Appllcauons ll nlcholas u. Spencer 8ecap: denluon of Lrlbology !"#$%&%'( #* +,- *.#-/.- 0/1 +-.,/%&%'( %2 #/+-"0.3/' *4"20.-* #/ "-&035- 6%3%/ 0/1 "-&0+-1 *4$7-.+* 0/1 8"%.-**-* 8ubblng surfaces are never perfecLly aL 8oughness 1he normal load ls borne by Lhe asperlues on each surface comlng lnLo conLacL wlLh each oLher ConLacL areas are small (asperlues) ressures are large Asperlues become elasucally and plasucally deformed upon conLacL wlLh each oLher ConLacL areas lncrease ConLacL pressure may evenLually exceed Lhe elasuc llmlL of Lhe maLerlal 1rue area = apparenL area !"#$ lf surfaces are aLomlcally smooLh %&'( *&(* ++ ,--*&(". *&(* http://images.google.ch 8ecap: frlcuon and lubrlcauon 8eslsLance encounLered when one body ls moved over anoLher 9:;<= 0.001 (e.g. ln a lubrlcaLed bearlng under llghL loads) 10 (e.g. when clean meLals rub agalnsL each oLher ln vacuum) 0.1 - 1.0 (mosL -values for slldlng surfaces) W = normal load l = frlcuonal force lrlcuon coemclenL ls dlsplayed as a funcuon of Lhe vlscoslLy muluplled by Lhe Langenual veloclLy, and dlvlded by Lhe normal load (qu/W) 8ecap: Lhe SLrlbeck curve ln lubrlcaLed sysLems, Lhe frlcuon coemclenL changes as a funcuon of speed A bearlng wanLs Lo be operaLed here! Close Lo Lhe mlnlmum buL on Lhe rlghL slde, so LhaL wlLh sllghL changes of Lhe parameLers, Lhe sysLem ls drawn Lowards Lhe mlnlmum Film thickness decreases Asperity-asperity contact occurs Cccurs aL hlgh loads or low speeds Pydrodynamlc forces can no longer malnLaln a lubrlcanL lm beLween Lhe slldlng surfaces ulrecL conLacL beLween Lhe asperlues sLarLs Lo become domlnanL 8oundary lubrlcanL ls essenual under Lhese condluons, ln order Lo avold excesslve frlcuon and wear 8oundary lubrlcanLs form adsorbed molecular lms on Lhe surfaces (overslmpllcauon) 8epulslve forces beLween Lhe lms carry a slgnlcanL parL of Lhe load 8ecap: boundary lubrlcauon Lxample of boundary lubrlcanL: long-chaln carboxyllc aclds (polar end-groups make a sLrong bond wlLh Lhe oxlde layer of meLal surfaces) varlauon of frlcuon coemclenL as a funcuon of Lhe lubrlcanL chaln lengLh for sLeel surfaces lrlcuon coemclenL as a funcuon of chaln lengLh for hydrocarbons on LungsLen surfaces 8ecap: boundary lubrlcauon LxLreme-pressure addluves: molecules LhaL reacL ln exLreme condluons (e.g. pressure, LemperaLure) 1hey reacL wlLh Lhe surface, produclng a proLecuve layer wlLh low shear sLrengLh ln exacLly Lhe rlghL place Some examples: zlnc dlalkyldlLhlophosphaLe (Znu1), Lrlcresyl phosphaLe (1C) and dlbenzyl dlsulde SLrucLure of proLecuve lm formed by Znu1 on sLeel 8ecap: boundary lubrlcauon Wear http://images.google.ch Low frlcuon, hlgh wear! Plgh frlcuon, low wear! Whenever surfaces rub agalnsL each oLher, wear almosL always occurs A slmple analysls ylelds a wear coemclenL k Assumpuons - Lhe conLacL beLween Lhe surfaces occurs aL asperlues - Lhe Lrue conLacL area ls Lhe sum of Lhe lndlvldual asperlLy conLacLs - Lhe Lrue conLacL area ls proporuonal Lo Lhe normal load - Lhe local deformauon ls plasuc Wear: Lhe Archard equauon Schemauc dlagram of Lhe formauon of a conLacL area durlng Lhe relauve mouon of Lwo asperlues Wear: Lhe Archard equauon a) b) c) d) e) c) - Lhe conLacL area becomes maxlmal - Lhe normal load, supporLed by conLacL area, ls glven by: d), e) - asperlLy conLacLs supporL Lhe normal load - conunuous slldlng lnvolves conunuous creauon and desLrucuon of slngle- asperlLy conLacL areas p: ow pressure (lndenLauon hardness) a: radlus of Lhe conLacL area 2 =:8>0 Maxlmal conLacL area Slngle asperlLy real area = apparenL area AsperlLy conLacLs supporL Lhe normal load /!. *## *0-(&1.$ 2!".*2.0 #(*3 .! 4(*& -*&52#(066666 Wear: Lhe Archard equauon Cause of wear: removal of fragmenLs of maLerlal from Lhe asperlues volume of removed maLerlal: proporuonal Lo Lhe cube of Lhe conLacL dlmenslon, a a: radlus of hemlsphere Assumpuon: noL aLs buL hemlspheres (a hemlsphere geLs rubbed o) Assumpuon: a proporuon k forms parucles v: mean wear volume produced by Lhe slldlng of an asperlLy palr over each oLher C: LoLal wear raLe, due Lo all asperlLy conLacLs (sum of all conLrlbuuons over Lhe LoLal conLacL area) Wear: Lhe Archard equauon W: LoLal normal load C: wear raLe (worn volume per unlL slldlng dlsLance) k = k/3 (wear coemclenL) P = p (lndenLauon hardness) %7( ,&27*&3 (8'*5!" - k ls dlmenslonless and < 1 - k/P ls used when hardness ls noL easlly denable - k/P = quanuLy of worn maLerlal/unlL slldlng dlsLance/unlL normal load (e.g. mm 3 m -1 n -1 ) Wear raLe ls lndependenL of Slldlng speed ApparenL conLacL area Wear: Lhe Archard equauon ln wear volume over Lhe enure slldlng dlsLance ln an unlubrlcaLed pln-on-rlng LesL, slldlng on Lool sLeel CharacLerlsucs of Lhe maLerlals under sLeady-sLaLe condluons Surfaces musL oen be run-ln" before Lhls behavlor can be observed Wear: Lhe Archard equauon values of Lhe dlmenslonless wear coemclenL k for varlous maLerlals slldlng on Lool sLeel, obLalned ln an unlubrlcaLed pln-on-rlng LesL ln alr 9*.(&1*# :#131"; -*&."(& <(*& 2!(=21(".0> ? mlld sLeel Mlld sLeel 7!10 -3
MMA 1ool sLeel 7!10 -6 copper-berylllum 1ool sLeel 3.7!10 -3 hardened Lool sLeel 1ool sLeel 1.3!10 -4 SLelllLe 1 1ool sLeel 3.3!10 -3 sLalnless sLeel (ferrluc) 1ool sLeel 1.7!10 -3 L 1ool sLeel 1.3!10 -7 1he values are hlghly dependenL on LesL condluons and Lhus provlde llule lnslghL lnLo Lhe wear mechanlsms lnvolved Mlld and severe wear Wear and elecLrlcal conLacL reslsLance for a pln made from "/# brass slldlng on hardened sLelllLe (Co alloy) as a funcuon of Lhe normal load oxlde-oxlde Pexadecane used as a lubrlcanL, buL noL under hydrodynamlc condluons meLal-meLal blgger parucles ne slze parucles wearlng Lhrough Lhe oxlde layer ,&27*&3 (8'*5!" 7!#30 <(*& &*.( 1"2&(*0(0 ,&27*&3 (8'*5!" 7!#30 Mlld and severe wear oxlde-oxlde meLal-meLal blgger parucles ne slze parucles ConLacL reslsLance decreases unul meLal-meLal conLacL ls reached @&!- 1" (#(2.&12*# &(010.*"2( A7*";( 1" 2!#!& *"3 01B( !C 4(*& -*&52#(0 9DE@ <F,G :FHFGF <F,G % G , / : D % D I / ulerenL color because now meLal parucles and no longer oxlde Mlld wear: 0.01-1 m parucles, mosLly oxldes Severe wear: 20-200 m parucles, mosLly meLalllc Mlld and severe wear The mechanism of the transition is confirmed by the following results Variation of wear coefficient with sliding speed for "/# brass sliding on steel at various temperatures and environments 1ypes of wear Adheslve Abraslve Surface laugue Lroslve Corroslve 1ypes of wear: adheslve Adhesion result of the direct contact of bearing metals Applied load is sufficient to rupture any protective surface film (oxides, etc.) Contacting asperities deform elastically Contacting asperities deform plastically Shearing of adhesive junctions produces wear particles Metal is transferred from one bearing surface to the other in sliding or rolling motion Scuffing severe adhesive-wear damage 1ypes of wear: adheslve www.machinerylubrication.com Process of adhesive wear The factors decreasing adhesive wear: Lower load Harder rubbing materials Contaminated rubbing surfaces Presence of solid lubricants Presence of a lubricating oil Anti-wear additives in oil 1ypes of wear: abraslve A harder maLerlal ls rubblng agalnsL a soer maLerlal 1he wear of Lhe soer maLerlal ls caused by Lhe asperlues on Lhe harder surface 1wo rubblng parLs lnvolved ln Lhe frlcuon process 1wo-body wear A hard parucle ls Lrapped beLween Lhe rubblng surfaces 1hree-body wear 1he parucle ls free or parually embedded lnLo one of Lhe maLerlals 1ypes of wear: abraslve ,J&*01K( 4(*& !" .7( L12&!M#(K(# - lasuc deformauon N#!';71"; - no maLerlal removal from Lhe wearlng surface - Wear mechanlsm ls parLly governed by plasuc deformauon A'O"; - 1he abraslve parucle acLs as a cumng Lool - Cccurs when hlghly concenLraLed sLresses are lmposed by abraslve parucles A&*2P1"; QJ&1R#( C&*2.'&(S - Large wear fragmenLs are deLached from Lhe wearlng surface - 1he volume of Lhe losL maLerlal ls hlgher Lhan Lhe volume of Lhe wear Lrack u u c u l e
m a L e r l a l s 8 r l u l e
m a L e r l a l s Surface faugue Caused by cycllng loadlng durlng frlcuon laugue occurs lf Lhe applled load ls hlgher Lhan Lhe faugue sLrengLh of Lhe maLerlal laugue cracks sLarL aL Lhe maLerlal surface and spread Lo Lhe subsurface reglons 1he cracks may connecL Lo each oLher resulung ln separauon and delamlnauon of Lhe maLerlal pleces T&(O"; 4(*& caused by cycllc slldlng of Lwo surfaces across each oLher wlLh a small ampllLude. 1he frlcuon force produces alLernaung compresslon- Lenslon sLresses, whlch resulL ln surface faugue F&!01K(: caused by lmplngemenL of parucles (solld, llquld or gaseous) 1hey remove fragmenLs of maLerlals from Lhe surface due Lo a momenLum eecL 1ypes of wear: eroslve and corroslve A!&&!01K(: corroslon can acceleraLe wear Cxldauon process promoLed by lncreased LemperaLure and removal of Lhe proLecung oxlde lms from Lhe surface durlng Lhe frlcuon Slldlng conunuous removal of Lhe oxlde lm followed by conunuous formauon of new oxlde lm Pard oxlde parucles removed from Lhe surface and Lrapped beLween Lhe slldlng/ rolllng surfaces Lhree-body abraslve wear mechanlsm SLages of wear U("(&*#1B(3 -*R(&" !C 4(*& -&!2(00 1he lnlual wear raLe (run-ln) ls relauvely hlgh Wear occurs aL a negllglble raLe SumclenL debrls has acccumulaLed, leadlng Lo fallure Wear takes place even in properly lubricated mechanisms SLages of wear /!&L*# 4(*&V beglns when Lhe Lrue area of bearlng conLacL (LoLal asperlLy-conLacL area) has been subsLanually lncreased by plasuc deformauon and wear Lhe lubrlcanL ls fully able Lo supporL Lhe load - Cnly occaslonal meLal-Lo-meLal conLacLs - Wear occurs aL a negllglble raLe (excepL for evenLs such as lubrlcanL breakdown, sudden rlses ln LemperaLure shock loads, slgnlcanL reducuon ln speed) - normal wear may proceed lndenlLely, unul sumclenL debrls has accumulaLed Lo cause one of Lhe followlng fallure modes D"15*# 4(*& &*.(: mlcroscoplc surface asperlues peneLraLe Lhe lubrlcanL lm, parucularly durlng Lhe low speeds of sLarL-up and shuL-down T*1#'&(: - SLress rlsers ln Lhe paLh of mouon, ulumaLely lnluaung faugue
- Abraslve wear changes surface roughness or dlmenslons appreclably
Study To Assess The Effectiveness of Planned Teaching Programme Regarding Knowledge of Traffic Rules Among Higher Secondary Students 15 18 Years in Selected Schools of Dehradun