CCNA in Short

CCNA
(640-607)

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CCNA

Cisco Certified Network Associate

Study Guide for the
640-607 Exam
2003
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CCNA
(640-607)

Pleaseread carefully

. This study guide has been created to cover the MAIN objectives of CCNA exam
(640-607).

. The topics of this study guide have been compiled to help readers to clarify &
illustrate the majority objectives of CCNA (640-607) exam based on Cisco's official
web site (not in the same order ):
http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/10/wwtraining/certprog/testing/current_exams/640
-607. html
. You MUST have at least a modest background in networking basics knowledge.

. The CCNA (640-607) study guide is designed to be a succinct, an exam review
guide that has to be used in conjunction with the links revealed on it.

. Don't just rely on what is written without pointing your web browser at the
mentioned links that are stated on this study guide. In other words, when you see
(Point your browser at the following link :); that means pointing your browser is a
MUST.
. Further Information links have been compiled to provide you excessive, deep, &
comprehensive details on particular topics (sometimes beyond the scope of CCNA
exam objectives).
However, you are not obliged to point your browser at such a link; unless you are
interested.
CCNA
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Table of Content

Please read carefully1
Definitions4
OSI model...4
Cisco IOS...4
Windowing..4
Acknowledgement...4
Flow Control...5
Connection-Oriented transport.....5
Connectionless transport..5
Half duplex communication..5
Full duplex communication...5
LLC...5
MAC address.....................................................................................................5-6
Unicast address...6
Multicast address....6
Broadcast address..6
Broadband..6
Baseband6
Collision..6
Collision domain...6
Broadcast domain7
Frame..7
Packet..7
Data Encapsulation7
CSMA/CD8
LAN..8
WAN.8
Hub...9
Repeater....................................................................................................................9
Bridge........................................................................................................................9
Brouter...9
Handshake....9
Three-way handshake....9
DCE.9
DTE..9
CSU10
DSU10
T1..10
IEEE 802 series...10
PAP.....10
CHAP..10
Port.10
OSI reference model & layered communication..11
Why using layered network model? ...........................................................................11
OSI layers functions11-12
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TCP/IP.13
DoD model..13
FTP..14
HTTP14
SMTP14
DNS..14
DHCP..14-15
SNMP...15
Telnet.15
TCP.15-16
UDP..16
IP..16
ICMP16
ARP...16
How information is packaged?.................................................................................17
Cisco model layers.17-18
IP addressing & Subnetting......19-22
Ethernet networking........23
What is Ethernet?........................................................................................................23
Ethernet connection media (802.3 standards).23-24
Ethernet types....25
Ethernet cables types..25
Half-and-Full duplex Ethernet.26
Icons used for networking devices27
Icons used for networks & network connections...27
Bridging/Switching28
What is a switch?.....................................................................................................28
Switches vs. Bridges...28
Switch function..28-29
Switch vs. hub29
STP...30
Switching modes..30-31
Cisco Catalyst switch series31
VLAN..32-33
Link types..33
ISL34
VTP...34
Router..35-40
WAN protocols...41-44
Cisco router & switch configurations.46-48
Useful Links.49

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: Def initions

Note: you MUST understand all the definitions that are stated below.
-------------------------------------

OSI model: Open System Interconnection- a system for organizing the exchange of
data across networks that is based on a seven layers model:
7. Application layer.
6. Presentation layer.
5. Session layer.
4. Transport layer.
3. Network layer.
2. Data Link layer.
1. Physical layer.

Cisco IOS: Cisco Internetwork Operating System which runs Cisco routers & some
Cisco switches but doesn't allow devices configurations.

Windowing: Windowing is when a receiving host tells the sending host how many
data segments it can receive between Acknowledgements. This amount of data is
called a window. Windowing can adjust its size of data depending on Network
resources. That means it's a maximum amount of data (in bytes) that the sending host
allows to send without expecting an acknowledgement from a receiving host (see
Fig.1).

Acknowledgement: (Cisco states that) notification sent from one network device to
another to acknowledge that some event occurred (for example, the receipt of a
message ). Sometimes abbreviated ACK.
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Flow Control: when a host receives a flood of data too quickly for it to process, it
stores it in a memory section called a buffer. This buffering action solves the problem
only if the data bursts are small & don't last long. However, if the data burst continues
it will eventually exhaust the memory of the receiving host & that will result in the
arriving data being discardedor lost. Flow control prevents a sending host from
overflowing the buffers in the receiving host.

Connection-Oriented transport: it uses acknowledgements & responses to
establish connections between sending & receiving hosts. When a receiving host
successfully receives a packet sent by the sending host, the receiving host sends an
acknowledgement back to the original sender to indicate to the sender that the packet
was successfully received at the receiving host. TCP & SPX are examples of
connection-oriented protocols.

Connectionless transport: Communication type that doesn't maintain active links
between senders & receivers. Messages are transmitted without acknowledgement
about the receiver being online.
For example, when you send an e-mail, your sending host assumes that the message
has been delivered to the receiving host without getting an acknowledgement from the
receiving host. IP, IPX, & UDP are examples of connectionless protocols.

Half Duplex Communication: It allows only a single node to transmit at a time.
There's always a dedicated sender & receiver, & when the sender is done the receiver
can switch roles in order to transmit. Both entities can't transmit at the same time.
Data travels in only one direction at a time, & it uses the same transmission
frequency.

Full Duplex Communication: it is more like a telephone conversation.
Communication happens in both directions at the same time. With type of networking,
a host can send data in one direction while acknowledgement of previously sent data
may be return to the same host at the same time. For example, when you are using a
telephone, it's possible for you to speak to a caller while he's talking to you.

LLC: Logical Link Control- it's responsible for identifying the Network layer
protocols & encapsulating them. The logic used on the Data Link layer includes
where data is meant to go, which computer sent data, & checking the overall validity
of the bytes sent. After a data frame was sent, the data link sends a frame & then waits
for a positive ACK. If one is not received, or if the frame was damaged, it sends
another one.
LLC provides a jumping point for going directly to upper levels in the OSI model. But
the common method of packet communication is still to move up through the layers
one at a time.

MAC Address: Media Access Control- every network interface card has an address,
which's usually assigned at the factory. This address is protocol-independent & is
often called the hardware address. The MAC address exists at the MAC sub-layer of
the OSI model.
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The MAC address is used on the Data Link layer where it identifies network devices
& computers. The MAC address itself is a 12 digit hexadecimal number burnedinto
the network card. 00-A0-24-34-8D-9C is an example of MAC address.

Unicast Address: One of the MAC addresses types that is unique to a single host.
When one host wants to send a message to a specific host, a unicast address is used.
For example, 00-A0-24-34-8D-9C is a unicast address.

Multicast Address: One of the MAC addresses types that is meant for multiple
hosts, but not all hosts, on a LAN. Multicast addresses are used in lieu of sending
multiple unicast messages that would take unnecessary LAN resources & broadcast
messages that would take unnecessary host resources.

Broadcast Address: One of the MAC addresses types that is used when a host wants
to send a message to every host on a LAN. The broadcast MAC address is represented
by 48 binary ones or 12 hex Fs (0xFFFFFFFFFFFF). A message sent to the broadcast
address is processed by every host that receives it.
Broadband: it is type of signaling that shares the cable with other signals on the
same cable. (Cisco states that) broadband describes facilities or services that operate
at the DS3 rate and above. For example, a Broadband DCS makes cross-connections
at the DS3, STS-1, and STS-Nc levels. Similarly, Broadband ISDN provides about
150 Mb/s per channel of usable bandwidth.
1. Transmission system that multiplexes multiple independent signals onto one cable.
2. Telecommunications terminology: Any channel having a bandwidth greater than a
voice-grade channel (4 kHz).
3. LAN terminology: A coaxial cable on which analog signaling is used. An RF
system with a constant data rate at or above 1.5 Mbps. Also called wideband.
Baseband: It's type of signaling in a digital form that uses the entire cable. In other
words, no other signals can be on (share) the same cable during a baseband
transmission. This's opposite of broadband, where multiple signals can be on (share) a
single cable at the same time.

Collision: (Cisco states that) in Ethernet (I'll explain it later), the result of two nodes
transmitting simultaneously. The frames from each device impact & are damaged
when they meet on the physical media.

Collision Domain: In Ethernet term is when a particular device on a segment sends
a packet & enforces each device on the same segment to pay attention to its sending
packet. Repeaters & hubs propagate collisions; but LAN switches, bridges, & routers
do not.
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Broadcast Domain: (Cisco states that) set of all devices that receive broadcast
frames originating from any device within the set. Broadcast domains typically are
bounded by routers because routers do not forward broadcast frames.
Frame: it's a logical grouping of information sent as a Data Link layer unit over a
transmission medium. Often refers to the header and the trailer, used for
synchronization and error control that surround the user data contained in the unit.
Packet: It's a Logical grouping of information that includes a header containing
control information & usually user data. Packets most often are used to refer to
network layer units of data. Packet consists of a certain number of data bytes.
Data Encapsulation: Encapsulation is the process of adding headers to data at each
layer of a stack. Data that is to be sent over a network starts at the Application layer
and moves down a protocol stack until it leaves a host at the Physical layer. At each
layer of a host's stack, a header is placed in front of the data. Your data combined with
a header or headers is a datagram. A datagram at layer 3 is called a packet; a packet
starts with a layer -3 header. A datagram at layer 2 is a frame; a frame starts with a
layer-2 header (frame header). (See Fig.2)
A datagram header provides a path up a stack toward an application. A header must
contain a data field that indicates the type of data encapsulated at the layer
immediately above the layer that adde d the header. For example, when your computer
receives web page from a web server, the header that immediately precedes the web-
page data must contain a field that indicates to your computer that the data being
received is meant for your web browser. Another example occurs when a host is
encapsulating a packet with a frame header at layer 2, the frame header must contain a
value that indicates what protocol is being spoken; this value could indicate what type
of layer -3 header immediately follows the layer-2 header in the frame.

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CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection is defined in IEEE
standard 802.3. This standard specifies how multiple computers can send messages
when they sense a live wire. If the messages hit each other, collision detection occurs,
& each node realizes that the message have been turned into gibberish. A random
amount of time is then allowed to pass before each node attempts a retransmission.
This standard is commonly known as Ethernet.
In other words, it's a media-access mechanism wherein devices ready to transmit data
first check the channel for a carrier. If no carrier is sensed for a specific period of
time, a device can transmit.
LAN: Local Area Network- a LAN is a network limited to a specific area, usually the
size of an office. LAN can't go outside the bound Aries of a single building. If the
network spans more than a single location, it becomes a WAN. LAN can be divided
into small logical areas called workgroup (see Fig. 3).

WAN: Wide Area Network- it's a computer network that can span severalbuildings,
cities, nations, or countries. The Internet is actually a specific type of WAN.
Some of WAN features are:
- Greater distance than LAN.
- Speeds are slower than LAN.
- Several choices of how the data can be transported.
- Possible to connect on demand or have a permanent connection.

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Hub: It's a device that operates on the Physical layer to distribute an inbound network
signal to many outbound connections. Hub broadcasts what it receives on one port to
all ot her ports (provides one broadcast domain). It can be active or passive.

Repeater: It's a device that regenerates the electrical signal coming from one port &
sends it out to another port. The repeater enables the cable length to be extended.
For example, with a repeater in a 100BaseT (its length=100 meters) network, you can
connect a second 100BaseT cable & extend the total allowable distance to 200 meters.

Bridge: It's a device that operates at the Data Link layer & is used to extend the
maximum reach of a network. A bridge makes two physical segments appear as one
network to the upper layers of the OSI model. Bridge permits communication that
would otherwise be stopped by a Router (I'll explain it later). In other words, if two
sites for instance on the same network use a protocol that's stopped by a router, then
the use of a bridge is warranted instead.
Bridges can connect dissimilar network types (Token Ring & Ethernet for instance) as
long as the bridge operates on the LLC sub-layer of the Data Link layer. If the bridge
operates at the MAC sub-layer (lower layer), in this case the bridge can only connect
similar network types (Token Ring with Token Ring, & Ethernet with Ethernet for
instance). Bridge provides one broadcast domain. Bridge looks up the frame
destination in its address table & sends the frame towards the destination.

Brouter: It's a device that has the characteristics of both a bridge & a router. It
operates on both the Data Link layer & Network layer. Brouter are mainly used to
connect different network topologies & bridge between them when the protocol being
used is NOT routable (for example, NetBEUI).

Handshake: (Cisco states that) It's a Sequence of messages exchanged between two
or more network devices to ensure transmission synchronization.

Three-way handshake: A TCP/IP connection is established when a client requests
the connection by sending a SYN packet to the server. Once the server receives the
request, it will respond with a SYN-ACK acknowledging the clients SYN packet.
Finally, the connection is established when the client sends anACK back to the server
completing the three-way handshake.

DCE: (Cisco states that) Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (ITU-T expansion).
Devices & connections of a communications network that comprise the network end
of the user-to-network interface. The DCE provides a physical connection to the
network, forwards traffic, & provides a clocking signal used to synchronize data
transmission between DCE & DTE devices. Modems & interface cards are examples
of DCE.

DTE: (Cisco states that) Data Terminal Equipment. Device at the user end of a user-
network interface that serves as a data source, destination, or both. DTE connects to a
data network through a DCE device (for example, a modem) and typically uses
clocking signals generated by the DCE. DTE includes such devices as computers,
protocol translators, & multiplexers.
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CSU: (Cisco states that ) Channel Service Unit- digital interface device that connects
end-user equipment to the local digital telephone loop. Often referred to together with
DSU, as CSU/DSU.
DSU: (Cisco states that) Data Service Unit- device used in digital transmission that
adapts the physical interface on a DTE device to a transmission facility, such as T1 or
E1. The DSU also is responsible for such functions as signal timing. Often referred to
together with CSU, as CSU/DSU.
T1: (Cisco states that) Digital WAN carrier facility. T1 transmits DS1 (Digital
Service 1) formatted data at 1.544 Mbps through the telephone-switching network,
using AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) or B8ZS coding.
IEEE 802 series: Institute of Electrical Engineers 802 subcommittees- it defines
different network communication protocols. The 802 subcommittees that define
networks & their traffic are the most well known. There are twelve 802 standards. For
example, 802.2 is the logical control; 802.3 uses CSMA/CD; 802.5is Token Ring.
Using these protocols, & depending on their MAC addresses, packets are directed to
their destinations.

PAP: Password Authentication Protocol uses plaintext (unencrypted) passwords & is
the least sophisticated authentication protocol. PAP is typically used if your
connection & the server cannot negotiate a more secure form of validation.

CHAP: The Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol negotiates a secure form
of encrypted authentication by using Message Digest 5 (MD5). A hashing scheme is a
method for transforming data (for example, a password) in such a way that the result
is unique & can't be changed back to its original form. CHAP uses challenge-response
with one-way MD5 hashing on the response. In this way, you can prove to the server
that you know the password without actually sending the password over the network.
Port: (Cisco states that) in IP terminology, an upper-layer process that receives
information from lower layers. Ports are numbered, and each numbered port is
associated with a specific process. For example, SMTP is associated with port 25. A
port number is also called a well-known address.
(Point your browser at the following link :)
http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci212811,00.html

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OSI Ref er enc e Model & Layer ed Communi c at i on

1. Why using Layer ed Networ k Model ?
- Reduces complexity.
- Standardized interfaces.
- Facilitates modular engineering.
- Allows various types of network (hardware & software) to communicate with each
other.
- Accelerates evolution.
- Allows multiple vendors development.
- Prevents changes in one layer from affecting the other layer.
- Simplifies teaching & learning.

2. Descr ibe the f unctions of each the seven l ayer s of
OSI model ?
Layer 7
The Applications layer is where all network applications run. These are the
applications that you use to send information, data, across the network, for example,
web browsers and servers & e-mail clients & servers.
Layer 6
The Presentation layer controls the formatting of data for your applications use. For
example, if the data is sound f rom a radio broadcast to which you are listening across
the Internet, the Presentation layer formats the data for the application that youre
using to receive the broadcast.
Layer 5
The Session layer handles the establishment & termination of communication
sessions. For example, when you login to your companys mainframe, a session must
be established for you to be able to talk to the mainframe, & when you logout, your
session is terminated.
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Layer 4
The Transport layer provides source-to-destination connection establishment for data
transfer. Over the connection, the Transport layer can provide multiplexing for upper
layer applications, hiding details from the higher layers, & establishing sessions.
Layer 3
The Network layer is the most important layer in r outing. The network layer contains
the address that routing software examines to determine where to route a message
across a network. Router & Brouter are layer 3 devices.
Layer 2
The Data Link layer is dependent on the medium to which a host is attached. The
Data Link layer links the data from the network protocol to the physical medium on
which it is to be transmitted. Data Link layer can provide flow control & error
notification. The IEEE Ethernet Data Link layer has two sub-layers: (MAC) 802.3 &
(LLC) 802.2. Switch (I'll explain it later) & Bridge are layer 2 devices.
Layer 1
The Physical layer defines the characteristics that belong to the type of physical
network connection on a host, for example, the cable type, the connector type, the
signal frequenc y, the signal level, & the maximum cable length. The Physical layer
determines exactly how bits (binary ones and zeroes) are transmitted and received on
a network. Active Hub & Repeater are layer 1 devices.
Layer
number
Layer Protocols or Connection
media used at this layer
7 Application HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP,
DHCP, DNS,etc
6 Presentation NetBIOS, XNS, & NCP
5 Session LDAP, NetBEUI,.etc
4 Transport TCP, UDP, NetBEUI, &
SPX
3 Network IP, IPX, SLIP ,..etc
2 Data Link ISDN, Ethernet, CSMA/CD,
Frame Relay, Token Ring,
FDDI, PPP, PPTP,..etc
1 Physical ISDN, 10Base(T, F, 5, 2),
100Base(T, X), UTP, STP,
Frame Relay.....etc (those
are connection media)

3. Def ine & expl ain TCP/ IP Inter net pr otocol s?
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Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) was developed for
Department of Defense (DoD) as the way of connecting dissimilar networks &
ensuring data integrity.

TCP/ IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol- this's the set of protocols
that is used to manage the transmission of messages over the Internet. TCP/IP works
by breaking the data into small packages. It transmits these packages to the various
networks on the Internet, & then reassembles them on receipt at their destination. TCP
is a connection-oriented protocol & IP is a connectionless protocol, together they
make an example of a protocol stack(see Fig. 4).
Some advantages of TCP/IP include:
1. Broad connectivity among all types of computers & servers.
2. Support DNS, DHCP, WINS.
3. Support routers.
http://www.yale.edu/pclt/COMM/TCPIP .HTM

DoD Model & OSI model
Every layer at DoD model corresponds to one/multiple layer(s) at OSI model:
OSI model DoD model
Process/Application layer -------------------->> Application/Presentation/Session layers
Host to host layer --------------------->> Transport layer
Internet layer ----------------------->> Network layer

Network Access layer --------------- ------->> Data Link/Physical layers

Fig.4 shows the TCP/IP protocol suite & how its protocols related to the OSI model:
TCP/ IP Protocol Stack OSI Model
.

4 . Fig
Fig.5 illustrates some of the TCP/IP protocol stack & how they are handled:
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5 . Fig
FTP: File Transfer Protocol- it is both a protocol & program. It transfers files between
two computers using the TCP/IP protocol. FTP is a simple protocol that transfers
complete files from an FTP server to an FTP client. It can't perform browsing
functions. Users must know the URL of the FTP server to which they wish to attach.
FTP is associated with port 21. ftp.mysite.com:21 For example,
HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol- an important protocol used when a browser is
connected to a web server. It governs the transfer of files, both text & multimedia,
across the web. It's based on the idea that files can contain links to other files which in
turn link to other files. Servers make requests, wait for the response, & then process
the received file using HTTP. HTTP is associated with port 80.
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol- it sends e-mails. Server to server transmission
uses SMTP. When you send a message from your client to server, SMTP is also used.
Dissimilar operating systems work with SMTP e-mail protocol, which originates from
TCP/IP suite. SMTP is associated with port 25.

DNS: Domain Name System- it resolves Internet domain names to IP address & vice
versa.
For example, www.certificationsuccess.comis resolved to 216.168.60.68 via a DNS
server. DNS resolves Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN); the mentioned URL
here is FQDN. Users & computers access servers & their shared folders via domain
names. DNS is associated with port 53.

TFTP uses port 69. http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/T/TFTP.html TFTP:
DHCP: (Microsoft states that) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a
TCP/IP standard for simplifying management of host IP configuration. The DHCP
standard provides for the use of DHCP servers as a way to manage dynamic allocation
of IP addresses & other related configuration details to DHCP-enabled clients on your
network.
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Every computer on a TCP/IP network must have a unique computer name & IP
address. The IP address (together with its related subnet mask) identifies both the host
computer and the subnet to which it is attached. When you move a computer to a
different subnet, the IP address must be changed. DHCP allows you to dynamically
assign an IP address to a client from a DHCP server IP address database on your local
network (see Fig.6):

Fig.6
For TCP/IP-based networks, DHCP reduces the complexity & amount of
administrator work involved in reconfiguring computers.

SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol- it's a network management standard
widely used in TCP/IP & IPX networks. SNMP provides a method of managing
network hosts such as workstation or server computers, routers, bridges, & hubs from
a centrally-located computer running network management software. SNMP is
associated with port 161. SNMP can be used to:
- Configure remote devic es.
- Monitor network performance.
- Detect network faults or inappropriate access.
Telnet: (Cisco states that) it's a standard terminal emulation protocol in the TCP/IP
protocol stack. Telnet is used for remote terminal connection, enabling users to log in
to remote systems and use resources as if they were connected to a local system.
Telnet is associated with port 23.

:) S Point your browser at the following link ( : TCP

TCP Overview
http://www.netfor 2.com/tcp. htm

TCP Header Format
http://www.freesoft. org/CIE/Course/Section4/8. htm

Further Information
http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/cgi-bin/rfc/rfc1379. html

http://www.ee.siue.edu/~rwalden/networking/tcp. html
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http://ironbark. bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/subjects/bitcne/1997/lectures/Lect03.html

UDP: User Datagram Protocol- it's a connectionless transport protocol in the TCP/IP
protocol stack. UDP is a simple protocol that exchanges datagrams, without
acknowledgments, windowing, or guaranteed delivery, requiring that error processing
& retransmission be handled by other protocols; therefore it lacks the reliable
delivery.
For example, if you were to send data across an Internetwork, it doesn't matter in what
order the pieces of your message arrive as long as it all arrives.
http://www.erg.abdn.ac.uk/users/gorry/course/inet-pages/udp.html

the protocol that hides the underlying physical network by it's - Internet Protocol : IP
creating a virtual network view. It is an unreliable, best -effort, & connectionless
packet delivery protocol. Note that best-effort means that the packets sent by IP may
be lost, arrive out of order, or even be duplicated.
http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/ip. htm

ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol- it is used to send control &
troubleshooting packets over an IP-based network.
For example, ICMP is used on Ping command, if you ping any station with an IP
address (ICMP echo request), the ICMP that is a part of the host's TCP/IP stack will
respond to the request (ICMP echo reply).

ARP: Address Resolution Protocol- it is used only on a LAN. Every transmission on
the LAN contains the local network, or MAC address of the source & destination
hosts. Routing can't be performed using the MAC address.
When a source does not know the MAC address of a non-local router, the source
issues an ARP request. A router that is connected to the same network as the source
picks up the ARP request. This router issues an ARP reply to the device that
originated the ARP request. The reply contains the MAC address of the non-local
router. Without the ARP request ever going beyond the local network, the source is
able to obtain the addressing information it needs in order to send data to devices
located on distant networks. In other words, ARP resolves IP address to Ethernet
address (MAC address).

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4. Expl ain how the inf or mation is packaged at the OSI
model ?

The information is packaged in this order:
. Data (at Application/Presentation/Session layers )
. Segment (at Transport layer)
. Packet (at Network layer)
. Frame (at Data Link layer)
. Bits (at Physical layer)

The OSI model defines layers, interfaces between layers, Protocol Data Units (PDUs)
for each layer, & protocols for each layer. Each layer of communication, on the
source computer, communicates with a layer-specific PDU, & with its peer layer on
the destination computer.
Data packets on a network originate at a source & are then sent to a destination. Each
layer depends on the service function of the OSI layer below it. To provide this
service, the lower layer uses encapsulation to put the PDU from the upper layer into
its data field; then it adds whatever headers & trailers the layer needs to perform its
function. Next, as the data moves down through the layers of the OSI model, headers
& trailers are added. After Layers 7, 6, and 5 have added their information, Layer 4
adds more information. This grouping of data, the Layer 4 PDU, is called a Segment.
The Network layer has the task of moving the data through the Internetwork. It
accomplishes this task by encapsulating the data within a header. This header contains
information required to complete the transfer, such as source & destination logical
addresses. The Network layer provides a service to the Transport layer by
encapsulating the data within a header & creating a Packet (the Layer 3 PDU.)
The Data Link layer provides a service to the Network layer. It encapsulates the
Network layer information in a Frame (the Layer 2 PDU); the frame header contains
information (such as, physical addresses) required to complete the data link functions.
The Physical layer also provides a service to the Data Link layer. The Physical layer
encodes the data link frame into a pattern of ones & zeros (B its) for transmission on
the connection medium (usually a wire) at Layer 1. (See also Data Encapsulation
explained earlier.)

5. Expl ain each of the thr ee l ayer s of Cisco model ?

Core layer
Routers connect to other core routers providing multiple paths over the backbone
between destinations. These routers carry the bulk of WAN traffic between the
distribution routers. Core routers are usually configured with several high speed
interfaces.

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layer Distribution
The distribution router functions as the main conduit for a location back to the core, or
the distribution router may act solely as a distribution router for a region or campus
managing only the transmission of data between the Core & the Access layers.

layer Access
The outer layer of the architecture is the Access layer. At this layer the end users gain
access to the network resources connected by the routers. Access routers also provide
remote dial-up connectivity for temporary connections.

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&& S Su ub bnne et tt ti inng g n ng g i i I IP P a addd dr re es sss

There are a limited number of IP addresses available to assign to every single machine
connected to the network. Therefore, IP networks are categorized by classes, &
subnetworks are used to solve several addressing problems such as, an organization
which has LARGE physical networks with only one IP address. IP address is a
software address, not a hardware address.
One part of IP address is designated as network address (uniquely identifies each
network), & the other part as a host address (uniquely identifies eachhost on a
network).

Network Classes
Format Maximum
Hosts per
Network
Default
Subnet Mask
Decimal
Range
Class
Network .Host.Host.Host 16,777,214 255.0.0.0 1-126 A
Network .Network.Host.Host 65,534 255.255.0.0 128-191 B
Network .Network.Network.Host 254 255.255.255.0 192-223 C
Multicast net 224-239 D
Reserved net 240-255 E

Note: The IP address 127. 0. 0.1 is reserved for loopback tests. In other words, when
you want to test (troubleshoot ) any host connectivity by using Ping command:
Ping 127.0.0.1
: Examples
1. Suppose you were provided the following IP address : 1 0.96.1.0?

- This's a class A, because the first octet in the given IP address is 10, so it falls within
the Decimal Range of class A (1-126).

- Since the first octet of class A is reserved for the network address according to the
class A format which' s Network.Host.Host.Host (based on the Default Subnet Mask of
class A which's 255. 0. 0.0), so the network address is 10

- The host address is the rest octets of the given IP address: 96.1.0

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2. Suppose you were provided the following IP address : 136.28 .92.55?

- This's a class B (136 falls within its Decimal Range 128-191).

- Network address : 136.28 (based on the Default Subnet Mask 255.255.0. 0, thus its
format is Network .Network.Host.Host).

- Host address: 92.55
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Suppose you were provided the following IP address : 192. 168.24.18 ?

- This's a class C (192 falls within its Decimal Range 192-223).

- Network address : 192.168.92 (based on the Default Subnet Mask 255.255.255. 0,
thus its format is Network .Network.Network.Host).

- Host address: 18

inary & B exadecimal, H ecimal, D between ing Convert
Note: You have to understand & memorize the powers of 2 for use with IP subnetting
(I replaced "to the power " with ** mark).

2**0 = 1
2**1 = 2
2**2 = 4
2**3 = 8
2**4 = 16
2**5 = 32
2**6 = 64
2**7 = 128

- Convert the decimal number 24032 to a hexadecimal number:
24032 / 16 = 16 into 24032 is 1502, with a remainder of 0
1503 / 16 = 16 into 1502 is 93, with a remainder of 14 or E
93 / 16 = 16 into 93 is 5, with a remainder of 13 or D
13 / 16 = 16 into 13 is 0, with a remainder of 3
By collecting all the remainders backward, we have the hexadecimalnumber 3DE0.

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- Convert the binary number 11000000 to a decimal number:
11000000 (Work from right hand side to left)
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
In this example, there are 0 values of 1 , 0 values of 2 , 0 values of 4 , 0 values of 8 , 0
values of 1 6 , 0 values of 32, 1 value of 64 , & 1 value of 128. There are no 1s, no
2s, no 4s, no 8s, no 16s, no 32s, one 64, & one 128. Added together, the values equal
192, therefore, the binary number 11000000 equals the decimal number 192.
- Convert the binary IP address 10101010.11111111.00000000.11001101 to a
decimal number:
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

128 + 32 + 8 + 2 = 170 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
To convert this IP address, start with the bit that is on the far left side in the first octet.
It is 1. You should know that the value of a bit in that position is 128; therefore the
decimal number starts with a value of 128. The next value is 0, so skip it; the third
value is 1. Any bit in that position has a value of 32; therefore you must add 32 to
128, which then equals a new value of 160. The fourth bit is 0; the fifth bit is 1, which
means that now you must add 8 to the current value of 160, giving you a total of 168.
The sixth bit is also 0, the seventh bit is 1, which means add 2 to the current value of
168. The last bit is 0, so you can skip it. The value for the first octet, after all the
numbers have been added, is 170.
The second bit from the left side equals 255 (give it a try!).

- Convert the first octet of 192.57.30.224 to a binary format :
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 = 192
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 11000000

The first step is to select the octet on the far left and determine whether the value is
greater than 128. In this instance (192), it is. Then place a 1 in that bit and subtract
128 from 192. The remainder is 64. The value of the next bit is 64, which is equal to
the value of the remainder, so that bit would be 1 as well. Subtract 64 from 64. The
remainder is 0; therefore the remaining bits would all be 0. The binary number for the
first octet would be 11000000.
57 = 111001, 30 = 11110 & 224 = 11100000.

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Private IP addresses
These types of addresses were designated to solve the explosive growth of the
Internet. Each device connected to the Internet needs its own "public" IP address. But,
what if there are several devices in your LAN that DON'T need to be connected
directly to the Internet?, thus, instead of assigning a public IP address for each of
these devices; InterNIC & IANA designated some IP address range as private
addresses (they can't directly access the Internet or receive data from the Internet).
10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 with a subnet mask 255.0.0.0
172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 with a subnet mask 255.240.0.0
192.168.0.0- 192.168.255.255 with a subnet mask 255.255.0.0

Subnetting
Network administrators sometimes need to divide networks, particularly large
networks, into smaller networks, called subnetworks, in order to provide extra
flexibility. Most of the time subnetworks are simply referred to as subnets.
Similar to the host number portion of class A, class B, & class C addresses, subnet
addresses are assigned locally, usually by the network administrator . Moreover, like
other IP addresses, each subnet address is unique. It is possible to break a class B IP
address into many subnets for instance.

(Point your browser at one or more the following linkS :)

http://www.learntosubnet.com

http://subnetting.tcp-ip.nu

http://www.ralphb.net/IPSubnet

http://compnetworking.about.com/library/weekly/aa043000a. htm
(Free Subnetting exams )

http://www.2000trainers.com/exams/subnetting

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Ethernet Networking
1. What is Ether net?
(Cisco states that) it's a baseband LAN specification invented by Xerox Corporation
& developed jointly by Xerox, Intel, & DEC. Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD & run
over a variety of cable types at 10 Mbps. Ethernet is similar to the IEEE 802.3 series
of standards.

2. List & descr ibe the Ether net connection media types
(802.3 standar ds) at Physical l ayer?

Before starting to list, you have to know some specifications for cabling system:

- The Ethernet naming convention is #BaseN (where # refers to the speed in Mbps,
Base refers to Baseband, & N refers to the type of cable).
For example, 100BaseT
100: 100 Mbps
Base: Baseband
T: stands for Twisted pair, which means it can go to 100 meters.

- RJ: Registered Jack- (Cisco states that) standard connectors originally used to
connect telephone lines. RJ connectors are now used for telephone connections & for
10BaseT & other types of network connections. RJ-11 (telephone connector ), RJ-12,
& RJ-45 (Ethernet connectors) are popular types of RJ connectors (see Fig. 7).

7 . Fig

- UTP: Unshielded Twisted Pair sheathing type- it is used for Category 3 & Category
5 wires. The most common use for UnshieldedTwisted Pair cable is Ethernet (see
Fig.8).

- Category 3 : It's a data grade physical medium. Category 3 consists of four twisted
pairs, with three twists per foot. It rates up to 10Mbps.

- Category 5 : It's the current standard of wire that's run from wire closets to desktops .
It consists of four twisted pairs & is rated for up to 100Mbps.

- Fiber Optic cables: The highest performing structured cabling systems use fiber
optics. These systems offer many advantages over copper-based systems. Since fiber
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optics use light pulses instead of electrical signals for transmitting information, there
is no concern for EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) or RFI (Radio Frequency
Interference).
Transmission distances are greater because light pulses lose energy much more slowly
than electrical signals. Fiber also offers a much greater bandwidth than copper cables
(see Fig. 8).

- Coaxial cable : It's a thick cabling that's commonly housed in a black sheath (see
Fig.8). There are thinnet version (10Base2) & thicknet version (10Base5).

8 . Fig

Ethernet media types
Maximum Length
(meters )
Category Type IEEE 802.3
standards
100 3 UTP 10BaseT
185 UTP 10Base2
500 UTP 10Base5
100 3, 4, or 5 UTP (Fast
Ethernet)
100BaseT4
100 5, 6, or 7 UTP 100BaseTX
100 UTP 100BaseVGAnylan
412 Fiber cabling 100BaseFX
25 Copper shielded
twisted pair
1000BaseCX
10000 Fiber cabling
(Laser)
1000BaseLX
260 MMF 1000BaseSX
100 5 UTP 1000BaseT

Note: 100BaseVGAnylan is very rarely used now.
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3. What ar e the types of Ether net f r ames at Data Link
l ayer ?
. Ethernet_| |
. IEEE 802. 2
. IEEE 802.3
. SNAP
http://www.yale.edu/pclt/COMM/ETHER.HTM

4. State Ether net cabl es types?

Crossover cable: Four wires are used in this type to connect devices (see Fig.9). You
use this type of Ethernet cabling if you want to connect:
- Hub to another hub.
- Hub to a switch.
- Switch to another switch (uplinks).
- Router interface to another router interface.
- Host to host without using a hub or a switch.

Straight-Through cable : Four wires are used in this type to connect devices (see
Fig.9). You use this type of Ethernet cabling if you want to connect:
- Host to hub or switch.
- Server to hub or switch.
- Router to hub or switch.

9 . Fig

Rolled cable : Eight wires are used in this type to connect serial devices. You use this
type of Ethernet cabling if you want to connect:
- Host to a router console serial communication (com) port.

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5. What is the dif f er ence between Hal f - dupl ex & Ful l -
Dupl ex Ether net?

Half-duplex Ethernet:
- It uses one wire pair with digital signal running in both directions.
- It uses CSMA/CD.
- You use this type if you want to connect a hub to a switch (10BaseT).

Full-duplex Ethernet:
- It uses two wires pairs.
- It uses point-to-point connection between sending host & receiving host.
- There are no collisions.
- You use this type if you want to connect:
. Host to a switch.
. Switch to a switch.
. Host to host (by using crossover cable).
Further Information

http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/ethernet. htm
http://www.techfest.com/networking/lan/ethernet. htm

http://www.networkuptime.com/faqs/ethernet

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): 10 . see Fig ( Icons used for networking devices .

10 . Fig
see ( used for networks & network connections s Icon .
): 11 . Fig

11 . Fig

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witching S / Bridging

1. What is a switch?
A switch is a layer 2 device that directs (looks up) frames according to their MAC
addresses.

2. State the simil ar ities & contr asts between switches
& br idges?

- Switches & bridges make forwarding decision based on layer 2 addresses.
- Switches & bridges don't break up broadcast domains by default.
- Switches & bridges forward layer 2 broadcasts.
- Switches are hardware based (use the MAC address ), while bridges are software
based.
- Switches have higher number of ports than most bridges.
- Switches can have many STPs (Spanning Tree Protocols), while bridges have one
only.

3. How does l ayer 2 switch f unction?

When you turn on the layer 2 switch at the first time, its MAC address table is empty.
Now consider four hosts connected to a layer 2 switch as shown in Fig. 12:

- Address learning.
- Forward/Filter decisions .
- Loop avoidance.
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12 . Fig

1) Host A sends a frame to host C.
2) Switch's MAC address table was empty before host A sends that frame. But now it
has the MAC address of host A.
3) Switch has no idea about the MAC address of host C (it doesn't have the
destination's MAC address in its MAC address table) in order to forward that frame.
4) Switch broadcasts that frame to all hosts within its segment asking the destination's
MAC address.
5) Host C receives that frame & replies with its MAC address. Switch's MAC address
table places the destination's MAC address.
6) Frames now will be received by both host A & C only as point-to-point connection.
Other hosts will not be able to see the frames (collision domain). As well as, their
MAC addresses are not placed in the switch's MAC address table yet because they
didn't send a frame to the switch.

4. Why is l ayer 2 switch better than the hub in
Ether net LAN networ ks?
Switch provides one broadcast domain with multiple collision domains which means
a network segment with several Ethernet devices sharing the same bandwidth (see
Fig.13). Each port of a switch has its own separate collision domain, which means
more network segments & bandwidth increasing for each host. Unlike hub which
provides one broadcast domain only without collision domains .

13 . Fig
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5. Def ine & expl ain STP oper ation?

Spanning Tree Protocolwhich is used to stop an infinite network loops & shut down
any redundant links from occurring on bridges & layer 2 switches which can cause a
broadcast storm (an undesirable network event in which many broadcasts are sent
simultaneously across all network segments. A broadcast storm uses substantial
network bandwidth & typically causes network time-outs).
(Cisco states that) bridge protocol that uses the spanning-tree algorithm, enabling a
learning bridge to dynamically work around loops in a network topology by creating a
spanning tree. Bridges exchange BPDU (Bridge Protocol Data Unit) messages with
other bridges to detect loops, & then remove the loops by shutting down selected
bridge interfaces.

: Function

- Selecting the Root Bridge: The bridge ID is selected based on the default priority of
the device (= 32,768). Otherwise, the lowest device's MAC address will be taken into
consideration in case the two devices having the same priority.

- Selecting the Designated Port: If there's more than one link connected to the root
port, a port cost will be taken into consideration to determine which port will be the
root port. However, each direct connection to the root bridge will be a root port.

- Selecting the Blocked port: it must be done by shutting down the redundant link to
avoid infinite network loops based on bridge ID as well. (For example, if there are
two switches D & E, one of them must be shut down, & referring to the Blocking Port
mode, switch E would be blocked).

: STP modes

- Blocking: A blocked port doesn't send frames, but can listen to the BPDUs.
- Listening: Port listens to the BPDUs in order to make sure that there are no infinite
network loops occur.
- Learning: Port learns all the paths in the switched network.
- Forwarding: Port sends & receives data.
- Disabled: Port doesn't participate in the frame forwarding or STP.

6. Distinguish between cut -thr ough, f r agmentf r ee, &
stor e-and-f or war d LAN switching?

LAN switching types determine how the frame is handled when it's received on the
switch port. Switching modes are:

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Cut-through: (Cisco states that) a packet switching approach that streams data
through a switch so the leading edge of a packet exits the switch at the output port
before the packet finishes entering the input port. A device using cut-through packet
switching reads, processes, & forwards packets as soon as the destination address is
looked up & the outgoing port is determined.

FragmentFree : Also called modified cut-through. A switch checks the first 64 bytes
of a frame before forwarding it for fragmentation. This mode is a default mode for
Catalyst 1900 switch.

Store -and-forward: (Cisco states that) packet-switching technique in which frames
are completely processed before being forwarded out the appropriate port. This
processing includes calculating the CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check ) & checking the
destination address. In addition, frames must be stored temporarily until network
resources (such as an unused link) are available to forward the message.

7. Name some of Cisco Catal yst switch pr oducts ser ies?

- Cisco 1548 Micro switch 10/100.
- Catalyst 1900/2820 series.
- Catalyst 2900 series XL.
- Catalyst 3000 series.

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8. Descr ibe the oper ation & benef its of VLANs?
Virtual LAN. (Cisco states that) it's a group of devices on one or more LANs that are
configured (using management software) so that they can communicate as if they
were attached to the same wire, when in fact they are located on a number of different
LAN segments. Because VLANs are based on logical instead of physical connections,
they are extremely flexible.
(Cisco states that) A VLAN is defined as a broadcast domain within a switched
network. Broadcast domains describe the extent that a network propagates a broadcast
frame generated by a station. Some switches may be configured to support a single or
multiple VLANs.
Whenever a switch supports multiple VLANs, broadcasts within one VLAN never
appear in another VLAN. Switch ports configured as a member of one VLAN belong
to a different broadcast domain, as compared to switch ports configured as members
of a different VLAN. Creating VLANs enables administrators to build broadcast
domains with fewer users in each broadcast domain.
This increases the bandwidth available to users because fewer users will contend for
the bandwidth. Routers also maintain broadcast domain isolation by blocking
broadcast frames. Therefore, traffic can pass from one VLAN to another only through
a router. Normally, each subnet belongs to a different VLAN. Therefore, a network
with many subnets will probably have many VLANs. Switches & VLANs enable a
network administrator to assign users to broadcast domains based upon the user's job
need. This provides a high level of deployment flexibility for a network administrator .
Advantages of VLANs include the following:
. Segmentation of broadcast domains to create more bandwidth.
. Additional secur ity by isolating users with bridge technologies.
. Deployment flexibility based upon job function rather than physical placement.
. Increasing the number of broadcast domains while decreasing their size.

Now, after you knew that VLAN breaks up a broadcast domain which's provided by a
layer 2 switch into several small broadcast domains & that would increase security &
bandwidth.
For example, suppose you have created two VLANs for two departments as shown in
Fig.14.

Network address /subnet
mask
Department VLAN number
192.168.10.0/24 Engineering 1
192.168.40.0/24 I.T 2
.
Note: Instead of writing subnet mask as 255.255.255. 0, Cisco developed a for mat of
writing any subnet mask by counting the 1s of it (after converting the subnet mask to
a binary number), so in this case the subnet mask would be 24 (since the subnet mask
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contains 24 ones). Another example, convert the subnet mask 255.255.224.0 to a
Cisco format, after converting this subnet mask to a binary number, the result will be:
11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000, so when you count the number of 1s in
here you will get 19 which's the default subnet mask in Cisco format.

14 . Fig

Now, if you want to add a new user to an I.T department (VLAN 2), & this new user
is physically located in the Sales department for instance, you can assign the needed
port of this user in VLAN 2 (logically) without needing to shift him (physically) to
the I.T department. But, correct IP address information must be taken into account in
order to logically assign a device to a VLAN's port. For our example, the IP address
information of the new user must be in the same range as network address of VLAN 2
(192.168.40. 0/24), as well as, each host in VLAN 2 must be configured into the
192.168.40.0/24 network. However, this applies to every VLAN in the network.
In our case, the new user can be assigned 192.168.40.5/24 for instance.

9. State the two dif f er ent types of l inks in a switched
networ k?

- Access link.
- Trunk link: It's a 100 or 1000Mbps (10Mbps is not an option) point-to-point link
between:
. Switch & a server.
. Switch & another switch.
. Switch & a router.

ftp://ftp.netlab. ohio-state.edu/pub/jain/courses/cis788-
97/virtual_lans/index. htm#Connections
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10. How can hosts communicate between dif f er ent
VLANs?

As in our previous example (Fig. 14), VLAN 1 can communicate with VLAN 2 by
using a layer 3 device (Router ). You can use a router with multiple interfaces for each
VLAN (in our example, two interfaces are needed) with 10BaseT or Fast Ethernet
connections.
But, what if we have dozens of VLANs, & they are more than router interfaces
available for instance?!. We can use a router that supports ISL (Inter Switch Link )
routing on one Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet links only. ISL routing is supported
in the 2600 series router or higher (1600, 1700, & 2500 series don't support it ).
Otherwise, you may buy a RSM (Route Switch Module) for a 5000 series switch.

Note: ISL is proprietary to Cisco switches.

11. Expl ain VTP (VLAN Tr unk Pr ot ocol )?

http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/473/21. html

Further Information

http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/lanswtch.htm

ftp://ftp. netlab. ohio-state.edu/pub/jain/courses/cis788-97/virtual_lans/index. htm

http://net21. ucdavis.edu/newvlan.htm

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Router

1. What is a r outer ?
In networking, there are two addressing schemes: one uses the MAC address, a data
link (Layer 2) address; & the other uses an address located at the network layer (Layer
3) of the OSI model. An example of a Layer 3 address is an IP address. A router is a
type of internetworking device that passes data packets between networks, based on
Layer 3 addresses. A router has the ability to make intelligent decisions regarding the
best path for delivery of data on the network.
(Cisco states that) it's a Network layer device that uses one or more metrics (low cost)
to determine the optimal path along which network traffic should be forwarded.
Routers forward packets from one network to another based on network layer
information. Occasionally called a gateway (although this definition of gateway is
becoming increasingly outdated).

2. What is a r outer inter f ace?

A routers attachment to a network is called aninterface (network connection); it may
also be referred to as a port. In IP routing, each interface must have a separate, unique
network (or subnetwork) address. (See Fig. 15)
- S0 (Serial interface, 0 is an interface number).
- E0 (Ethernet interface, 0 is an interface number).
- F0/0 (Fast Ethernet interface).

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15 . Fig
3. Def ine Consol e por t & Auxil iar y por t on a Cisco
r outer ?

- Console port : It's an RJ-45 connection port on the back of a Cisco router (usually)
& switch that allows CLI (Command Line Interface).

- Auxiliary port: It can be the Console port as well on the back of Cisco router that
allows dialing the router by configuring modem commands & make console
configuration settings if the router is down.

http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/779/smbiz/service/knowledge/pinouts/ios_conaux.
htm
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. What ar e the r outer modes?

- User mode : It is used to view statistics. However, after you press Enter in the CLI,
the Router> prompt will appear, which means you are in the User mode.

- Privileged mode : It is used to view & change a Cisco router configuration.
However, when Router# prompt appears, that means you are in the Privileged mode.

- Global configuration mode : It is used to change the whole router running-
configuration. However, when you type config t (configure terminal) in the privileged
mode (Router#config t ), the Router (config)# prompt appears, which means you are in
the Global configuration mode.

5. Dif f er entiate between r outed and r outing
pr otocol s?

You know that protocols are like languages. IP is a network layer protocol, however,
IPs can also provide fragmentation, & reassembly. Because IP is routed over an
Internetwork, it is called a routed protocol. Examples of other types of routed
protocols:
. IPX
. Appletalk

Routers use routing protocols to exchange routing tables & share routing information.
In other words, routing protocols are protocols that determine how routed protocols
get routed. Examples of routing protocols:
(Routing Information Protocol) RIP .
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(Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) IGRP .
(Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) EIGRP .
(Open Shortest Path First) OSPF .

Routing protocols enable routers to draw a map, internally, of the entire Internet for
the purposes of routing. Such maps become part of each router's routing table.

6. Descr ibe the Administr ative Distance f or r outing
pr otocol s?

(Cisco states that) rating of the trustworthiness of a routing information source.
Administrative distance often is expressed as a numerical value between 0 and 255.
The higher the value, the lower the trustworthiness rating. Administrative Distance
abbreviated AD.
Default AD
Default AD Route Source
0 Connected interface
1 Static route
90 EIGRP
100 IGRP
110 OSPF
120 RIP
255 Unknown

7. Descr ibe the cl asses of r outing pr otocol s?

- Distance Vector: (Point your browser at the following link :)
http://www.firewall.cx/distance_vector.php
- Link State : For example, OSPF. It creates three separate tables :
. A table that keeps track of directly attached neighbors to the router.
. A table that determines the entire Internetwork topology.
. A table that is used as a routing table.

- Hybrid: It uses both Distance Vector & Link State protocols (for example, EIGRP).

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8. Descr ibe RIP (r outing inf or mation pr otocol )
f eatur es?

- Distance Vector routing protocol.
- Only metric is number of hops.
- Maximum number of hops is 15.
- Updates every 30 seconds.
- Doesn't always select fastest path for packets.
- Generates lots of network traffic with updates.

Note: (Cisco states that) a hop is a Passage of a data packet between two network
nodes (for example, between two routers). Hop count is a Routing metric used to
measure the distance between a source & a destination. RIP uses hop count as its sole
metric. Routing metric is a method by which a routing algorithm determines that one
route is better than another. This information is stored in routing tables. Metrics
include bandwidth, communication cost, delay, hop count, load, MTU (Maximum
Transmission Unit), path cost, & reliability. Sometimes referred to simply as a metric.

9. Descr ibe IGRP (Int er ior Gat eway Rout ing Pr ot ocol )
f eatur es?

IGRP was developed specifically to address problems, associated with routing in
larger networks that were beyond the scope of protocols such as RIP (maximum hop
count is 15). Like RIP, IGRP is a distance vector protocol; however, when
determining the best path, it also takes into consideration such things as bandwidth,
load, delay, MTU, & reliability. The maximum hop count of IGRP is 255.

10. Def ine Conver gence?

It's the time it takes a router to recognize a network topology change, calculate the
change within its own table & then distribute the table to adjacent routers. The
adjacent routers then perform the same functions. The total time it takes for the
routers to begin using the new calculated route is called the convergence time. The
time for convergence is critical for time-sensitive traffic. If a router takes too long to
detect, recalculate & then distribute the new route, the time-sensitive traffic may
experience poor performance or the end nodes of the connection may then drop.

11. How can we avoid r outing l oops?

CCNA
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http://www.firewall.cx/distance_vector.php

12. Descr ibe t he basic Cisco r outer components?

Bootstrap
The main purpose of Bootstrap is to boot the router & then load IOS.

POST
(Power-On Self Test) is used to check the basic router functions of the router
hardware & determines the presented interfaces.

Memory
All computers have memory of some type. Cisco routers have four main types of
memory:
(Read-Only Memory) ROM
Flash Memory
(Random-Access Memory) RAM
(Non-Volatile RAM) NVRAM
Of each of these types, RAM is the only one that loses its contents when the router is
booted or power-cycled. The following sections briefly describe the primary purpose
of each memory type on Cisco routers :
ROM
ROM is where a routers bootstrap software is normally stored. The bootstrap
software is the first software that runs; it has the responsibility of getting the router
going.
Flash
Flash memorys primary purpose is to store the IOS software that the router is to run.
If a router has flash memory, then flash memory is the default location of the IOS
software used to boot the router. With enough flash memory, multiple IOS images can
be stored to provide multiple boot options.
RAM
RAM is used for too many things to list, but two of the things are IOS system tables
& buffers. The IOS uses RAM for all of its normal, operational storage requirements.
NVRAM
The primary purpose of NVRAM is to store the configuration that the IOS reads when
a router boots. This configuration is called the startup conf iguration.

Configuration register
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It is used to control how the router boots up. It can be noticed by typing show version
command in CLI (0x2102). However, this tells the router to load IOS from flash
memory.

13. Descr ibe r outer star t-up sequence?

1) POST.
2) Bootstrap.
3) IOS software looks for a valid configuration file stored in NVRAM.
4) If startup-config file in NVRAM, the router loads. However, if not, the router starts
the setup mode configuration.

Further Information
http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/rip. htm
http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/103/5.html
http://www.firewall.cx/link_state.php
http://www.idir. net/~adrian/ip_tutor/trouble/RtLoop. html
http://www.networkcomputing.com/715/715wsrip. html
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WAN Protocols
1. Def ine WAN ter ms?
- CPE
- Demarc
- Local loop
- CO
http://personal. hartfordschools.org/~stephen/library/network_primer/appendix_c.html
2. Expl ain key Fr ame Rel ay ter ms and f eatur es?

Frame relay is based on a packet-switched data network. The differential of frame
relay to previous packet-switched networks like X. 25 is that frame relay switches a
frame versus a packet. Frame relay has considerable low overhead & its speed
through the network is in part to not insuring delivery of data. Frame relay as a WAN
network solution grew due to the low cost for acceptable performance as compared to
leased-line WAN solutions. An optimal frame relay network design is based on the
following:
. Balancing the cost savings of using a public network with the business performance
requirements.
. A scalable WAN design founded in a manageable environment.
. Utilizes a hierarchical design.

Components for creating a scalable frame relay network designs are:
. The adherence to the three-layer router model of Core, Distribution & Access
layers.
. Overall hierarchical design.
. Implementing various mesh topology design.
. Addressing protocol broadcast issues.
. Addressing performance concerns .
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Frame relay design is based on permanent virtual connections (PVCs). A PVC is
identified using a Data Connection Link Identifier (DLCI) number. Multiple PVCs are
possible over a single physical communication link. Using this ability, a single link
can communicate with multiple locations.
Due to the nature of frame relay services through PVCs, hierarchical designs are more
logical than physical in definition. Each PVC may be guaranteed bandwidth
parameters called committed information rate (CIR). The CIR is an agreement with
the frame relay provider for a minimum throughput for the PVC.

3. Dif f er entiate between the f ol l owing WAN ser vices:
LAPB, Fr ame Rel ay, ISDN/ LAPD, HDLC, PPP, and DDR?

http://www.geocities.com/ciscosite/ccna/wanprotocols. html# 8

- LAPB: (Cisco states that) Link Access Procedure, Balanced. Data Link layer
protocol in the X. 25 protocol stack. LAPB is a connection-oriented protocol derived
from HDLC.

- Frame Relay: (Cisco states that) Industry-standard, switched Data Link layer
protocol that handles multiple virtual circuits using HDLC encapsulation between
connected devices. Frame Relay is more efficient than X. 25, the protocol for which it
generally is considered a replacement.

- ISDN/LAPD: (Cisco states that) Integrated Services Digital Network .
Communication protocol offered by telephone companies that permits telephone
networks to carry data, voice, & other source traffic. LAPD is a Link Access
Procedure on the D channel. ISDN data link layer protocol for the D channel. LAPD
was derived from the LAPB protocol & is designed primarily to satisfy the signaling
requirements of ISDN basic access.

- HDLC: (Cisco states that) High-Level Data Link Control. Connection-oriented
synchronous data link layer protocol developed by ISO. Derived from SDLC, HDLC
specifies a data encapsulation method on synchronous serial links using frame
characters & checksums.

- PPP: (Cisco states that) Point-to-Point Protocol. Successor to SLIP that provides
router-to-router & host-to-network connections over synchronous & asynchronous
circuits. Whereas SLIP was designed to work with IP, PPP was designed to work with
several network layer protocols, such as IP, IPX, & ARA. PPP also has built-in
security mechanisms, such as CHAP & PAP. PPP relies on two protocols: LCP (Link
Control Protocol) & NCP (Network Control Program).

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- DDR: Dial-on-Demand Routing uses switched circuit connections through public
telephone networks. Using these switched circuits allows Cisco routers to provide
reliable backup and bandwidth optimization between locations. The features
supported by Cisco DDR include:
. POTS via an external modem
. SW56 via an external CSU
. ISDN (BRI and PRI) via integrated ISDN interfaces or external terminal adapters
. Dial backup
. Supplementary bandwidth
. Bandwidth-on-demand
. Snapshot routing
. Multiprotocol routing & transparent bridging over switched circuits
. ISDN fast switching
. Asynchronous ISDN access

(Cisco states that) Dial-on-Demand Routing. Technique whereby a router can
automatically initiate & close a circuit-switched session as transmitting stations
demand. The router spoofs keepalives so that end stations treat the session as active.
DDR permits routing over ISDN or telephone lines using an external ISDN terminal
adaptor or modem.

4. Identif y PPP oper ations to encapsul ate WAN data on
Cisco r outer s?

PPP was designed to be used over point-to-point links. In fact, it's the prevalent IP
encapsulation scheme for dedicated Internet access as well as dial-up access. One of
the significant strengths of PPP is its ability to negotiate a number of things upon
initial connection, including passwords, IP addresses, compression schemes, &
encryption schemes. In addition, PPP provides support for simultaneous multiple
protocols over a single connection, an important consideration in those environments
where dial-up users can employ either IP or another network Layer protocol. Finally,
in environments such as ISDN, PPP supports inverse multiplexing & dynamic
bandwidth allocation via the Multilink-PPP.
The operation of PPP is basically as follows:
1) After the link is physically established, each host sends LCP (Link Control
Protocol) packets to configure & test the data link. It's here where the maximum
frame length, authentication protocol PAP (Password Authentication Protocol), or
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CHAP (Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol), & other configuration
parameters are negotiated. Authentication, if it used, will occur after the link has been
established.
2) After the link is established, one or more Network Layer Protocol connections are
configured using the appropriate NCP. Once each of the Network Layer Protocols has
been configured, datagrams from those protocols can be sent over the link. Control
protocols may be used for IP, IPX, DDP (AppleTalk), DECnet, & more.
3) The link will remain configured for communications until LCP &/or NCP packets
close the link down.

5. Identif y ISDN pr otocol s, f unction gr oups, r ef er ence
points, & channel s?

http://www.cicprep.com/WebHelp/ccna/ccna_obj_ 14. htm

6. Descr ibe br ief l y some of wan technol ogies & their
uses?
Typical Uses WAN Technology
Analog modems are typically used for
temporary dial-up connections or for
backup of another type of link. The
bandwidth is typically 9.6bps - 56 Kbps
Analog modem
Leased lines have been the traditional
technology for implementing WANs.
These are links "leased" from
communications services companies for
exclusive use by the corporation
Leased line
ISDN is a dial-up solution for temporary
access to the WAN but adds the
advantage of supporting voice/video/fax
on the same physical connection. As a
WAN technology, ISDN is typically used
for dial-backup support at 56, 64 or 128
Kbps bandwidth
Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN)
X.25 can provide a reliable WAN circuit
however does not provide the high
bandwidth requirements as a backbone
technology
X. 25
WAN ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode) is used as the high bandwidth
backbone for supporting multiservice
requirements. The ATM architecture
WAN ATM
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supports multiple QoS (Quality of
Service) classes for differing application
requirements delay & loss

er Information Furth

http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/isdn.htm
http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/introwan.htm#xtocid13

http://www.protocols.com/protoc.shtml#Protocols
http://www.rhyshaden.com/routing. htm
http://jhunix. hcf.jhu.edu/~tnaugler/770.512/Common_files/WANs/ScanTechnologies/
scan04. html

http://www.microsoft.com/technet/treeview/default.asp?url=/TechNet/prodtechnol/wi
nxppro/reskit/prcg_cnd_gvfb.asp
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C Ci is sc co o R Ro ou ut te er r & & s sw wi it tc ch h c co on nf fi ig gu urra at ti io on nss
. Basic Cisco IOS CLI (Command Line I nterface):

(Point your browser at the following linkS :)

http://www.cisco.com/warp/cpropub/45/tutorial. htm

http://www.tele.sunyit.edu/DND/Cisco_Router_Basics/icnecontent/ioscmdrefindex.ht
m
. Configure IP addresses:

. Verify IP addresses:


. Monitor Novell IPX operation on the router:


. Enable the Novell IPX protocol & configure interfaces:


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. Add the RIP routing protocol to your configuration:


. Add the IGRP routing protocol to your configuration:


. List commands to configure Frame Relay LMIs, maps, & subinterfaces:


. List commands to monitor Frame Relay operation in the router:


. Identify PPP operations to encapsulate WAN data on Cisco routers :


. Configure standard & extended access lists to filter IP traffic :


. Configure IPX access lists & SAP filters to control basic Novell traffic:


. Monitor & verify selected access list operations on the router:

CCNA
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. Copy & manipulate configuration files:


. List the commands to load Cisco IOS software from: flash memory, a TFTP
server, or ROM:


. Prepare to backup, upgrade, & load a backup Cisco IOS software image:

http://www.cicprep.com/WebHelp/ccna/ccna_obj_26. htm

. Manage configuration files from the Privileged exec mode :


. Configuring VLAN & VTP on Cisco Catalyst switch:

(Point your browser at the following linkS :)

http://netcert.tripod.com/ccna /switches/confvlan. html

http://www.mislab.com/lab_sample_vlan. htm

http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~kotfid/compnet1/labs/lab3-switch-vlan-rip-lab-2-even. html

Note: If purchasing a Cisco equipment (at least a router) is not an option, try to
purchase (or arrange) Router Simulator (such as, Sybex, Boson etc) for CCNA
CCNA
(640-607)

exam. Otherwise, make sure that you "understand & memorize" the Cisco CLI
fundamentals from the provided links above precisely.

U Us se ef f u ul l L Lii n nk ks s
(Comprehensive VLAN configurations details)

http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/lan/28201900/1928v8x/eecli8x/clip
art2. htm#25568
-----------------------------------------------------
http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ita/index. htm

http://www.firewall.cx

http://www.geocities.com/ciscosite/ccna

http://www.cicprep.com/WebHelp/toclist.htm

http://www.delmar.edu/Courses/ITSC1391

http://www.celticrover.com/tig/ccna/ccnareviews.asp

http://www.aiinet. com/documents/aiscout2/m/111/sc2111bk. htm

http://www.ethermanage.com/ethernet/ethernet. html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com

Best of Luck.

CCNA
(640-607)

J
JJ-
--M
MM

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