte3ts %)ere t)is polic rules$ 7o%e(er2 it is important to
note t)at t)e s/uatted communit o' C)ristiania in Copen)agen sur(i(ed in a di''icult en(ironment
%)ere almost all s/uatting %as repressed %it)out concessions (Mi++elsen and .arpantsc)o' 20012
7ellstrMm 200@2 Fo3 2010)$ In Derman t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement gained great strengt) during its
'irst p)ases2 and could preser(e part o' its radical identit and sel'6managed practices a'ter %a(es o'
eit)er )ard repression or compre)ensi(e negotiation too+ place (in t)e earl 10!0s in general and in
t)e earl 1000s also in =erlin) (Maer 100"2 Sa*atL 200<2 7olm and .u)n 2010)$ ?egislation and
/uic+ repression o' attempts to s/uat )a(e pre(ented t)e emergence o' a s/uatters5 mo(ement in
S%eden %)ere2 not%it)standing2 social )ousing %as easil accessi*le 'or t)e maBorit o' population
(1)Mrn 200!)$
Spain and France e3perienced criminal prosecution o' s/uatting %it) signi'icantl di''erent
outcomes$ 4)ile t)e Frenc) case is close to t)e Derman one due to t)e urgent negotiations imposed
* aut)orities a'ter e(er s/uatting occurs2 some special conditions appl suc) as a legal e3ception
!
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
t)at a(oids e(ictions during t)e %inter term (&guilera 20102 Colin 2010)$ &n e/ui(alent light
restriction applies in Spain %)en Budges are not a*le to clearl identi' %)o )as t)e will to remain
and to o*tain t)e possession o' a s/uatted *uilding (=aucells 10002 Martinez 20029 !;60;)$ 1)us2
e(en %)en e(ictions increased a'ter 100F (%)en t)e criminal la% %as passed on)2 'e% people %as
'inall sentenced to Bail$ 1)e Cet)erlands is e3periencing a ne% situation a'ter t)e criminalization o'
s/uatting in 2010$ S/uatting is still possi*le and encouraged * 'ormer political organizations2 *ut it
is rapidl repressed$ 1)ere2 s/uatters enBo t)e )eritage o' t)ousands o' s/uatted places s/uatted in
t)e past decades %)en t)ere %as a greater tolerance$ S/uatting %as legal in t)e case o' liveable
*uildings le't (acant 'or more t)an one ear and2 cruciall2 in case t)e o%ner )ad no read6to6act
plan 'or t)e *uilding$ 1)is legac2 t)e accumulation o' e3periences2 can *e s)arpl reduced *ut
cannnot *e easil destroed in t)e s)ort run (G%ens 20002 PruiBt 2010)$ 1)e Enited .ingdom is t)e
sole -uropean countr t)at still 'its t)e t)ird categor2 alt)oug) t)e coalition o' conser(ati(es and
li*erals in t)e central go(ernment intends to legislate against s/uatting 'ollo%ing t)e pat) o' t)e
Dutc) go(ernment$ In conclusion2 not onl s)ould t)e legal 'rame%or+ *e not too restricti(e in
order to allo% a certain degree o' s/uatting (to open a *uilding and remain 'or some %ee+s or
mont)s2 at least)2 *ut also t)e Budicial mac)ine and t)e police repression must not act too 'ast and in
an ine''icient manner so t)at s/uatters can ris+ part o' t)eir assets to de' t)e la%$
& 'inal strand o' t)e constitution o' an autonomous ur*an mo(ement is independence 'rom political
parties2 la*our unions2 'ormal organisations2 pri(ate companies2 State *ureaucracies2 pro'essionals
and mass media (Castells 10!"2 Maer 200@2 1oret et al 200!)$ 1)is does not mean a complete
impermea*ilit or t)e a*sence o' an mutual lin+s$ -(er group o' s/uatters )as t)e po%er to de'ine
a proper strateg in order to de'end t)eir sta (Martinez 2010)$ 1o pa an attorne is a tpical
forced participation in t)e State apparatus2 e(en t)oug) some s/uatters also re'use to do it$
&lternati(e and independent media are pre'erred o(er commercial media2 *ut all means are li+el to
*e used %)en tension is at its pea+$ In case o' negotiations2 punctual contacts %it) and support
'rom 'riendl political parties and ci(il societ associations can *e e3tremel )elp'ul$ 1)e autonom
o' t)e mo(ement2 t)en2 resides in t)is unsta*le *alance$ Gn t)e one )and2 s/uatters need to strengt)
on t)e internal cooperation among acti(ists and smpat)isers2 and t)e transmission o' e3perience
'rom pioneers to ne%comers$ Gn t)e ot)er )and2 t)e %ea+ness o' ties and resources o' t)e core
group 6 6alt)oug) surrounded * t)ousands o' participants2 users2 (isitors2 'riends2 ot)er mo(ements5
militants and supporters (Moroni et al$ 100@)66 re/uires occasional alliance %it) more sta*le social
0
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
structures (1arro% 100!)$ 1)ere'ore2 a regular and not too aggressi(e mass media co(erage2 e(en i'
it treats s/uatters %it) some un'air stereotpes2 can legitimate t)e struggle in t)e ees o' a %ide
audience$
27 What is s&uatting for)
During t)e (alle stages o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement ccle (see Figure 1)2 academic de*ates
o*literate t)e %)ole picture o' its e(olution2 intentions and conse/uences$ Contro(ersies tend to
'ocus on some unintended e''ects o' s/uatting li+e t)eir consideration o' earl gentri'iers$ 7o%e(er2
t)ese e''ects are due to di''erent interacting 'actors o' neoli*eral policies and pressures to
restructure cities2 rat)er t)an solel to t)e actions o' s/uatters$ I %ill set aside t)is discussion no%2
and *rie'l loo+ at t)e beneficial conse/uences o' s/uatting 'or s/uatters t)emsel(es2 *ut also 'or
ot)er social groups and t)e democratic /ualit o' ur*an politics in general$
Follo%ing PruiBt5s (200;a) classi'ication I )a(e tried to associate t)e autonomy and radicalism o'
t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement %it) t)e strategic2 persistent2 net%or+ed and openness tendencies o' t)e
initiati(es and circles o' people in(ol(ed (see Figure 2)$
10
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
4igure 21 Ty(es of s&uatting and autonomous-radical orientation of the s&uatters6 mo!ement
Source9 aut)or$
S/uatted social centres are placed in t)e centre o' t)e grap) *ecause t)e accomplis) t%o *asic
'unctions 'or t)e constitution o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement9 a) t)e pro(ide a pu*lic resource 'or
meetings2 in'ormation2 leisure2 e3pression and socia*ilit %)ic) are essential *ot) to get in touc)
%it) +indred people and to launc) ne% s/uats: *) *eond its (alue as a material in'rastructure 'or
acti(ists2 s/uatted social centres are t)e most (isi*le e3amples o' s/uatting (pu*lic opinion2 mass
media2 local aut)orities and neig)*ours)2 and t)e most open to recruit ne% acti(ists2 and attract
participants2 (isitors and smpat)isers %it) lesser degrees o' commitment$ Some o' t)e *uildings
%or+ing as social centres )ost man political discourses and e(ents closel related to ot)er social
mo(ements (migrants5 and precarious %or+ers5 rig)ts2 )ac+ti(ism and arti(ism2 ur*an gardens and
organic 'ood2 etc$)$ 1)e also o''er t)eir 'acilities to di''erent social and political organizations$
Some ot)ers com*ine %ea+er political concerns %it) a stronger dedication to organising music
concerts2 %or+s)ops or c)eap meals and drin+s$ &rtists2 militants and se(eral social groups mi3
toget)er in most o' t)e counter6cultural or entrepreneurial social centres2 *ut t)e can also split o''
into more specialised (enues$
11
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
Conservational s/uatting reclaims and preser(es )istorical sites or ur*an areas so t)at s/uatting o'
)ouses2 e(ents at t)e pu*lic space and social centres can *e com*ined as in ot)er tpes o' s/uatted
*uildings$ 4)en residence and social centre coe3ist %it)in t)e same *uilding2 a neat separation o'
*ot) acti(ities tends to *e esta*lis)ed$ 1)ere'ore2 sel'6managed social centres pla a crucial role in
t)e sm*olic legitimation and promotion o' s/uatting as a radical tool 'or grassroots ur*an
inter(ention$ In Ital2 Spain and t)e E.2 acti(ists and sc)olars sometimes re'er to a 5social centre
mo(ement5 (Mudu 200;2 7od+inson and C)atterton 200@2 1oret et al$ 200!) more t)an to an
am*iguous s/uatters5 mo(ement as suc)$ -(en %)en social centres are not s/uatted an more2 t)e
can *e considered part o' t)e autonomous and s/uatters5 mo(ement / scene i' t)e continue %it) a
similar stle o' sel'6management and political priorities$
Social centres o'ten su*stitute 'or t)e lac+ o' esta*lis)ed organizations and cit coordination o'
s/uats$ Social net%or+s o' acti(ists arise 'rom demonstrations and in'ormal encounters2 *ut social
centres add a direct and tangi*le e3ample o' )o% t)ings can *e managed collecti(el and2 )ope'ull
%it)out paing a rent$ 1)ese (alua*le outcomes are more di''icult to attain 'or t)e s/uats %)ic) are
ta+en Bust 'or li(ing space$ 1)e less %ell connected s/uatters are among t)em and %it) t)e nodal
point o' social centres2 t)e less pro*a*ilit to stand * eac) ot)er2 and to create a co)esi(e and
po%er'ul mo(ement$ Pu*lic (isi*ilit is also a *igger c)allenge 'or s/uatted )ouses t)an 'or
s/uatted social centres$ 1)ese needs can *e 'illed * )ousing and 'ormal organizations %)o
occasionall support s/uatting2 *ut t)e also /uit supporting t)at tactic as soon as t)e get su*sidies
or accessi*le social )ousing 'or t)eir mem*ers (=aile 10<"2 Corr 10002 PruiBt 200"2 &guilera
2010)$
Aadical s/uatters do not al%as e3pect to s/uat during t)e entiret o' t)eir li(es: t)is is2 in 'act2
(er unli+el (4a+e'ield 100F2 ?lo*et 200F2 De Sario 20002 G%ens 2000)$ For most people %)o
s/uat 'or li(ing2 s/uatting is a stage along t)e %a to a permanent residence$ 1)e more depri(ed
t)e are in t)e )ousing mar+et2 t)e more t)e are li+el to consider s/uatting as a tactic political
tool or means (illegal immigrants2 'or e3ample9 =ouillon 2000)$ Droups2 organizations and
net%or+s o' radical acti(ists consider s/uatting strategicall %)en s/uatting is 'or t)em *ot) means
and end$ ?ong6lasting s/uats2 eit)er )ouses or social centres2 o''er solid and strategic e3amples2
sm*ols2 o' t)e mo(ement5s success2 alt)oug) a*undant 'lo%s o' communication among acti(ists
and %it) t)e rest o' societ (i$e$ (isi*ilit and net%or+ing) e/uall en)ance t)e s/uatters5 social
12
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
portrait$ 1)e itboe! (4)ite =oo+) pu*lis)ed * Dutc) s/uatters *e'ore t)e *an on s/uatting in
20102 and a recent pu*lication made * -nglis) s/uatters 'acing a similar t)reat (S,E&S7 2011)2
constitute e3cellent responses to t)e strategic c)allenge o' communicating t)e goal t)at nurtures t)e
core o' t)is mo(ement$
4it) t)e centralit o' s/uatted2 and some non6s/uatted2 social centres and t)e emerging structures o'
coordination o' s/uatted )ouses2 %e can see some o' t)e least +no%n contri*utions o' s/uatting to
s)aping an autonomous arena in ur*an politics$ First o' all2 s/uats pro(ide spaces %)ere acti(ists
*elonging to di''erent social mo(ements can meet$ 1)is pro(ision is administered t)roug) collecti(e
principles o' )orizontal and direct democrac2 sel'6management2 non6*ureaucratic regulation or
State control (Piazza 200<)2 and 'ree or c)eap access to goods and ser(ices$ Aeccling2 dumpster
di(ing and s)aring resources s)o% )o% to li(e at lo% cost and to *e en(ironmentall 'riendl in
ur*an settings$ Moreo(er2 social centres and s/uatters5 organizations encourage people to
e3periment %it) alternati(e modes o' li(ing %)ic) are outside o' t)e mainstream o' culture2 politics2
econom and social relations)ips$ S/uatting o''ers immediate results in t)e practice o' direct action
and social diso*edience against t)e unBust distri*ution o' %ealt)$ =ot) * means o' creati(e cultural
e3pressions2 and t)roug) organized opposition around *roadl censored issues (police *rutalit2
political corruption2 current situation in Bails2 un'air glo*al trade2 etc$)2 s/uatted places e3pand t)e
consciousness o' t)eir participants into t)e realm o' dissidence2 resistance2 temporalit and
uncertaint$ &ccording to one pu*lication put out * =arcelona s/uatters (>>&& 200;)2 s/uatted
socials centres in(ol(e9 Hstruggles against t)e destruction o' neig)*our)oods * speculatorsI2
H%or+s)ops 'or collecti(e learning %it)out moneI2 Hraising 'unds 'or t)e social centre and ot)er
proBectsI2 Hpopular cultureI2 Hnon6commercial leisureI2 Hassem*lies and meetingsI2 Hnet%or+s o'
a''ects and solidaritI2 Hindependent and )orizontal media communicationI2 and Hconstructi(e
resistanceI$
For t)e )omeless2 depri(ed2 under6pri(ileged2 %or+ing6class2 unemploed and dropouts o' t)e
institutional sstems 6 6education2 aslums2 Bu(enile )omes2 etc$662 s/uatting 'orms a +e sur(i(al
tactic and sometimes strateg$ Cot onl can an a''orda*le s)elter *e con/uered2 *ut also one can *e
acti(el in(ol(ed in t)e satis'action o' *asic needs$ 1)is is usuall ac)ie(ed t)an+s to t)e interaction
%it) %ealt)ier and more s+illed indi(iduals2 resulting in a clear increase o' social capital and mutual
learning 'or all$ Most o' t)ose engaged in s/uatting *ene'it 'rom t)e empo%erment2 s+ills2
1"
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
opportunities and sel'6con'idence t)at t)ese collecti(e actions entail (4a+e'ield 100F2 Martinez
20022 PruiBt 200;2 ?lo*et 200F2 7ellstrMm 200@2 =ouillon 2000)$ It )as not *een %idel recognised
t)at2 in comparison to ot)er 'orms o' acti(ism2 s/uatting comprises almost t)e %)ole e(erda li'e
o' t)e people in(ol(ed$ Domestic tas+s2 gender relations and t)e emotional dimensions o' acti(ism
are regularl tac+led2 o*liging s/uatters to trans'orm t)eir pre(ious approac)es to t)ese /uestions$
&mong t)e s+ills s/uatters gain is t)e capa*ilit to deal %it) t)eir o%n p)sical space in t)e conte3t
o' ur*an a''airs o' t)e local neig)*our)ood2 t)e cit and t)e metropolitan area$ Pri(ate li'e and
communal li(ing demands as muc) e''ort as pu*lic li'e and ur*an struggle2 especiall in relations
%it) t)e cit councils2 o''icials2 politicians2 Budges2 la%ers2 pri(ate o%ners2 companies2 real estate
de(elopers2 Bournalists2 researc)ers and all +inds o' neig)*ours2 *e t)e in 'a(our o' s/uatters2
against t)em2 or seemingl indi''erent$
/onclusions
1)e main argument in t)is paper is t)at t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement )as e(ol(ed in -urope during t)e
last 'our decades as a genuine autonomous ur*an mo(ement$ Its practices around collecti(e
consumption2 )ousing s)ortages2 and alter6glo*al mo(ements2 contri*uted to t)e satis'action o'
social needs and to t)e legitimation o' a radical democratic approac) to ur*an politics$ &s I )a(e
argued a*o(e2 t)e mi3 o' s/uatters enduring (arious degrees o' precariousness2 and t)e ric) set o'
political e3periences t)e displa cannot support la*elling s/uatting as simpl li'estle anarc)ism or
as a (ague le'tist and radical discourse$
&long t)e last decades2 most o' t)e -uropean countries )a(e appro(ed legislation t)at 'or*ids
s/uatting2 %it) 7olland and Enited .ingdom until recentl t)e most tolerant$ &t t)e same time t)is
general prosecution o' s/uatting opened room 'or institutional arrangements allo%ing some cases to
*e legalized$ Far 'rom losing autonom or *ecoming isolated 'rom ot)er social mo(ements2 man
'ormer s/uatters remain in(ol(ed in ur*an politics$ Still2 t)e 'irm conclusion o' t)is analsis is t)at
%)ere(er t)e a'orementioned structure o' political2 ur*an and cultural opportunities 6 6 despite
constraints6 6 appears2 it is li+el t)at groups o' s/uatters %ill ta+e ad(antage o' it$ 1)is means t)at
e(en in a repressi(e conte3t2 +e in'ormation and actions carried out * s/uatters ma+e use o'
'a(oura*le conditions suc) as a su''icient amount o' a*andoned properties2 t)e slo% r)t)m o'
1;
Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
restructuring and rene%al o' ur*an areas2 connections and 'ruit'ul e3c)anges %it) alternati(e social
mo(ements2 appeal to rig)ts and e3ceptions %it)in t)e legal 'rame%or+s2 strengt) and internal
co)esion2 and a not too critical co(erage * mass media$
In addition2 t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement )as spread out according to di''erent con'igurations$ Social
centres and political s/uatting pro(ided pu*lic (isi*ilit2 political legitimation and strategic ur*an
locations capa*le o' interconnecting t)e di''erent and specialised 'orms o' s/uatting$ Cet%or+s
in(ol(e *ot) s/uatted social centres and )ouses2 *ut also non6s/uatted social centres2 rural s/uatting
and tactical s/uatting$ &lt)oug) ties %it) ot)er mo(ement organizations are %ea+2 t)e persistence o'
t)e %)ole net%or+ indicates a signi'icant strengt) *ased on speci'ic impacts on t)e ur*an politics o'
eac) cit$ In particular2 s/uatted social centres constitute accessi*le meeting spaces 'or man
indi(iduals2 groups and mo(ements$ =esides2 t)e %)ole domain o' e(erda li'e is a''ected * t)e
collecti(e practices o' sel'6management$ Cot t)e least2 s/uatting 'or li(ing purposes o''ers
a''orda*le )ousing and empo%er people %it) ne% s+ills o' sel'6)elp and social cooperation$
&ll o' t)ese transnational patterns deser(e more care'ul and ongoing researc)$ Aele(ant internal
di''erentiation2 t)e need o' acting toget)er at di''erent spatial scales and speci'ic local coalitions
%it) ot)er citizens5 and *roader social mo(ements2 can set t)e 'uture agenda$ Conet)eless2 ne%
political issues and inno(ati(e repertoires o' action con'ronting t)e ongoing %a(e o' neoli*eral
ur*an go(ernance2 also pa(e t)e %a 'or more in6dept) insig)ts on t)e conditions and impacts o'
t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement$
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