Considerations On The Theme of Marine Architectures in The Early Projects of MasatoOtaka, Kiyonori Kikutake and Noriaki Kisho Kurokawa

2009 International Conference on East Asian Architectural Culture, Tainan, Taiwan
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Whosea2009 - The East Asian Architecture and Urbanism under Occidentalism, 10-13 April 2009
Considerations on the Theme of Marine Architectures in the Early Projects of Masato
Otaka, Kiyonori Kikutake and Noriaki Kisho Kurokawa

Raffaele Pernice

JSPS Post-doc Research Fellow, Faculty of Engineering, Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan

Abstract
The aim of this study is to describe in an historical perspective the features and different design
concepts concerning the feasibility of marine urban settlements as effective models of new urban
communities developed by three Japanese architects, Masato Otaka, Kiyonori Kikutake and Noraki
Kisho Kurokawa, during the early stages of their careers. Their affiliation with the avant-garde
movement of Metabolism, which had a relevant impact on the international architectural scene in the
early 1960s and which was related to the surge of the megastructural trend and the general post CIAM
fervor of the period, caused an important shift in their design methodology, which bought further
attention to the new modern Japanese architecture. In the few years since the late 1950s, several bold
schemes for marine cities and floating architectures were produced, showing a new approach in the
analysis of urban problems caused by uncontrolled urban growth. In analyzing some of their most
significant projects, such as Otaka and Kikutakes ideas for artificial land and Kurokawas research in
shipping containers as a base for his capsule architectures, this paper relates the architects to various
ideas, criticisms and insights taken from different sources and countries and also discusses their
relationship with the Japanese architectural context of the time.

Keywords: Marine City; Metabolism; Masato Otaka; Kiyonori Kikutake; Kisho Kurokawa

Introduction
Metabolism took much of its ideas and inspirations from the change in how the Japanese city
developed during the years of recovery after the end of the World War II. In 15 years, from the
conclusion of the conflict to the preparation for the World Design Conference in Tokyo in 1960, the
urban landscape, as well as the social, cultural and economic atmosphere of Japanese cities was
drastically reshaped. The themes of the Marine City and the construction of artificial lands, which
occupied most megastructural projects based on Metabolisms urban theories were related to the main
problems of Japan of that time, in particular the shortage of land for further urban growth and the
creation of new urban models that could fit the cultural transformation of modern Japanese society led
by the advancement of technology and economic prosperity from industrial development. The
creation of a new city built on artificial land into the sea relied widely on the use of the most modern
technology and sophisticated engineering techniques in order to face problems connected with the
protection of the city from natural disaster as well as those linked with the movement of energy supply
to support the urban functions of this type of urban settlement. The New Urbanism proposed by
some of the marine architectures developed by the architects of Metabolism, namely Otaka, Kikutake
and Kurokawa, sprang from a multiplicity of social and cultural factors which directly influenced their
intent to find a linkage between architecture and technology in order to propose an innovative urban

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environment where it was possible to enhance the quality of life in postwar Japan.

The growth of Tokyo in the bay
In April 1958, the Japan Housing Corporation (; hereafter JHC) proposed an extreme
solution to the land shortage problem within the administrative boundaries of the Tokyo Metropolis.
Their plan, following an already strong tendency to implement massive engineering projects to reclaim
land along the coastline of the major Japanese industrial port towns, was to fill and polder (following a
method already successfully used for centuries in Holland) the entire east side of Tokyo Bay, from the
Tsukiji District to the Boso peninsula, with the intent to create a total of 42,500 km
2
of new land.
Known as the Kuro Kano Proposal, after the JHC president who first presented the plan, this project
was conceived as the ultimate solution to Tokyos exceptional urban growth. From the very beginning
the plan seemed technologically and financially feasible, because there was sufficient technical
expertise for such a massive engineering project to be executed in the shallow waters of the bay, which
averages only 20m depth, and because of the supposed largely available capitals to support the project;
However, the lengthy time required to complete the reclamation work and the inevitable radical
changes to the natural coastline became a major deterrent for such an epic undertaking. But especially
harsh was the reactions of many architects and planners, who criticized the plan because it certainly
causes the total destruction of the natural environment of the harbor and eventually do little to limit
congestion and prevent Tokyo from further sprawling across the newly reclaimed lands. Indeed it was
in this context that new radical proposals for marine cites started to draw attention to new urban
prototypes built on artificial land.
The first to propose using offshore artificial islands as a total new marine urban habitats were the
architects Masato Otaka and Kiyonori Kikutake. Both of these young architects belonged to the avant-
garde architectural movement of Metabolism, which promoted its manifesto at the Tokyo World
Design Conference in 1960. Otakas Neo-Tokyo Plan - City on the Sea, and Kikutakes Marine
City schemes first appeared in late 1958 and in many ways acted as counterproposals to the Kano
Plan, which had been published only a few months earlier. Their schemes represented the beginning of
a completely new approach in Japanese urban design and architecture. They envisioned the extensive
use of high density and super-rise residential buildings on land reclaimed from the sea as an alternative
to the traditional low-rise suburban development complexes built outside the fringes of metropolitan
centers, and, coherent with a general trend of the time, investigated new ways to connect individual
pieces of architecture with the total urban system. Searching for ways to recreating the total image of
the city as a coherent, modern and functional composition of parts and whole, the two architects
conceived of housing, public services, industrial facilities and urban infrastructure as a comprehensive
and integrated urban structure, and focused especially on the design of multi-dwelling housing
prototypes and other mixed-use residential models. Both plans also became important precedents that
boosted further reflection and investigation into the nature of new urban settlements and modern
housing design in the following years, as they attempted to modernize the characters of the Japanese

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urban landscape, which at the time was largely composed of a fragmented and chaotic urban fabric of
traditional low roofs and low density wooden dwellings, with poor public services, limited private
spaces, and scant green areas.

Masato Otaka
The plan proposed by Otaka to ease the pressure of urban sprawl in Tokyo metropolitan area
considered the creation of a continuous system of artificial islands off the shore of Tokyo Bay.
Basically it was a proposal for an integrated system of port and industrial facilities and movement
networks, which expanded in a grid-like shape to connect clusters of residential blocks. The housing
complexes, even though there are just a few sketches that describe them, appear to be a revised version
of the Harumi Apartments block, which Otaka itself had just completed together with Kunio Maekawa,
for whom he had worked as project manager at the time. Interestingly, Otaka proposed to build the
buildings on piles directly into the water, using the city of Venice as model instead of the system of
dams used to build the Dutch cities, as correctly argued by Udo Kultermann (Kultermann, 1967), and
to link these self-contained communities blocks to the major urban transportation system, which was
devised as an extensive and ordered hierarchical web of streets and expressways intended to relieve
the vehicular traffic flow. The two key elements announced in the Neo-Tokyo Plan were the
importance of proposing a new model of mass housing typology which could enhance the quality of
life of its inhabitants through the advantages of modern technology, and the awareness of the new
scale of urban phenomena of the period, especially concerning the fundamental issue of the massive
movement of cars, goods and people, which called for an adequate response, in scale and dimension,
from the architects and planners.
Another aspect that had long lasting effect on the design methodology of Otaka, which was also
present in his plan for Tokyo Bay, was the idea of an artificial deck as a support on which to create
new space for building construction and urban expansion. This artificial land, a concept that in
modern architecture mainly originated with Le Corbusier and then became one of the recurrent themes
for the Japanese planners and especially the Metabolists, was conceived and represented in the
projects of Otaka as a sort of structural tray suspended above the ground, on which pure plastic
forms of high-rise slabs and towers were laid, with a compositional effect that denotes a predilection
for vertical zoning and compact urban organisms (namely a strong integration between single
buildings, open spaces and larger infrastructures). In the West Shinjuku Redevelopment Project, which
Otaka presented together with Fumihiko Maki as their contribution to the Metabolist Manifesto in
1960, all the main themes already present in the Tokyo Bay project of 1958 are further revised and
expanded. The new key concept of Group Form, which considers the relationship between parts and
whole in the city and denotes the idea that a harmonic urban form (neither static nor monotonous) is
derived from the simultaneous contribution of every individual building to create a group, and is
linked to the theme of artificial land and suspended decks, as well as to an urban vision of architecture,
in the sense of scale and the functions.

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Indeed in the plan for the West Shinjuku district, both architects proposed the creation of a multi-
nucleic functional area for commerce, business and entertainment pivoting around the fundamental
urban transportation node of Shinjuku (bus, tram, and subway interchanges and railway stations) in
order to maximize the advantages of the massive pedestrian and vehicular traffic flow. The artificial
ground is designed as a system of suspended decks (esplanades or urban podiums) and other open
public spaces which links the main zones of the districts and clearly and drastically separates the
pedestrian area from the car routes, parking lots and the rail transportation networks which are set
beneath it. The new urban dimension of the project reveals a design approach aimed at transforming
this critical urban interchange node of Tokyo into a mixed-use urban district filled with several modern
buildings conceived as a large scale system of interconnected but separated functions, according to a
design approach that had already been previously implemented with success by Junzo Sakaura in his
projects for the construction of Tokyu Department Store and the redevelopment of Shibuya Station
Square just a few years earlier (1954). The model for the Shinjuku project was again revised in the
Ohtemachi Plan in Kanda district (1963), a central business area in Tokyo which was reshaped into a
compact set of high-rise towers on an urban podium 12m high. But the concept of artificial land was
of course also devised to face the urgent issue of mass housing. The fast growth of Japanese cities and
the shortage of a sufficient amount of adequate housing for the working class, who fled from the
countryside into the industrial metropolises searching for jobs, prompted the Japanese government to
create a new initiative concerning housing policy based on the model of other Western countries to
mitigate the problem. And in this sense especially worth mention is the governmental sponsorship and
promotion since the 1950s of independent researches towards innovative solutions in housing design,
which stimulated the development of more or less successful housing schemes (danchi, kombinatos)
Fig. 1-2 Masato Otaka, Neo Tokyo Plan, 1958
(General plan and zoning detail)
Photos from: Kenchiku Bunka, N.148, February 1959

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from private professionals, private construction companies and semi-public bodies such as the JHC
(Waswo, 2002). The project designed by Otaka for a residential concrete apartments complexes mixed
with other facilities and shops built on artificial land in the Sakaide district (built between 1963-67)
was another answer to this fundamental problem of land scarcity, and showed his search for a new
image of the urban block (which indirectly also recall the English experience of Peter and Alison
Smithsons Street in the Air developed during the 1950s), as well as the ambition to spread a new
modern lifestyle integrated with Western values into Japanese society.

Kiyonori Kikutake
If Masato Otaka took what can be considered a realistic approach to the urgent urban problems of the
time, Kiyonori Kikutake chose apparently to avoid direct confrontation with the inextricable chaotic
mess of the ground, and rather proposed the development of new urban settlements in the vast
emptiness of the seas, in a way that is somewhat reminiscent of the model of ancient colonial cities.
Like similar marine projects, apart from the response to a contextual need for new land (like in the
case of the projects proposed by Otaka and Kenzo Tange for Tokyo Bay), this theme had the
undeniable advantage of freeing the architect from the tangible and real problems faced by the design
and construction of conventional architecture. And none of the other metabolists were more interested
in the design and development of several versions of marine architecture in the following years than
Kikutake. The two main project designed by him, which eventually became the flag of Metabolism as
architectural avant-garde in architecture and urban design, were the well known Marine City
Unabara and Tower Shape Community, both published as his contribution to the group manifesto
presented at the World Design Conference in Tokyo in May 1960. Based on the proposals Kikutake
had already prepared and published since late 1958, these models of new artificial habitat built in the
sea combined some of the ideas Kikutake will later explore and develop alongside almost more than 2
decades of research and design activity: the idea of vertical artificial land, the adoption of a system of
movable parts (capsules or mechanical devices) and fixed supporting structures with different cycles
of use, and the logic of disassembly taken from craftsman technology as the main pattern in
architectural design both for structure and utility. Driven by what he defined as the Replacement
Theory and the Rebirth Law, derived from his studies of the wooden systems of the traditional
Japanese architectures, Kikutake pioneered the construction of a new mechanical architecture and new
urban forms whose images and final form denied any direct inspiration from historical precedents.
Instead it was the world of industry and engineering construction, and in particular his strong
predilection for ocean and marine structures that became a powerful source of ideas. Beyond the final
form of his first model of the marine city, it is undeniable that many of the elements present in this
project, together with the also not-so-detailed drawings of the vertical community tower, represented
the complete summary of all the concepts which were subject for discussion and debate in the
architectural context of the time, namely the proposition of an artificial landscape in the sea made of
huge-scale constructions and built using advanced industrial methods. The rationalist idea of mass

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housing units as a cheap and easily built existenz minimum compact box is transformed into
residential cantilevered capsules supported by massive towers that served as tall and monumental
mixed-use vertical containers equipped with all sorts of urban services, creating a kind of direct
antecedent of what came to be termed megastructure in the 1960s.

Kikutake drew much of his inspiration form the reality of industrializing Japan during the post-war
reconstruction period, and witnessed the astonishing pace of urbanization and economic growth which
in turn caused many problems related to land and housing shortage and infrastructure development.
Marine City and Tower Shape Community Project can probably be seen as Kikutakes response to
a contextual necessity to address the growth of Japanese cities which asked for a strong integration of
housing, infrastructures and urban facilities, but on the other hand were certainly in direct response to
a contingent necessity to propose scheme for the growth of Tokyo as an alternative to the plan
proposed by the JHC. Even though the feasibility of Kikutakes marine structures was often
questioned, especially regarding the use of available technologies and the general lack of detailed
technical drawings of his projects (Banham, 1976), much research was already conducted and many
schemes were developed by intensive studies of the available ocean technologies and coastal
engineering projects of the time. There also appear to be an especially direct relationship between the
idea of building a city on the sea and the many reclamation projects undertaken along the waterfronts
of Japanese port cities since the late 1950s, aimed at reforming and enlarging the obsolete harbor
facilities and creating more artificial land for new industrial and housing complexes, as well as other
service facilities (Pernice, 2007). Over time the structural and formal image of the marine city evolved
with Kikutakes knowledge of the construction of marine and offshore structures, and he devised five
main conceptual schemes (namely the floating shaft, floating grid, floating mat, floating foundation
Fig. 3 Kiyonori Kikutake, Marine City, 1958
Photo from: Kindai-Kenchiku, Vol.14, N.5, May 1960
Fig. 4 Kiyonori Kikutake, Marine City, 1968
Sketches from: K. Kikutake: Concepts and Planning, 1978

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and floating unit) that led to several changes to the former project and which resulted in some projects
bearing a striking resemblance to offshore oil rigs, which probably were the most direct source of
inspiration. Whereas the first version of marine city was shaped as a movable floating artificial atoll
made of precast concrete which constituted the artificial land also adopted by Otaka as an urban
podium, the following models were designed as independent floating vertical shafts or many clusters
of shafts, and idea which Kikutake explained as inspired by the direct vision in 1962 of the FLIP
(Floating Instrument Platform) Vessel, a flipping scientific research ship of the San Diego
Oceanographic Institute. The vertical shape of this ship, with an evident resemblance to Tower Shape
Community, was the main structural model for Kikutakes urban marine projects until 1971, when he
was invited to join a research group at Hawai University that was pursuing a model for a marine city
as a group of floating modular units of platforms and towers. The last occasion for Kikutake to design
a large model of floating marine structure, but with a very limited size not comparable with that of a
city, was for the Okinawa Marine Expo in 1975. This last project witnessed the total change in the
formerly poetic and sometimes visionary idea of a new artificial habitat for the man on the sea into a
more pragmatic search for functional and experimental floating structures. The Marine Expo model
was shaped as a more conventional semi-submersible platform whose similarity with the current
offshore oil platforms was almost total, representing the end of a decade of research toward a new
model of urban settlement.

Noriaki Kisho Kurokawa
The youngest member of the Metabolist group and just a student under the supervision of Kenzo
Tange at the time of World Design Conference in Tokyo, Noriaki Kurokawa would eventually link his
name to many projects conceived in the spirit of a radical renovation of the traditional forms of
Japanese architecture. His studies and researches on modular coordination in architecture, aimed at the
development of new standard systems for the prefabrication of comfortable, cheap and easily movable
mass housing prototypes, were an important subject of debate and investigation in Japan at the time.
However his stance was oriented towards the massive implementation of the new advanced building
construction technologies and materials, as well as the search for totally new architectural forms and
compositional rules in urban design and city planning. Rejecting the typical architectural
developments of the recent past and the secular figurative tradition of the feudal Japan, Kurokawas
aim was to revolutionize the new architectural language of the nation during the period of postwar
reconstruction; Commenting several years after the completion on the Peace Center project in
Hiroshima designed by Kenzo Tange, later he admitted that: ...I found meaningless to attempt to
revive an already destroyed city by means of a monument; I felt that it was important to let the
destroyed to be and create a new Japan (Kurokawa, 1977). Indeed his interest was quickly drawn to
the architectural possibilities offered by the design of open industrialized construction systems and
building disassembly techniques for the development of any sort of prefabricated dwellings. The
functionalist, static and aseptic white box devised by the rationalists in Europe for mass production

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was revised by Kurokawa into a light, flexible cage of metal and plastic, marking his progressive
move from CIAM precepts towards new architectural suggestions inspired by the works of the
members of Team X. His studies of shipping containers, during a period which witnessed a
progressive growth of containerization following the economic boom that began in Japan and all
around the world in the late 1950s, created the background for long-lasting design activity and
theoretical research into the possibilities of using low-cost, movable and compact dwellings with a
limited life-span. This work culminated in the publication of Capsule Declaration in 1969 and his
capsule house for the Osaka Expo exhibition of 1970, (the design of the capsule was reminiscent of a
space station module, and perhaps was a tribute to the recent landing made on the Moon by NASAs
Apollo 11 mission in July 1969), an idea that was revisited again in the project for the capsule tower
Nagakin completed in 1972.

The importance of and the interest in the production of mass housing based on modern industrial
methods was a matter of concern in Japan as well as in Europe, where among the research conducted
in this field at the time, especially advanced results were accomplished in Holland thanks to the
studies of John Habraken in 1961. His work was shaped by the definition of the two concepts of
support and infill, and aimed to achieve a basic provision of built space, green areas, housing and
services in a compact urban system with a high degree of flexibility and material recyclability
(Habraken, 2001). According to Habrakens scheme, the support acts as a fixed sustaining frame or
skeleton (a kind of hardware) and the infill works as the changeable element of the system (like the
software) with the consequence that the design, construction and form of each element and the final
form of the completed structure can be completely free and changeable in time. Some strong analogies
can be thus made between Habrakens work and Metabolist changeable mega-architectures and cities,
and in particular with Kurokawas schemes for plug-in industrial architectures.
Kurokawa contributed to the Metabolist Manifesto with the design of a new model of an agricultural
city, a project strongly influenced by Peter and Alison Smithsons idea of the pedestrian deck as
featured in their Berlin Hauptstadt District Redevelopment (with the formal separation on two levels
of movement: a deck for people and a street for cars), then he prepared one of the most famous
Fig. 5-6 Kisho Kurokawa, Plan for Kasumigaura Floating City, 1961
Photos from: Kisho Kurokawa official website.

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metabolist urban plan named Helix City in preparation for the second publication of the Metabolist
Manifesto, scheduled for 1961 but never published. The helicoidally organic and dynamic shape of
this megastructural project and its visual emphasis on the streets and structural branches filled with
capsules, somewhat reminiscent of Louis Kahns project for Philadelphia City Hall, was actually a
further evolution of the plan for a floating community to be set on a lake in Kasumigaura, near Narita.
The project for this floating city (Kasumigaura Floating City), which was designed in the spirit of
the tabula rasa approach that animated many other megastructural proposals during the early 1960s,
was aimed at overcoming many of the frequent constraints present on firm land (such as private
property ownership, the presence of historical heritage, respect for local building codes, and so on),
and was the first scheme Kurokawa created as an artificial maritime habitat. It was formed by clusters
of several buoyant platforms shaped as a gigantic lotus floating on the surface of the water and
interconnected at the top by a vehicular highway which had the potential for endless extension and
growth. The vertical zoning, also present in Otaka and Kikutakes projects, is a recurrent solution for
maximizing the use of space, whereas the importance of the suspended deck of movement network as
a primary formal and structural connective device of the individual basic floating module echoes the
system (though not really the form) adopted by Tange in his Tokyo Plan 1960 to resolve the
fundamental problem of traffic flow and the shortage of housing and infrastructural facilities.
The single floating block was designed as a self-contained hollow frame whose branches support
hanging housing units which are capsules made of new building materials (such as welded steel,
concrete and plastic) connected beneath long strips of artificial land filled with greenery and public
spaces. The movement through the city was made possible by means of elevators and staircases
encased in the main structural frame; this structure supported the network of street on the top and the
intermediate residential housing area, which stood above the port zone set directly on the surface of
the water. Differently from Kikutake and Otakas proposals for a marine city, this model wasnt
supposed to be built offshore, but was instead connected to the land by an highway, creating an overall
formal image of expandable harbor platforms that anticipated a similar solution by Buckminster Fuller
in his project for Triton City, which was prepared first for Tokyo and then for Boston between 1963-
1968. Indeed during those years Kurokawa continued to design unbuilt urban and architectural
projects whose structure were intended to be in perennial movement and change, and his contribution
to the design of marine urban prototypes became an occasional one.
In 1969 Kurokawa also designed Metabonate, a model of a floating factory which still combines the
same compositional features of the previous years, without any new technical insight or formal
innovation. Only many years later, during the years of the Japanese economic bubble in the 1980s,
did Kurokawa return to design a large scale project for the urban reorganization of Tokyo called Neo
Tokyo Plan 2025 (1987), a scheme that was full of all the visionary qualities and features of his
previous proposals, but which failed to produce the deep and revolutionary impact on the design and
structural organization of the new urban system that had characterized his earlier projects.


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Conclusion
One of the main themes behind the proposal of a new urbanism, as stated in the Metabolist Manifesto
published in 1960, was to create and give meaning to a totally artificial environment as a distinctive
feature of the modern epoch. The artificial environment which eventually would replace the traditional
city and its historical memories was seen as the consequence of the contemporary process of social,
cultural and technological transformation led by the economic growth and cultural changes that
occurred after the last war. Especially in the case of Japan, the traumatic changes and the effect of
national shock after the countrys defeat had as a main consequence a period of deep collective
rejection of the memory of the recent past and history lasting several years. The source of inspiration
of the marine projects by Otaka, Kikutake and Kurokawa was found, as happened before to Futurism,
Constructivism and Bauhaus, in the world of advanced industrial technology and the structural
engineering which were extensively transforming the features of Japanese cites and the natural
landscape. In particular a special relationship appears to link the members of Metabolism with the
engineering projects for reclamation carried out in Tokyo Bay in the late 1950s and especially with
the processes of continuous technological devel opment and progressive industrialization of
construction methods applied to new marine structures as a base for devising and designing new
urban habitats. Surely in this sense the moment was t h e mo s t favorable towards new
experimentations and theoretical research, both because during the reconstruction Japanese cities,
unlike European cities for instance, retained a somewhat weak tie with most of the precedent
monumental and public architectures that were built in foreign styles, and also because the
phase of uncertai nt y aft er the definitive collapse of CIAM promot ed a peri od of bol d
experimentation in architecture, so that, as aptly noted in 1960 by critic Philip Johnsons, There
is only one absolute today and that is change. There are no rules, surely no certainties in any of the arts.
There is only a feeling of wonderful freedom, of endless possibilities to investigate, of endless past
years of historically great building to enjoy (Jencks, 1985).

Acknowledgment: this paper was written during a 2 years postdoc fellowship granted by the JSPS - Japan
Society for the Promotion of Sciences in 2007-2009. The present text has been re-edited by the author in May
2012.

Reference and Bibliography
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(,, , 1978).
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