Alan Axelrod

Complete Idiots Guide to American History

Complete Idiots Guide to American History
by Alan Axelrod
Whos on First?
(50000 !"C"#A"$" %500&'
In This Chapter
Where the first Americans came from
The Mayas, Incas, and Aztecs
The Anasazi, Mound Builders, and Pueblos
Leif Erisson, first Euro!ean in America
Look at a map that shows the north Pacific Ocean. Youll find the Bering Sea, an arm of the
Pacific bounded on the east by laska, on the south by the leutian !slands, and on the west by
Siberia and the "amchatka Peninsula. #ear the north end of the Bering Sea is the Bering Strait,
which, lying between laska and Siberia, connects the Bering Sea with the $hukchi Sea of the
rctic Ocean. t its narrowest, the strait is only %% miles across, the shortest distance between the
continents of #orth merica and sia. &ifty'fi(e miles in icy cold water is a long swim, but not
much of an ocean (oyage. )istorians belie(e that once upon a time, there wasnt e(en that %% miles
of water between the continents.
A Stroll Across the Bering Sea
Se(eral times during what paleontologists call the *uaternary Period+thats their name for the
last two million years+a ,land bridge- emerged in the Bering and $hukchi Seas as the sea le(el
dropped due to the e.pansion of the ice cap surrounding the #orth Pole. /he theory is that
anywhere from 01,111 to 2%,111 years ago, human beings used the Bering land bridge to enter the
#ew 3orld, migrating from what is now northeast sia to northwestern #orth merica. Beringia,
as the land bridge is sometimes called, disappeared when the ma4or continental ice sheets and other
glaciers melted, causing the sea le(el to rise again.
45,000 Years of American History (Abridged Version)
/he trek across Beringia was not really an e(enings stroll. !t must ha(e consumed thousands
of years. By 5111 B.$., its likely that the former sians reached Patagonia, at the southern tip of
South merica. !n between, in the area that is the present'day 6nited States, the population of what
we now call #ati(e mericans may ha(e reached 00 million.
/hese #ati(e mericans, thinly distributed o(er a (ast area in bands of a hundred or e(en
fewer indi(iduals, li(ed for thousands of years on the ragged edge of subsistence. /hey didnt
de(elop great cities, but, as nomads, wandered, hunted, and foraged together. /hen, perhaps 5,111
years ago, some bands began to domesticate plants in order to supplement foraged and hunted food.
By the beginning of the 07th century, when 8uropeans first made contact with #ati(e mericans,
they were culti(ating mai9e, beans, and s:uash, as well as manioc, potatoes, and grains.
griculture fostered a more stable lifestyle than hunting and gathering, and the horticultural
groups li(ed in tribes. long with relati(ely stable sources of sustenance and substantial populations
came more or less permanent houses organi9ed into (illages, usually led by a recogni9ed chief.
The Anasai
Li(ing at a subsistence le(el, its not surprising that, within the area of the 6nited States, the
#ati(e mericans left little material e(idence of their ancient cultures. !n the Southwest,
archaeologists ha(e identified a people they call the nasa9i ;from a #a(a4o word meaning ,the
ancient ones-<. /he nasa9i appeared as early as %%11 B.$. and are also called the Basket =akers,
because of the many skillfully wo(en baskets that ha(e been disco(ered in sites associated with
their culture. /he nasa9i built communal dwellings consisting of wood and thatch, and e(en
occupied shallow ca(es closed off with rocks. By .>. 211'?11, nasa9i communities e(ol(ed into
collections of somewhat more sophisticated pit houses, built o(er shallow e.ca(ations. >uring the
period of .>. ?11'0011, the nasa9i began building what Spanish in(aders would later call
pueblos ;Spanish for ,town- or ,(illage- and also ,people-<. /hese were fantastic groupings of
stone and adobe ,apartment buildings,- cliff dwellings seemingly hewn out of lofty ledges, the most
spectacular of which sur(i(e at =esa @erde in southwest $olorado.
The !o"nd B"ilders
!n the meantime, to the east, in a (ast area stretching from the ppalachian =ountains to the
eastern, edge of the prairies, and from the Areat Lakes to the Aulf of =e.ico, other #ati(e
mericans were building cultural monuments of a different kind. &rom about 0111 B.$. to after
.>. 0%11, many different !ndian societies constructed earthworks that modern archaeologists
classify as burial mounds, platform or temple mounds ;which ser(ed as the foundations for
important public and pri(ate buildings<, and circular and geometric ceremonial earthworks.
rchaeologists further recogni9e two traditions among the mound'building culturesB the 3oodland
and the =ississippian.
/he 3oodland mounds were built in eastern #orth merica from about 0111 B.$. to the
beginning of the 0Cth century. /he earliest were simple, enclosing only a few burials, but later
mounds often reached C1 feet in height, took many years to construct, contained numerous burials,
and e(en included log tombs. /he largest and most elaborate of the mounds was built in southern
Ohio by people of the )opewell culture ;named after mounds found near the Ohio hamlet of
)opewell<.
/he mounds of the =ississippian tradition reflect the de(elopment of larger'scale farming
among the #ati(e mericans. Beginning around .>. ?11, in the flood plains of the central and
lower =ississippi Di(er, (arious tribes built (illages consisting of palisades and flat'topped,
rectangular mounds that ser(ed as bases for temples and other important structures. /he $ahokia
=ounds, which are found in !llinois, 4ust across the =ississippi from Saint Louis, must ha(e once
contained as many as %1 platform mounds and probably supported a population numbering in the
thousands.
So"th of the Border
Pueblos, mounds, some baskets, a few pots+these are the chief material remains of #ati(e
merican culture before 8uropeans set foot in what is today the 6nited States. But, to the south, in
present'day =e.ico and $entral and South merica, #ati(e merican ci(ili9ation took a (ery
different turn.
The !aya
/he =aya li(ed in southern =e.ico and in Beli9e, Auatemala, and ad4acent )onduras. !n
contrast to the #ati(e mericans, the =aya kept written historical records, e.tending back to %1
B.$. and ending with the Spanish con:uest in the 07th century.
By %111 B.$., the =aya were installed along the $aribbean and Pacific coasts. 3ithin the
ne.t E,111 years, they began to mo(e inland, turning from fishing to agriculture. By about 0,F11
B.$., another #ati(e people, the Olmec of the Aulf $oast, dominated trade in $entral merica and
began greatly influencing =ayan culture. By 0111 B.$., the =aya adopted Olmec styles of pottery
and 4ades and also took on Olmec religious symbols. =aya culture and power reached its height by
.>. 511, when it seems to ha(e collapsed, probably due to famine, disease, and chronic warfare
among =aya city'states. landscape adorned with spectacular stepped'pyramid temples and other
structures endured, and (arious =ayan groups continued to prosper in (arying degrees until the
07th century, when the Spanish con:uistadors in(aded.
=ost of what is today called =e.ico fell under the domination of another great #ati(e
merican ci(ili9ation, the 9tecs. /heir own myths place their origin at 9tlan, somewhere in north
or northwest =e.ico, where they li(ed as a small, nomadic collection of tribes.
>uring the 0Fth century .>., the 9tec tribes migrated southward, settling in the central
basin of =e.ico by the 0Eth century. /heir e.istence was a precarious one, as they were repeatedly
attacked and routed by other groups. &inally, the 9tecs took refuge on small islands in Lake
/e.coco where, in 0EF%, they founded /enochtitlan on the site of present'day =e.ico $ity.
&rom their new base, the 9tecs e(ol(ed into ruthless and well'organi9ed warriors. By the
0%th century, they subdued and sub4ugated the peoples of =e.ico, thereby creating an empire
second in si9e only to the !ncas in Peru. 8.tending from the Aulf of =e.ico to the Pacific and from
the @alley of =e.ico south into Auatemala, the 9tec empire was peopled mostly by sla(es, whose
work was supremely manifest in the capital.
s the con:uistadors later noted, /enochtitlan was a city as large as $ordoba or Se(illeG
howe(er, most remarkably, it was situated entirely within Lake /e.coco, two miles from the
mainland, &our great causeways led to the city, which was watered by a system of magnificently
engineered a:ueducts. /he streets, lined with splendid temples, issued onto great public s:uares,
which ser(ed as marketplaces. nd there were priests. Legions of black'robed holy men continually
marched through /enochtitlans boule(ards, for the 9tec capital was the home of Aod himself as
incarnated in the emperor, =onte9uma !!.
Splendid though it was, the empire was founded in blood for the purpose of shedding blood.
!n /enochtitlan, the temple of human sacrifice was more spectacular than the other temples,
sprouting forty towers. /here were three main halls, from which (arious windowless chapels
branched. /he idols that lined its halls were molded of a paste of seeds and plants kneaded together
with the blood of prisoners and sla(es taken in battle. Blood was the fuel that dro(e the 9tec
go(ernment, economy, and culture. !t was said that the (ery ground of /enochtitlan was black with
it.
The #ncas
=aya ci(ili9ation was magnificent, and the 9tecs ruled with terrible splendor, but the !ncas
of Peru controlled the largest nati(e empire in the mericas. /oward the end of the 02th century, the
!ncas fanned out from their base in the $u9co region of the southern ndes. &or the ne.t century
and a half, their holdings increased until the !nca world was in(aded by $on:uistadors under the
command of &rancisco Pi9arro in 0%EF. t the time of that clash, the !ncas held sway o(er some 0F
million people in what is now Peru and 8cuador, as well as parts of $hile, Boli(ia, and rgentina.
/he origin of the !ncas is shrouded in mystery, but what is known is that they e.panded into a
#ew 3orld empire under the ruler Pachacuti. Pachacutis sons continued the con:uests. One of
them, /opa !nca ;who reigned from 02?0 to 025E<, took much of present'day 8cuador, the south
coast of Peru, northern $hile, and most of northwestern rgentina, as well as a portion of the
Boli(ian plateau.
3ar was a constant !nca acti(ity, but when the !ncas werent fighting, they were building. /he
greatest sur(i(ing monument of !nca architecture is the citadel of =achu Picchu. Situated on a lofty
precipice between steep mountain peaks ?,C?% feet abo(e sea le(el on the eastern slopes of the
ndes, the fortified town boasts fine stone buildings with e.tensi(e agricultural terraces that make
the settlement look as if it had been physically car(ed. out of the mountainsides.
Beyond the Atec $rontier
Look at the mericas in the days before the 8uropean in(asion. 3hat you see are great
empires in South and $entral merica, but, for the most part, a collection of thinly distributed and,
in a political and material sense, less highly de(eloped ci(ili9ations in #orth merica. !n what is
now the southwestern region of the 6nited States, the nasa9i ;,Basket =akers-< e(ol(ed into the
people of the Pueblo culture. &or many years, these were the people who li(ed 4ust beyond the
9tec frontier.
%"eblo &"lt"re' The $irst American $rontier
rchaeologists say that Pueblo culture de(eloped out of the Basket =akers, beginning around
.>. ?11. &rom then until about 0011, these frontier people began using cotton cloth and started
building their houses abo(e ground, using stone and adobe masonry. #e.t, during 0011 to 0E11, the
modest abo(e'ground dwellings e(ol(ed ;in some places< into the spectacular multiroom.
,apartment- comple.es, terraced into the sides of cliffs, which continue to awe (isitors to such
places as =esa @erde #ational Park.
!mpressi(e though the Pueblo culture was, it ne(er became as (aried or as ad(anced as the
#ati(e cultures to the south. 8(en before the Spanish entered the merican Southwest in the
si.teenth century, Pueblo culture began to decline. Between 0F?7 and 0F55, the Pueblos were
de(astated by drought and famine. =any migrated to more ade:uately watered regions in #ew
=e.ico and northeastern ri9ona. >escendants of the Pueblos+the Hunis, the )opis, and the Dio
Arande Pueblos+still li(e in these areas.
Atlantic %resence
&ar to the northeast of the Pueblos, agriculture was well established in the =ississippi (alley
by the 0st century .>. 3e ha(e already glanced at the burial and ceremonial mounds some of these
people left. /hese cultures e(entually reached from the Aulf of =e.ico to 3isconsin, and from #ew
York to "ansas. !t is belie(ed that the thatched houses built by ,/emple =ound- people resembled
dwellings found in =e.ico, and that their pyramidal mounds harked back to the pyramids of
=esoamerica. &or these and other reasons ;including similarities in religious ritual and in pottery
design<, many historians belie(e that the first !ndians of the =ississippi (alley and tlantic coastal
regions may ha(e descended from =ayan and other $entral and South merican immigrants to the
northern hinterlands.
)owe(er they came to populate #orth merica, the !ndians of this (ast region de(eloped in
di(erse ways, creating more than F,111 distinct cultures. Some of these cultures barely subsisted as
hunter'gatherersG others became stable and relati(ely prosperous agricultural societies.
6nlike the =aya, 9tec, and !nca, these #orth merican groups had no written language and
left no historical records, so it is impossible to present a ,history- of the #orth merican !ndians
before their contact with 8uropeans. !n fact, some scholars ha(e gone so far as to suggest that most
#orth merican !ndians li(ed apart from linear time, harmoni9ing their li(es with the cycles of the
seasons and the biological processes of propagation, birth, and death. 8uropeans, fore(er doing and
getting, were obsessed with recording e(ents and measuring time. /he #ati(e mericans were
focused instead on being. /ime itself was therefore different for them.
(eif the ("c)y
=omentously+and tragically+the time of the Old 3orld would collide with the time of the
#ew. &or 211 years, from a clash between ,!ndians- and $hristopher $olumbuss men in 025E to
the massacre of #ati(e mericans by the 6.S. ?th $a(alry at 3ounded "nee on >ecember F5,
0C51, the history of merica would be in large part the history of racial warfare between white and
red.
/he first 8uropean contact, some %11 years before $olumbus sailed, ignited no great tragedy,
howe(er. !t seems likely that @ikings reached the &aeroe !slands by .>. C11, and that they landed
in Areenland in C?1. /he (ery first Old 3orld dweller to set eyes on the continent of #orth merica
was most likely a #orseman named B4arni )er4ulfsson in .>. 5C7. But that sighting came as a
result of a mistake in na(igation. )er4ulfsson had been blown off course, and he had no interest in
actually e.ploring the land he sighted.
!t was not until the ne.t decade, about the year 0111, that the #orse captain Leif 8riksson led
an e.pedition that touched a place called )elluland ;probably Baffin !sland< and =arkland ;most
likely Labrador<. =ost historians belie(e that Leif+celebrated as Leif the Lucky in the great
!celandic sagas of the 0Eth century+and his men spent a winter in rude @iking huts hastily erected in
a spot abundant with berries and grapes and, for that reason, called @inland.
#obody knows for certain 4ust where @inland was. Some ha(e suggested a location as far
south as the @irginia $apes, although most historians belie(e that it was in #ewfoundland, perhaps
at a place called Lnse au. =eadows on the northernmost tip of the $anadian pro(ince.
fter Leif the Lucky left @inland, his brother /hor(ald paid a (isit to the tenuous settlement
about 0112. #e.t, in 0101, /horfinn "arlsefni, another !celandic e.plorer, attempted to establish a
more permanent settlement at @inland. ccording to two !celandic sagas, /horfinn, a trader as bold
as he was wealthy, brought women as well as men with him. /hey carried on a li(ely trade, but they
also fought fiercely with the #ati(e mericans, whom the sagas call Skraelings+an Old #orse word
signifying ,dwarfs- or ,wretches- or, perhaps, ,sa(ages.- /he Skraelings attacked tenaciously and
repeatedly.
fter three lethal winters, /horfinn and his would'be settlers abandoned @inland fore(er. /he
@iking e.peditions to #orth merica led, then, to nothing+at least not right away. $hristopher
$olumbus, half a millennium remo(ed from the @ikings, heard of the @inland tradition and was
e.cited by stories about a #ew 3orld across the ,Ocean Sea.-
The (east Yo" Heed to *no+
#ati(e mericans almost certainly immigrated to the mericas from sia across an !ce
ge ,land bridge- where the Bering Strait now is.
Pre'$olumbian #ati(e merican cultures (aried widely, with the most elaborately
de(eloped li(ing in South and $entral merica.
/he 8uropean disco(erer of merica was ;most likely< Leif 8riksson about 0111.
Stats
8le(en million is the current consensus. )owe(er, estimates of the prehistoric population of
the area encompassed by the 6nited States range wildly+from C.2 million to 00F million. &or
comparison, in 0551, 0,5%5,FE2 !ndians, including 8skimos and leuts, li(ed in the 6nited States.
,ord for the -ay
"ati#e American is the term used by most historians and anthropologists to describe the
aboriginal peoples of the 3estern )emisphere. !n this book ! also use the more familiar term
,Indian .- /hat designation was coined by $hristopher $olumbus, who, on October 0F, 025F,
thought that he had landed in sia+-the !ndies-+and therefore called the people he encountered
!ndians. /he name stuck.
Stats
/ikal, in northeastern Auatemala, was the largest =aya city of the $lassic era. !ts population
probably numbered ?%,111, and it co(ered about 21 s:uare miles.
.eal (ife
/he ad(entures of Leif 8riksson ;ca. 5?1'01F1< are known e.clusi(ely through
semilegendary, sometimes contradictory sagas. Leif the Lucky ;as he was called< was the son of
8ric /hor(aldsson, better known as 8ric the Ded, who established in Areenland the first enduring
8uropean settlement in the #ew 3orld about 5C%. /hrough his fearsome father ;8ric was banished
from !celand after ha(ing murdered a man<, Leif 8riksson was descended from a line of @iking
chieftains. Leif e.plored the lands that had been first sighted by B4arne )er4ulfsson.
Columbus $ays
(%(5%#%50)'
In This Chapter
The round earth hy!othesis
$olumbus%s early life and stru&&le for a s!onsor
The #oya&es of $olumbus
$ontact'and clash'(ith "ature Americans
The #oya&es of Ameri&o )es!ucci and the namin& of America
3ow. $olumbus. /his is an old story. You(e heard it more often than the story of dam and
8(e, more often than the tale of how your unt gnes once met Spiro /. gnew, and more often
than you(e watched 8d #orton and Dalph "ramden try to teach each other how to play golf on the
umpteenth )oneymooners festi(al of reruns.
!ts so old, so tightly tied up with all the other half'learned rote lessons of childhood, that we
forget to imagine the combination of creati(ity, the capacity for wonder, the courage, and the sheer
madness that sent a Aenoese seafarer and crew in three small ships across an unknown e.panse of
ocean to ;it turns out< they knew not where.
#t/s a .o"nd ,orld After All
But first theres that business about the roundness of the world. Aenerations of schoolchildren
ha(e been taught that, when $olumbus sailed, he was about the only person in the world ad(anced
enough to belie(e that the earth is round. )is task ;we were told< was to con(ince "ing &erdinand
and *ueen !sabella of Spain to finance an e.pedition to sail west in order to reach the 8ast. nd
that, of course, was predicated on the assumption that the world is a globe.
!n fact, the idea of a round earth was hardly new by the end of the 0%th century. ncient
Areeks such as Pythagoras and ristotle said the earth was a sphere, and, in the Erd century B.$..,
8ratosthenes of $yrene ;ca. F?7'05% B.$.< performed a remarkable measurement that determined
the earths circumference with great accuracy.
Son of a ,ea0er
But $olumbus was hardly alone in differing from the conser(ati(e (iew, which, by the late
0211s, was downright unfashionable among the enlightened and educated. #ot that $ristoforo
$olombo+to use the nati(e !talian form of his name+was well educated. )e had been born in Aenoa
in 02%0 to a wea(er and would not learn to read and write until he reached adulthood. s a youth,
he took to the sea. !n 02?7, shipwrecked off Portugal, he went to Lisbon, then sailed as far as
!reland and 8ngland and e(en claimed to ha(e sailed from 8ngland to !celand ;where, perhaps, he
heard stories of an ancient place called @inland, across the ,Ocean Sea-<. $olumbus returned to
Aenoa in 02?5, then went back to Portugal, where he married. )is wife died while gi(ing birth to
their child >iego the following year. But, by this time, the seafarers thoughts were far from his
family.
)a(ing learned to read, he de(oured shadowy accounts of westward (oyages. )e decided that
the world was indeed round. nd he was right about that. 3hat he was wrong about was belie(ing
=arco Polos calculations concerning the location of Iapan+0,%11 miles east of $hina+and the work
of the Areek astronomer Ptolemy ;.>. ca. 011'?1<, who grossly underestimated the circumference
of the earth and o(erestimated the si9e of the 8urasian land mass. &urther encouraged by the
miscalculations of the &lorentine cosmographer Paolo dal Po99o /oscanelli, $olumbus concluded
that Iapan ;which $olumbus called $ipangu< was a E,111'mile (oyage west of Portugal, o(er an
ocean co(ering a round earth. #ow, that was a long trip, but it was one that ;$olumbus belie(ed<
could be made by the (essels of the day.
!n 02C2, $olumbus secured an audience with "ing Iohn !! of Portugal and tried to persuade
him to back a (oyage to Iapan. #ow, there were e.cellent reasons for going to the 8ast+all of which
in(ol(ed lucrati(e trading opportunities, chief among which was the commerce in spices. !n the
time of $olumbus, aromatic spices were not 4ust pleasant condiments. /hey were rare and precious
substances essential to the preser(ation of food in an age long before refrigeration was in(ented.
Spice was as highly (alued as gold. But "ing Iohn 00 turned $olumbus down 4ust the same,
belie(ing that e(en a trip of three thousand miles was beyond the capabilities of e.isting ships.
6ndaunted, the seafarer approached >on 8nri:ue de Au9man, >uke of =edina Sidonia, only
to be rebuffed. )e ne.t asked >on Luis de la $erda, $ount of =edina $eli, who was sufficiently
intrigued to arrange an audience, on or about =ay 0, 02C7, with *ueen !sabella ! of $astile. &or the
ne.t half'do9en years, $olumbus, his son >iego in tow, cooled his heels in the Spanish court of
!sabella and her husband, &erdinand !! of ragon. >uring this time, he made many influential
friends and enemies. mong the most powerful of the former was a courtier named Luis de
Santangel, who, after the monarchs apparently turned down $olumbus once and for all early in
025F, actually persuaded the pair to sponsor the (oyage, which was financed by a combination of
royal money and pri(ate funds. $ommissioned ,dmiral of the Ocean Sea,- as well as (iceroy and
go(ernor of whate(er lands he might disco(er, $olumbus set sail from Palos on ugust E, 025F. )e
was in command of three small ships, the #ina ;skippered by @incente Yane9 Pin9on<, the Pinta
;under @incentes brother, =artin lonso Pin9on<, and his own flagship, the Santa =aria.
Tro"ble on the Horion
>uring its first month and a half, the (oyage went well, as the three (essels were propealed by
highly fa(orable winds. /hen, between the F1th and E1th of September, the winds turned bad and
trailed off into doldrums. /he fearful crews of all three ships began to grumble their doubts
concerning their commanders. $olumbus himself must ha(e started to consider how it was one
thing to belie(e in such enlightened ideas as a round earth, yet :uite another to stake ones life on
the notion. $ertainly, he came to reali9e that he had seriously miscalculated transoceanic distances.
)e began to keep two log'books+one, for the benefit of the crew, containing fictitious computations
of distances, and another, for his own records, consisting of accurate figures. >espite this deception,
the crews of all three ships (erged on mutiny by the second week in October.
102132435That/s $o"rteen 43
/hen it happened. On October 0F, 025F, the Santa =arias lookout sighted land. !t was a place
the nati(es called Auanahani and $olumbus named San Sal(ador. =ost modern historians belie(e
this first landfall was present'day 3atling !sland, although, in 05C7, a group of scholars suggested
that the true landfall was another Bahamian island, Samana $ay, 7% miles south of 3atling.
/he seafarers were greeted by friendly rawak tribes people. Belie(ing that he had reached
sia+the ,!ndies-+$olumbus logically enough called these people !ndians. )e then sailed on to
$uba in search of the court of the =ongol emperor of $hina, with whom he hoped to negotiate a
trade in spices and gold. >isappointed in this, $olumbus pushed on to )ispaniola ;modern Santo
>omingo<, where, in a $hristmas >ay storm, the Santa =aria was wrecked near $ap')aitien.
$olumbus ushered his crew safely onto the shore. Seeing that the !ndians were friendly, he left a
garrison of E5 at the place he christened La #a(idad and, on Ianuary 07, 025E, returned to Spain on
the #ina. Pausing at the $anary !slands on &ebruary 0% to replenish supplies, he dispatched a letter
to his patron Luis de Santangel, who immediately had it printed and, in effect, published worldwide.
$irst Blood
!n addition to the obser(ations $olumbus made in his letter regarding the !ndians timidity, he
recorded in an October 02, 025F, 4ournal entry his opinion that no fortress was re:uired at La
#a(idad, ,for these people are (ery simple as regards the use of arms.- /he garrison $olumbus left
behind at unfortified La #a(idad when he went back to Spain set about pillaging goods and raping
women as soon as he departed. /he ,timid- !ndians retaliated. 3hen $olumbus returned in
#o(ember 025E, on his second (oyage, no Spaniards were left ali(e.
&ar0ing 67 a 8e+ ,orld
$olumbus made four (oyages to merica. )is first triggered a dispute between Spain and
Portugal, whose king had rebuffed the Areat #a(igator back in 02C2. /he failure to back him
notwithstanding, the Portuguese crown pressed claims to $olumbuss disco(eries, which soon led
Pope le.ander @! to issue a pair of papal bulls ;!nter $aetera and !nter $aetera !!< in 025E that
di(ided the newly disco(ered and yet'to'be'disco(ered world between Spain and Portugal. /he two
nations formali9ed this decree with the /reaty of /ordesillas ;Iune ?, 0252<, which established a line
of demarcation at E?1 leagues west of the $ape @erde !slands.
Three !ore Voyages
!n the meantime, &erdinand and !sabella sent $olumbus on his second (oyage ;from $adi9, on
September F%, 025E<, this time grandly outfitted with a fleet of 0? ships and nearly 0,%11 men. fter
disco(ering the grim fate of La #a(idad, $olumbus set up a new colony, named !sabella, about ?1
miles east of that bloody site. $olumbus e.plored the $aribbean for some fi(e months, then tried to
go(ern the fledgling colony he had planted, but instantly pro(ed to be a disastrously inept
administrator. )e returned to Spain in 0257, lea(ing his brother Bartolome in charge with
instructions to mo(e the settlement to the south coast of )ispaniola. Denamed Santo >omingo, this
became the first permanent 8uropean settlement in the #ew 3orld.
!n Iune 0257, when $olumbus landed at $adi9, it was not to a heros welcome. lthough he
continued to protest that he had found a shortcut to gold'and spice'rich sia, he had clearly failed to
find the mainland ;where, presumably, the treasure was stashed<, and discouraged colonists trickled
back to Spain with complaints about the Areat #a(igators abusi(eness and ineptitude.
#e(ertheless, growing competition from Portugal, which sent @asco da Aama to !ndia in 025?,
prompted !sabella and &erdinand to fund a third (oyage. 3ith difficulty+on account of his tarnished
reputation+$olumbus gathered a crew to man si. ships, which departed Spain in =ay 025C,
reaching /rinidad on Iuly E0, 025C. On ugust 0, they landed on the mainland, and $olumbus
thereby became the disco(erer of South merica.
)e also disco(ered pearls at islands near the coast. /his must ha(e been a great relief, for his
royal sponsors were continually fuming about $olumbuss failure to har(est the treasure tro(e they
had anticipated. But then came the bad news. Sailing across the $aribbean to Santo >omingo,
$olumbus found the colonists in re(olt. !n the meantime, the disgruntled Spanish so(ereigns had
dispatched a royal commissioner, &rancisco de Bobadilla, who arri(ed from Spain in 0%11 to
straighten matters out. )e summarily stripped the $olumbus brothers of go(erning authority and
sent them back to Spain in chains.
/he captain of the returning (essel thought $olumbus had gotten a raw deal and remo(ed the
shackles, but $olumbus dramatically insisted that he appear before !sabella and &erdinand in
chains. /he conscience'stricken pair immediately ordered him freed. !n =ay 0%1F, they e(en sent
him on a fourth and final (oyage. Landing briefly at =artini:ue, $olumbus sailed on to Santo
>omingo, only to be refused permission to land. )e e.plored the $entral merican coast and was
marooned for a year in Iamaica because his wooden (essels had been thoroughly rotted by
shipworm. Subse:uently rescued, he reached Spain in #o(ember 0%12 and died two years later ;on
=ay F1, 0%17< at @alladolid, still claiming that he had reached sia and arguing fruitlessly for his
familys right to a share of whate(er wealth and power his disco(eries might yet yield.
,hy ,e/re 8ot &alled &ol"mbia
!n the end, $olumbus was cheated e(en of the honor of ha(ing his ma4or disco(ery named for
him. /he &lorentine e.plorer merigo @espucci ;02%2'0%0F< claimed to ha(e made four tlantic
(oyages between 025? and 0%12, although only two ha(e been absolutely confirmedB one in 0255,
commissioned by Spain and resulting in the disco(ery, of Bra9il and @ene9uela, and another in
0%10, to Bra9il on behalf of Portugal. &ollowing the 0%10 (oyage, @espucci coined the phrase
=undus #o(us+#ew 3orld'to describe the region. /he name stuck. /hen, in 0%1?, the Aerman
cartographer =artin 3aldseemuller published an account of @espuccis (oyages, along with a map
and $osmographiae introductio ;!ntroduction to $osmography<, a treatise on mapmaking. !t was
3aldseemuller who used a Latini9ed form of @espuccis first name to label the region merigo
@espucci had e.plored.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
$olumbus was hardly uni:ue in belie(ing the earth to be round. )owe(er, he did set sail
and persuade a crew that they would not fall off the edge of a flat world.
>espite the #ati(e mericans friendly o(ertures, the Spanish attacked and suffered
retaliation. /his inaugurated four hundred years of white'!ndian warfare in the mericas.
$olumbus deri(ed little benefit from his four (oyagesG e(en the land mass he disco(ered,
merica, was named for a later e.plorer, merigo @espucci.
Stats
&or your information, the actual circumference of the earth at the e:uator is F2,51F miles. /he
distance from the Spanish coast to the Bahamas, (ia the route $olumbus took, is about E,511 miles.
Voice from the %ast
/he letter of $hristopher $olumbus to Luis de Santangel, &ebruary 0%, 025EB
Sir+
s ! know you will be re4oiced at the glorious success that our Lord has gi(en me in my
(oyage, ! write this to tell you how in thirty'three days ! sailed to the !ndies with the fleet
that the illustrious "ing and *ueen, our So(ereigns, ga(e me, where ! disco(ered a great
many islands, inhabited by numberless peopleG and of all ! ha(e taken possession for their
)ighnesses by proclamation and display of the Doyal Standard without opposition.
/he land there is ele(ated, with many mountains and peaks. /hey are most beautiful, of a
thousand (aried forms, accessible, and full of trees of endless (arieties, so high that they
seem to touch the sky, and ! ha(e been told that they ne(er lose their foliage. ! saw them
as green and lo(ely as trees are in Spain in the month of =ay. Some of them were
co(ered with blossoms, some with fruit, and some in other conditions, according to their
kind. /he nightingale and other small birds of a thousand kinds were singing in the
month of #o(ember when ! was there. /here were palm trees of si. or eight (arieties, the
graceful peculiarities of each one of them being worthy of admiration as are the other
trees, fruits and grasses. /here are wonderful pine woods, and (ery e.tensi(e ranges of
meadow land. /here is honey, and there are many kinds of birds, and a great (ariety of
fruits. !nland there are numerous mines of metals and innumerable people.
)ispaniola is a mar(el. !ts hills and mountains, fine plains and open country, are rich and
fertile for planting and for pasturage, and for building towns and (illages. /here are many
spices and (ast mines of gold and other metals in this island. /hey ha(e no iron, nor steel,
nor weapons, nor are they fit for them, because although they are well'made men of
commanding stature, they appear e.traordinarily timid. /he only arms they ha(e are
sticks of cane, cut when in seed, with a sharpened stick at the end, and they are afraid to
use these.
*e+ &pain &ame ,ld &paniards
(%(00#%-00s'
In This Chapter
*!anish #oya&es after $olumbus
$on+uest of the Aztecs and Incans
$oronado%s search for the *e#en $ities of $ibola
The Blac Le&end and nati#e re#olts
!n the wake of $olumbus, the Portuguese scrambled to launch a series of e.peditions,
including that of merigo @espucci and, in 0%11, an e.pedition to !ndia led by Pedro l(ares
$abral. /o put it mildly, $abral went wide in the South tlantic and ended up in Bra9il.
Yet another Portuguese, &erdinand =agellan, sailed not under the flag of his nati(e country,
but on commission from Spain, charged with pro(ing that the aptly named Spice !slands lay on the
Spanish side of the line of demarcation established by the /reaty of /ordesillas.
=agellan sailed west in 0%05, found the Strait of =agellan separating the southern tip of
South merica from /ierra del &uego, and crossed the Strait into the Pacific. /hat ocean had been
disco(ered on September F% or F?, 0%0E, by @asco #une9 de Balboa, but it was =agellan who
named it. =agellan e.plored the Philippine !slands and e(en persuaded the ruler of $ebu, one of the
islands, to accept $hristianity. /hat soon embroiled =agellan in a local war, howe(erG and on pril
F?, 0%F0, he was killed by nati(es on =actan !sland. One of =agellans captains, Iuan Sebastian del
$ano, brought his ship, the @ictoria, back to Spain, thereby completing ;in 0%FF< the first
circumna(igation of the globe.
/he (oyages of Spain, as well as those of Portugal, were undertaken not for the sake of
e.ploration, but for the purpose of con:uest and coloni9ation'and also to con(ert the ,heathen-
#ew 3orld to the cause of $hrist. ccordingly, two classes, of professionals were represented
among the early Spanish e.plorersB con:uistadors ;,con:uerors-< and priests.
The ,ay of the &on9"istador
/he #ew 3orld was opened up to Spain 4ust in the nick of time. Like much of 8urope, that
nation was dominated by primogeniture, meaning that the first son in a family would inherit all
titles and property upon the death of the father. /his cramped the style of younger sons, who were
left to fend for themsel(es. /he problem was that Spain, in effect, had been all used up+all titles
were taken, all property was claimed. &or the lower classes, prospects were ;as they always are<
e(en more limited. /he #ew 3orld represented a new chance, offering a world of opportunity.
%l"med Ser7ent
/he con:uistadors followed in the footsteps of $olumbus. Puerto Dico was sub4ugated during
0%1C'0%15 by Iuan Ponce de Leon ;ca. 0271'0%F0<, who, according to partially credible legend, had
come to the #ew 3orld in search of the fabled &ountain of Youth. ;)e didnt find youth, but deathB
Ponce de Leon was mortally wounded by an !ndian arrow in &lorida.< #e.t, Iamaica and $uba fell
easily to the Spaniards in 0%01 and 0%00.
&ar more spectacular was the battle for =e.ico. !t was led by )ernan $ortes, a minor
nobleman who had re4ected a uni(ersity education to become an ad(enturer in the #ew 3orld. !n
0%05, $ortes led an e.pedition into the present'day region of /abasco, defeating the /abascan
!ndians on =arch F%. By September %, he mo(ed against the /lascalas as well. fter triumphing
o(er the /lascalas, he made them allies in his campaign against their traditional enemies, the
powerful 9tecs, who dominated =e.ico.
Surprisingly, when $ortes landed at what is today @eracru9, he was met not with hostility, but
cordially and humbly greeted by ambassadors of =onte9uma !!, the 9tec emperor. /his fact has
mystified generations of historians. Some ha(e concluded that, unlike the ruthlessly brilliant warrior
kings who had preceded him, =onte9uma !! was indecisi(e and possessed of a weak character.
Others ha(e speculated that the 9tecs, ha(ing ne(er before seen men mounted on horseback+
strange and strangely attired men at that+thought the Spaniards were incarnations of their gods.
Some ha(e suggested that $ortes deliberately posed as *uet9alcoatl, the 9tec ,plumed serpent-
deity. Still other scholars belie(e that =onte9uma !! hoped to appease the intruders with gifts of
great beauty and (alue+gems and gold+in the hope that, satisfied, they would simply depart.
!f that was =onte9umas hope, it was a tragic mis4udgment. Decei(ing the gifts, $ortes
remarkedB ,Send me some more of it, because ! and my companions suffer from a disease of the
heart which can be cured only with gold.- fter an embittered battle, the 9tecs surrendered on
ugust 0E, 0%F0, and the 9tec =e.ican empire fell to )ernan $ortes.
Borderlands
$ortes had achie(ed what all the con:uistadors soughtB access to unimaginable wealth.
)owe(er, the only other Spaniard whose success began to approach that of $ortes was &rancisco
Pi9arro, who twice attempted to in(ade the !ncas of Peru during the 0%F1s and finally achie(ed his
ob4ecti(e on a third try in 0%E0.
Pi9arro, like $ortes, was regarded as a great con:ueror, and his e.ploits stimulated Spanish
e.peditions into the borderlands+that is, the area of the present 6nited States. /he hope was that,
somehow, somewhere, another 9tec or !nca realm would be disco(ered. !ndians had told
$olumbus tales of (illages containing (ast treasuries of gold. l(ar #une9 $abe9a de @aca, a
member of a calamitous 0%F1 e.pedition led by $ortess ri(al, Panfilo #ar(ae9, 4ourneyed
throughout the merican Southwest for eight years and brought back to Spain tales of rich pueblos+
the Se(en $ities of $ibola+though he ne(er claimed to ha(e (isited them personally. nother
sur(i(or of the #ar(ae9 e.pedition, a black sla(e named 8ste(an, 4oined an e.pedition led by
=arcos de #i9a in 0%E5 to locate the Se(en $ities. Huni !ndians killed the unfortunate 8ste(an in a
battle outside the )awikuh pueblo, but de #i9a returned to =e.ico $ity and there rendered a (i(id
account of the pueblo and its treasures. #e(er mind that he had failed to gain entry into )awikuh.
But, then, &rancisco @a9:ue9 de $oronado did not insist on proof. s with so many others
who would 4ourney to the merican 3est in the centuries to come, all that was necessary to propel
$oronado was a dream of riches. >uring 0%21'2F, he tra(eled throughout the Southwest, as far as
present'day "ansas. 8arly in the e.pedition, during Iuly 0%21, he and his troops rode into the Huni
pueblo of )awikuh in central #ew =e.ico. !mperiously, he demanded the surrender of the pueblo.
!n response, the usually peaceful Huni showered stones upon the con:uistadors, knocking $oronado
himself unconscious. 3ithin an hour, howe(er, )awikuh fell, $oronado and his men entered it, and
they found+(ery little. $ertainly, there was no gold.
$oronado pressed on, in fruitless search of the elusi(e Se(en $ities. /ra(eling through the
pueblo region along the Dio Arande, he took one Huni or )opi town after another, forcing the
inhabitants into sla(ery and taking from them whate(er food and shelter they re:uired. !n the wake
of $oronados (isit, during the summer of 0%20, the pueblos, led by an !ndian named /e.amatli,
rebelled, but were :uickly defeated by the forces of #ino de Au9man, go(ernor of #ew Spain.
:nate the Terrible
3ith $oronados disappointment, the legend of the Se(en $ities of $ibola diminished, and
Spains interest in the merican Southwest likewise dimmed. /hen, in 0%?5, the 8nglish sea dog Sir
&rancis >rake landed on the central $alifornia coast and laid claim to what he christened ,#ew
lbion,- using the old poetic name for 8ngland. /his spurred the Spanish (iceroy at =e.ico $ity to
alert the royal court in =adrid that Spains #ew 3orld monopoly was imperiled. 8mbroiled in
costly 8uropean wars, the Spanish crown did nothing to reinforce the apparently worthless northern
frontier of its colonies for another twenty years. &inally, in 0%5C, an e.pedition was launched
northward from =e.ico under the ambitious >on Iuan de Onate. 3hen he reached the site of
present'day 8l Paso, /e.as, Onate claimed for Spain'and his own go(ernance'all of ,#ew =e.ico,-
by which he meant a region e.tending from /e.as to $alifornia.
3ith 211 men, women, and children in tow+plus ?,111 heads of cattle+Onate coloni9ed deep
into pueblo country, depositing settlers at (arious sites. !n no place, e.cept at the coma pueblo, in
western #ew =e.ico, did he meet resistance. t coma, as usual, he sent an ad(ance s:uad of
con:uistadors to tell the !ndians that they were hereafter to consider themsel(es sub4ects of the
Spanish crown. !n response, the !ndians killed 0E of the Spanish soldiers. Perched atop a
high'walled mesa, the defenders of the pueblo belie(ed their position was impregnable. But in
Ianuary 0%55, Onates troops fought their way to the top of the mesa, killed most of the pueblo
warriors, then took capti(e %11 women, children, and noncombatant men. Of the latter, C1 o(er the
age of F% were condemned to the amputation of one foot and a period of F1 years ensla(ement.
;3hether or not Onate considered the usefulness of C1 one'footed sla(es is not recorded.< /he
women+as well as children o(er age 0F+were permitted to retain their e.tremities, but were
likewise ensla(ed. $hildren under 0F were considered ripe for con(ersion to $hristianity and were
committed to the care of priests. pair of )opis who had the ill fortune to be (isiting coma at this
time were sei9ed. /he go(ernor caused their right bands to be se(ered, and he sent the maimed
)opis back to their own pueblo as a bloody warning of the conse:uences of rebellion.
Birth of the ;Blac) (egend<
!n 0%02, the Spaniard Bartolome de Las $asas ;02?2'0%77<, known as the ,postle of the
!ndies,- catalogued with Outrage a litany of his countrymens atrocities in his )istoria de las !ndias
;)istory of the !ndies<.
/hrough the writings of Las $asas and other witnesses to Spanish colonial history, a ,Black
Legend- grew up around Spain in the #ew 3orld. /he con:uistadors came to the mericas
thoroughly grounded in a bloody tradition of racial warfare, ha(ing fought the =oors for eight
centuries to gain control of the !berian peninsula. =oreo(er, coloni9ers such as Onate financed
operations with their personal funds. 3hen Onate failed to turn up the gold he had hoped for, he
relentlessly worked the !ndians in an effort to make a profit from agricultural enterprise. s it
turned out, the people he had sub4ugated failed to produce enough food e(en to sustain the
colonists, let alone to sell for profit, and, after Onates cruelty became obno.ious e(en to royal
officials, he was fined and stripped of all honors.
/he Black Legend was also fostered and sustained by the encomienda system, which
dominated Spanish colonial go(ernment from the 07th through the 0Cth centuries. By 0%1E, the
crown began granting loyal colonists a type of deed ;called an encomendar< to specific tracts of land
with the additional pro(iso that the !ndians li(ing on the land could be used as laborers for a
specific number of days per year. /he ma4ority of encomenderos abused their !ndian charges,
brutally forcing them to work for nothing more than mere token wages and showing not the least
concern ,for their health.
/he cruelty of the encomienda system was, to some degree, balanced by the beneficent
intentions of the Spanish missionaries. !t is true that the !ndians were gi(en no choice in deciding
whether or not they wanted to be ,sa(ed- by con(ersion to $hristianity, but the best of the
missionaries, beginning with Las $asas, did ha(e an abiding concern for the spiritual as well as
physical welfare of their charges. !ronically, such concern may ha(e ser(ed to perpetuate the horrors
that Onate and others (isited upon the !ndians. On economic grounds alone, it is not likely that
Spain would ha(e continued to support its colonial outposts north of the Dio Arande. Aold was not
forthcoming, and agricultural enterprises produced marginal profits at best and, in most cases,
ruinous losses. But all during the Spanish e.periment in the Southwest, the friars had been creating
a population of new $hristians, whose now'sanctified souls, they argued, could not simply be
abandoned.
The $irst American .e0ol"tions
By the middle of the 0?th century, after half a century of tyranny, certain of the Pueblo !ndian
groups were mo(ed to a desperate action. /hey forged an alliance with their hereditary foes, the
paches, who were en(ied and feared for their skill as warriors ;the (ery word apache comes from
a Huni term meaning ,enemy-<. fter se(eral aborti(e attempts at rebellion, the paches sei9ed the
initiati(e and, during the 07?1s, terrori9ed the Spanish Southwest. !n this they were soon 4oined by
people of the pueblos, who waged a long and disrupti(e guerrilla war against their Spanish masters.
t last, Ao(ernor ntonio de Oterrmin mo(ed against 2? so'called medicine men whom he
identified as ringleaders of the rebellion. )e hanged three and imprisoned the remainder in Santa
&e, the territorial capital. mong the prisoners was an !ndian leader from the /ewa pueblo named
Pope. Deleased after se(eral years of cruel imprisonment, Pope went into hiding in /aos and began
co(ertly organi9ing what he planned as a final, decisi(e rebellion.
>espite almost uni(ersal outrage among the pueblos, achie(ing unified action was no easy
task. Pope managed to persuade all but the most remote pueblos ;which were least oppressed by the
Spanish< to 4oin him. #e.t, in order to coordinate action, he sent runners to the (arious towns, each
bearing a knotted cord designed so that the last knot would be untied in each pueblo on the day set
for the re(oltB ugust 0E, 07C1. So determined was Pope to maintain secrecy that he had his
brother'in'law murdered when he suspected him of treachery. >espite such precautions, word of the
rebellion leaked to the colonial authorities, and Pope was forced to launch his re(olution early, on
the 01th. >espite the sudden change in schedule, the rebellion was de(astating to the Spanish. /he
ma4or missions at /aos, Pecos, and coma were burned and the priests murdered, their bodies
heaped upon the altars of their despised religion. /he lesser missions were crushed as well, and
ranches were destroyed. /hose who did not flee were killed. t last, on ugust 0%, Pope led a
%11'man army into Santa &e. &our hundred settlers and F0 of EE missionaries perished. lthough
the armed garrison at Santa &e consisted of only %1 men, they were e:uipped with. a brass cannon,
which they used to resist the in(asion for four days before e(acuating+Ao(ernor Oterrmin
included+on ugust F0. Some F,%11 sur(i(ors of the onslaught fled as far as present'day 8l Paso,
/e.as, abandoning all their possessions to looters.
Sadly for the #ati(e people of the pueblos, Pope capped his triumph by installing himself as
absolute dictator and one who was as oppressi(e as any Spanish o(erlord had been. &or the ne.t
eight years, he e.torted a ruinous ta. from his people, e.ecuting anyone who resisted. By the time
of Popes death ;from natural causes< in 07CC, the pueblo region was in a state of chronic ci(il war.
/he !ndians were (ulnerable, and, a year after Popes death, the Hia Pueblo was retaken by the
Spanish. !n 075F, Ao(ernor >on >iego de @argas laid siege to Santa &e, entirely cutting off its
water and food until it collapsed in surrender. >uring the course of the ne.t four years, all of the
pueblos submitted once again to Spanish rule, e.cept for the )opis, who were somehow simply
o(erlooked by colonial authorities.
ll was not entirely :uiet. !n 075%, the Pima !ndians of lower Pimeria lta'the region of
present'day Sonora, =e.ico, and southern ri9ona'looted and burned Spanish settlements. /he
uprising was :uickly suppressed, and more than %1 years would pass before the Pimas+these of
upper Pimeria lta, many descended from earlier rebels who had fled north+staged another
uprising, which degenerated into a century and a half of smoldering guerrilla wars+first against the
Spanish, then the =e.icans, and finally the mericans.
$rom Blac) (egend to Blac) .obes
8nsla(ement and warfare were not the sole legacies of the Spanish in the merican
Southwest. /he priests+the !ndians called them ,black robes-+who accompanied the con:uistadors
not only brought their religion to the mericas, but also created a 8uro'!ndian culture centered
around the many missions they established. /he first of these, in #ew =e.ico, were founded during
the administration of Onate in 0%5C. !n the course of the ne.t century, &ranciscan friars founded
more than 21 more, mainly along the Dio Arande. By 07C1, missions had been built among most of
the !ndians in #ew =e.ico as well. s the presence in $alifornia of the 8nglishman Sir &rancis
>rake had stirred Spanish concerns in 0%?5, a &rench landing led by Dobert $a(elier, sieur de La
Salle, on the /e.as coast in 07C2 prompted the Spanish to build missions in that area.
Between 07C? and 0?00, &ather 8usebio "ino established many missions in northern =e.ico
and Baia $alifornia as well as some in southern ri9ona, the most famous of which was =ission
San Ja(ier del Bac. But it is for the chain of F0 &ranciscan missions, linked together by 8l $amino
Deal ;,/he Doyal Doad-<, e.tending along the $alifornia coast from San >iego in the south to
Sonoma in the north, that the Spanish missionaries are best known. /he first, =ission San >iego de
lcala ;at San >iego< was founded by &ather Iunipero Serra in 0?75. Serra would go on personally
to found nine more.
/he missions were communities, and, like any other communities, they (aried widely in their
success. Some faltered and collapsed, while others spawned fertile fields, (ineyards, and (ast herds
of cattle. By bringing large numbers of !ndians into a small space, the missions also tended to
spread epidemic disease, and they disrupted nati(e culture and traditions.
/he way of the con:uistador and the way of the Black Dobe represent two distincti(e aspects
of the )ispanic Southwest. But whereas the con:uistadors treated the !ndians as bestial enemies, to
be subdued and ensla(ed, the $atholic padres regarded them as miscreant children to be super(ised
and regulated. #either e.treme admitted a full appreciation of their humanity, but both traditions
shaped the character of the Southwest in an enduring fashion. Both, too, created enmities between
white and red, lea(ing scars on the history of the region so deep that they would not begin to fade
until the end of the 05th century. s to the missions themsel(es, the last one, San &rancisco Solano,
in the Sonoma @alley of #orthern $alifornia, was built in 0CFE, and the mission system endured
until 0CEE'E2, when the re(olutionary =e.ican Depublic'which then encompassed the merican
Southwest'seculari9ed $hurch properties.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he sensational e.ploits of $ortes in =e.ico and Pi9arro in Peru inspired e.ploration of
the ,borderlands- ;the area of the present merican Southwest<.
>on Iuan de Onate was typical of the oppressi(e colonial authorities who ruled the
borderlands.
!n addition to a hunger for wealth and power, the Spanish coloni9ers were also dri(en by
a desire to con(ert the !ndians of the #ew 3orld to $hristianity.
,ord for the -ay
/he word !rimo&eniture is Latin, meaning first ;!rimo < birth ;&eniture <. !t signifies the right
of the firstborn child+almost e.clusi(ely the male child+to inherit the whole of his familys wealth,
titles, and pri(ileges.
,ord for the -ay
3hereas Spanish seafarers fa(ored such grandiose titles as ,dmiral of the Ocean Sea- and
mar:uis of this or that, the great British na(igators who sailed for *ueen 8li9abeth ! gloried in the
title of sea do& , coined during the 07th century and used to describe only the most daring and
seasoned salts.
.n/lands .rrands
(%(0)#%-01'
In This Chapter
*earch for a "orth(est Passa&e
The Lost $olony of ,oanoe
-amesto(n. first !ermanent En&lish settlement in America
$a!tain -ohn *mith and Pocahontas
Some time in the F0st century, people of )ispanic heritage will become the single largest
ethnic group in the 6nited States. )istory is always getting rewritten, and, doubtless, it will get
rewritten then as well. )owe(er, up to the present, most merican history has been told from a
distinctly nglo point of (iew. /here is no doubt that Spain often acted cruelly in the #ew 3orld,
but it is also true that the history of Spain in the #ew 3orld has been written, mostly, by nglo
historians who, o(er the years, ha(e narrated that record of cruelty with great relish and e(en an
attitude of superiority. !n particular, they ha(e tended to contrast the Spanish colonial e.perience+
dri(en by greed for gold and absolute power+with the 8nglish e.perience, moti(ated by a :uest for
religious freedom.
3ell, things werent :uite so simple.
:, Bra0e 8e+ ,orld
)enry @!! ;02%?'0%15< ascended the throne of 8ngland after he killed Dichard !!! in the
Battle of Bosworth &ield on ugust FF, 02C%, thereby ending the 3ars of the Doses, a series of
clashes between the houses of Lancaster and York, ri(als for the 8nglish throne. #ot that it was
much of a throne. /he costly, bloody wars had drained off resources and manpower at a time when
the rest of 8urope was building great empires. Separated from the $ontinent by the 8nglish
$hannel, 8ngland had always been 8uropean, yet also apart from 8urope+a comparati(ely tiny
backwater, in fact, habitually torn by internal conflict among tribes, clans, and families.
"ing )enry decided to put his hard'won reign on the path to greatness. )a(ing defeated
Dichard, the Lancastrian monarch sought to end the conflict between the branches of the royal
family once and for all by marrying 8li9abeth of York, daughter of "ing 8dward @!. ;/he union
produced one of 8nglands greatest+and most terrifying+kings, )enry @!!!.< )enry @!! built a
strong central go(ernment, replenished the treasury, and, in 025?, sponsored the first 8nglish
(oyage of e.ploration in the #ew 3orld.
&or the sleepy island nation, this was a momentous step. Years later, about 0701 or 0700,
during the reign of the first Stuart king, Iames !, 3illiam Shakespeare wrote what was probably his
last play. $alled /he /empest, it is about the beautiful young =iranda and her father'magician, who
are e.iled to an enchanted island across the ocean. Shakespeare drew much of his inspiration for
this magical realm from reading contemporary accounts of the 8nglish (oyages. /here is one
particular line in the play that seems to summari9e the e.citement of the ,ge of >isco(ery- )enry
@!! had launched a little more than a century earlier. ,1, bra(e new worldK- it begins.
Henry V## Bac)s an #talian Sailor
Aio(anni $aboto, born in Aenoa about 02%0 but a citi9en of the seafaring city'state of @enice,
finally settled in 8ngland with his family. cartel of merchants in the seaport town of Bristol hired
$aboto+whom they called Iohn $abot+to pioneer a direct route to the spice'rich !ndies. /he plan
was logical and potentially highly lucrati(e. 8ngland, on the westernmost end of the traditional
o(erland cara(an routes from the 8ast, paid premium prices for spice. !f the 8ast could be reached
more directly by sailing west, 8nglish merchants would get a 4ump on the worldwide spice market
and en4oy unheard of le(els of prosperity. "ing )enry @!! made it official by granting $abot letters
of patent, empowering him to claim hitherto unspoken for territories. )e sailed from >ursey )ead,
!reland, in =ay 025? with no more than F1 men on the ship =atthew and landed in #ewfoundland
on Iune F2. !t is likely that he probed as far south as =aine. fter looking around for no more than
three weeks+long enough for him to come to the confident conclusion that he had reached the
northeast comer of sia+$abot returned to 8ngland with the e.citing news. 8ager to belie(e that
$abot had indeed opened a door to the wide world, a grateful )enry @!! granted him an annual
pension of LF1.
$abot rushed to outfit a second (oyage, bound for what he thought was Iapan. Setting out in
=ay 025C, this time with F11 men in fi(e ships, he and his crews were lost at sea. ;Some authorities
claim that one ship did return to !reland, but there is no official record of the e.peditions fate.<
%assage to #ndia= 8o ,ay
/he loss of Iohn $abot was hardly the end of 8nglish e.ploration. )is son Sebastian ;ca.
02CF'0%%?< was commissioned by )enry @!! to make a (oyage in 0%1C and probably reached what
would later be called )udson Bay. ppointed )enrys official cartographer, Sebastian $abot
ne(ertheless later transferred his allegiance to 8nglands great ri(al, Spain, for which he became
pilot'ma4or and official e.aminer of pilots in 0%0C. fter failing, in 0%F7, to complete a mission
intended to follow the route of &erdinand =agellan, he was prosecuted by his Spanish paymasters
in 0%E1 and found his way back to 8ngland in 0%2C. /here "ing 8dward @! granted him a pension,
and he became go(ernor for life of the 8nglish =usco(y $ompany. !n that capacity, he worked with
Sir )ugh 3illoughby and Dichard $hancellor in search of a ,#ortheast Passage- connecting the
tlantic and Pacific oceans along the northern shores of 8urasia. 6nder $abots direction,
3illoughby and $hancellor looked for the passage. 3illoughby and his crew were lost, but
$hancellor, though he failed to find the passage, did reach =oscow and trade was opened up
between 8nglish merchants and those of Dussia. Later (oyages in search of the #ortheast Passage
undertaken by )enry )udson during 071?'0715 were blocked by polar ice.
!n the meantime, an e(en greater interest de(eloped in the prospect of a #orthwest Passage.
>espite the claims of $olumbus and Iohn $abot that they had reached sia, it began to dawn on
e.plorers and cartographers alike that the #ew 3orld really was a new world+a continental land
mass separating the tlantic and Pacific oceans and, therefore, separating 8urope from sia, at least
as far as any western shortcut was concerned. )owe(er, the early e.plorations had also re(ealed the
presence of many bays and ri(ers along the northern coast of the new continent, and this suggested
the possibility of a water passage clear through the land mass, maybe all the way to the Pacific
Ocean and spice'rich sia. s it became increasingly clear that the mericas would yield no great
treasures of gold+no Se(en $ities of $ibola+the #ew 3orld was percei(ed by some as less of an
ob4ecti(e than an obstacle.
/he search for the #orthwest Passage may be traced to the 0%E2 (oyage of the &rench
na(igator Iac:ues $artier, who e.plored the St. Lawrence Di(er with the e.press purpose of finding
a passage to $hina. /he 8nglish weighed in when F5'year'old Sir )umphrey Ailbert ;c. 0%E5'CE<
published >iscourse to Pro(e a Passage by the #orthwest to $athia ;,$athia- M $athay M $hina<
in 0%77 which, 00 years later, indirectly led Sir &rancis >rake to sail his famed (essel, the Aolden
)ind, down the tlantic coast of South merica, round /ierra del &uego, and northward, 4ust
beyond San &rancisco, $alifornia. But =artin &robisher ;ca. 0%E5'52<+a typically colorful
8li9abethan sea dog, who had sailed twice to frica, had been captured by the Portuguese, and had
e(en gotten his li(ing through high seas piracy+was the first 8nglishman who deliberately searched
for a #orthwest Passage. )e took three swings. /he first, in 0%?7, yielded the disco(ery of an inlet
in Baffin !sland, now known as &robisher Bay, which &robisher belie(ed was the opening of the
#orthwest Passage. )e also became e.cited by the presence of an ore that looked a lot like gold.
;)ey, maybe merica was not such a bad place after allN< nd &robisher was not the only one who
thought he had struck gold. /he ore attracted a substantial cartel of in(estors who created the
$ompany of $athay, which backed a second (oyage in 0%??, and a third in 0%?C.
#either subse:uent e.pedition found gold, but in Iuly 0% ?C, &robisher sailed up what was
later named )udson Strait, which was an interesting disco(ery in itself, but hardly the #orthwest
Passage. &robisher named it ,=istaken Strait,- ga(e up the search for the passage, and became
(ice'admiral in Sir &rancis >rakes 0%C%'0%C7 e.pedition to the 3est !ndies and later ;0%CC< ser(ed
ably in the defense against the Spanish rmada. !n the meantime, another 8nglishman, Iohn >a(is
;ca. 0%%1'071%<, made three (oyages between 0%C% and 0%C?, e.ploring the western shores of
Areenland, >a(is Strait, and $umberland Sound. &ailing to find the #orthwest Passage, he became
one of the first e.plorers of the rctic, then, in the opposite hemisphere, disco(ered the &alkland
!slands, 2C1 miles northeast of $ape )orn, which would become the ob4ect of a brief and (iolent
05CF war of possession between rgentina and Areat Britain.
>a(is met his end in 071% at the hands of Iapanese in Sumatra. )enry )udson, the ne.t
seeker after the ,passage to !ndia,- became the (ictim of his own crew. !n 07 01'00, after fruitlessly
e.ploring )udson Bay+an inland body of water so (ast that it seemed certain to be the fabled
passage+his crew mutinied, casting adrift and to their deaths )udson and a few loyal men.
Still, the search continued. Between 070F and 070%, /homas Button, Dobert Bylot, and
3illiam Baffin, 8nglishmen all, made additional (oyages to )udson Bay+looking not only for the
#orthwest Passage, but for any sign of the missing )enry )udson. 3hile these e.peditions failed to
achie(e either of their ob4ecti(es, they did create interest in the region and led, in 07?1, to the
creation of the )udsons Bay $ompany, which became one of the most powerful forces for trade
and settlement in #orth merica.
A &olony Vanishes, a &olony A77ears
passage to the 8ast was not the only reason for 8nglish interest in the #ew 3orld. Sir
)umphrey Ailbert, author of the pro(ocati(e tract on the #orthwest Passage, earned renown as a
soldier in the ser(ice of *ueen 8li9abeth !. She knighted him in 0%?1 and, eight years later, granted
him a charter to settle any lands not already claimed by $hristians. /he ambitious 8li9abeth wanted
her island nation to become the center of a new world, the locus of a great trading empire+and she
wanted to do this before Spain and Portugal succeeded in grabbing all of that new world for
themsel(es. 3ith her blessing, then, Ailbert sailed in 0%?5, but was compelled to return when his
fleet broke up. )e set sail again in Iune 0%CE and reached St. Iohns Bay, #ewfoundland, in ugust,
claiming that territory for the :ueen. On his way back to 8ngland, howe(er, Ailberts ship, badly
o(erloaded, foundered and sank with the loss of all hands. /he charter was inherited by Ailberts
half brother, Sir 3alter Daleigh, the E0'year'old fa(orite of *ueen 8li9abeth.
.oano)e (ost
!n 0%C2, Daleigh sent a small reconnaissance fleet to what would become $roatan Sound in
the Outer Banks of #orth $arolina. /hey returned with glowing reports of a land inhabited by
,most gentle, lo(ing and faithful- !ndians who li(ed ,after the manner of the Aolden ge.-
"nighted by his ,@irgin *ueen,- Daleigh named the new land after herB @irginia. !n 0%C%'C7, he
dispatched Sir Dichard Aren(ille with a small group of would'be settlers. Sir &rancis >rake
encountered them a year later, star(ing and wanting nothing so much as passage back to 8ngland.
#othing daunted, Daleigh launched three ships and 00? people ;men, women, and children< to what
is now called Doanoke !sland, off the coast of #orth $arolina, in 0%C?. fter establishing them on
the swampy island, their leader, Iohn 3hite, decided to sail back to 8ngland to fetch the supplies
that Daleigh had promised to send. ;6nknown to 3hite, the supply ships were stalled because of the
attack of the Spanish rmada against 8ngland.< 3hen 3hite returned to the colony in 0%51, he
found no settlers and only the barest trace of a settlement+a few rusted items and what was
apparently the name of a neighboring island car(ed into a treeB $DO/O#.
)ad the colonists fallen prey to diseaseO Star(ationO )ostile !ndians ;who took them capti(e
to ,$roatoan-<O
3ho knowsO
>amesto+n Hangs by a Thread
Daleighs disaster did not shatter 8nglish dreams of colonial e.pansion. t the start of the
0?th century, 8ngland was still militarily and commercially weak in comparison with Spain and
Portugal. >omestically, as the ancient feudal system decayed, the nation was burdened on the one
hand by a displaced peasant class it could no longer feed, and, on the other, it was seeing the rise of
a merchant and artisan class whose markets were e.ceedingly limited. Like Spain, then, 8ngland
needed a new world. !n 071%, two groups of merchants, one calling itself the @irginia $ompany of
London ;often abbre(iated to the London $ompany< and the other the Plymouth $ompany,
recruited a cartel of in(estors and 4oined in a petition to Iames ! for a charter to establish a colony in
the territory of Daleighs patent ;which, as far as anyone knew, encompassed whate(er portion of
#orth merica had not been claimed by Spain<. /he @irginia $ompany was granted a charter to
coloni9e southern @irginia, while the Plymouth $ompany was gi(en rights to northern @irginia.
/he @irginia $ompany mo(ed swiftly to recruit a contingent of 022 settlers, including the
families of moneyed gentlemen as well as poor people. /he latter purchased their passage to
merica and the right of residence in the colony by binding themsel(es to ser(e the @irginia
$ompany for a period of se(en years, working the land and creating a settlement. !n >ecember
0717, the hopeful band of men, women, and children boarded the Susan $onstant, the >isco(ery,
and the Aoodspeed. /hirty'nine perished in the course of the (oyage. /he remaining 01% arri(ed at
the mouth of a ri(er+they called it the Iames'on =ay F2, 071?, and they scratched out Iamestown.
)istorians blithely refer to Iamestown as ,the first permanent 8nglish colony- in the #ew
3orld. ,Permanent,- in this case, is a highly relati(e term. Iamestown was established in a malarial
swamp well past the time of season appropriate for planting crops. !n any case, the ,gentlemen- of
the (enture+those who were not indentured ser(ants+were unaccustomed to manual labor, and
hacking a colony out of the wilderness re:uired the hard work of all hands. 3ithin months, half the
colony was dead or had fled to the mercies of the local !ndians.
/hen matters grew worse.
>ohn Smith and %ocahontas
!n 0715 came what the colonists called ,the star(ing time.- >esperate, the sur(i(ors resorted
to acts of cannibalism and e(en looted the fresh gra(es of their own number as well as those of local
!ndians.
Iamestown would certainly ha(e 4oined the Doanoke colony in a common obli(ion had it not
been for the presence of the soldier of fortune the @irginia $ompany had hired to look after the
military defense of the colony. /he intrepid $aptain Iohn Smith ;ca. 0%?5'07E0< managed to get
himself adopted by the local !ndians, who were led by the powerful old chief Powhatan, and, from
them, obtained enough corn and yams to keep the sur(i(ing colonists from star(ing. )e also
instituted martial law in the colony, sternly declaring that only those who worked would eat.
8nforcing this iron discipline, Smith sa(ed the fledgling colony.
Delations between the colonists and the ,Powhatans- ;the 8nglish named the numerous
lgon:uin !ndian (illages after the single chief who controlled them< were always strained. Simply
by refusing to share their food, the Powhatans could ha(e wiped out the struggling colony at will.
Yet they did not do so, albeit they repeatedly threatened war. >oubtless in an effort to intimidate
$hief Powhatan and his people into maintaining peaceful relations, in 070E, $aptain Samuel rgall
kidnapped his daughter Pocahontas and took her to Iamestown ;and, later, to )enrico< as a hostage.
&ascinated by the 8nglish, the ,!ndian princess- :uickly learned their language and customs+and
rapidly e(ol(ed from hostage to ambassador. !n 0702, with the blessing of her father, she married
Iohn Dolfe, a tobacco planter. /he union brought eight years of peace between the !ndians and the
settlers, a period crucial to the sur(i(al and de(elopment of the colony. ;Dolfe took his bride on a
(oyage back to 8ngland, where she was a fa(orite with London society as well as the royal court.
Sadly, this remarkable young woman succumbed to an illness and died, in 8ngland, on =arch F0,
070?, at the age of FF.<
/o what must ha(e been the great surprise of anyone who had witnessed the first terrible year
at Iamestown, the colony sur(i(ed and e(en prospered. /he indentured colonists, ha(ing fulfilled
their obligations, took control of their own land, on which they planted tobacco, as the !ndians had
taught them. great fondness for the weed de(eloped in 8urope, and merica found its first cash
crop and significant e.port product. /he prospect of growing rich from the culti(ation of tobacco
attracted more settlers. /he @irginia enterprise was, at long last, successfully launched, and the
world'#ew and Old'would ne(er be the same.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he earliest 8nglish interest in the #ew 3orld was moti(ated by a desire to strengthen
the tiny nation through dominance in trade.
!n 071?, Iamestown became the first permanent+albeit precarious+8nglish settlement in
merica.
Stats
Iust how small is 8nglandO 8.clusi(e of 3ales and Scotland, which were not part of the
nation in the 0%11s, 8ngland is only %1,E7E s:uare miles in area.
!ain ?0ent
!t was Dussian sailors who finally found the #ortheast Passage in 072C. Semen !(ano(
>e9hne( sailed from the "olyma Di(er through the Bering Strait to the mouth of the nadyr Di(er
on the Pacific Ocean. @itus Bering, the >anish seafarer for whom the strait is named, sailed from
the Pacific to the rctic Ocean between 0?F% and 0?E1, and Baron #ils . 8. #ordensk4old, a
Swede, made the first through passage from west to east in 0C?C'?5, wintering off the $hukchi
peninsula.
.eal (ife
Sir 3alter Daleigh was a fa(orite courtier of *ueen 8li9abeth 0, who knighted him in 0%C2,
the year he obtained Ailberts patent. By the 0%51s, Daleigh fell out of fa(or with a 4ealous
8li9abeth after he married one of her maids of honor, and the :ueen imprisoned him briefly in 0%5F.
)e was later ,rehabilitated,- howe(er, and went on to ser(e with distinction in na(al e.peditions to
the Auiana coast of South merica ;0%5%<, Spain ;0%57<, and the 9ores ;0%5?<. !n 0711, he was
appointed go(ernor of the !sle of Iersey, ser(ing until 071E, when ad(isers to 8li9abeths successor,
Iames 0, persuaded the new king that Daleigh had conspired against his ascension to the throne.
Daleigh was sentenced to death, but e.ecution was stayed for 0E years, during which he languished
in the /ower of London. !n 0707, he appealed to Iames to send him on an e.pedition in search of
South merican gold. 3hen he returned empty'handed, he was sent back to the /ower+at least in
part because the Spanish crown demanded that he be punished for ha(ing sacked a Spanish
settlement in Auiana. Iames then ordered his e.ecution, for the original conspiracy con(iction, on
October F5, 070C.
,ord for the -ay
=ost of the colonists obtained passage to the #ew 3orld by signing a contract called an
indenture , thereby becoming indentured ser#ants +in effect, sla(es for the se(en'year term of the
agreement. /his would pro(e a (ery popular method of bringing settlers to the fledgling 8nglish
colonies.
Voice from the %ast
)ere is the original Pocahontas+Iohn Smith story, as related in )istory of the Settlement of
@irginia, by the early @irginia merchant /homas Studley and Smith himself+
t last they brought $aptain Smith to Powhatan, their emperor. t $aptain Smiths
entrance before the king, all the people ga(e a great shout. /he :ueen was appointed to
bring him water to wash his hands, and another brought him a bunch of feathers, instead
of a towel, on which to dry them. )a(ing feasted him after the best barbarous manner
they could, a long consultation was held. t last two great stones were brought before
Powhatan. /hen as ,any as could lay hands on $aptain Smith dragged him to the stones,
and laid his head on them, and were ready with their clubs to beat out his brains. t this
instant, Pocahontas, the kings dearest daughter, when no entreaty could pre(ail, got his
head in her arms, and laid her own head upon his to sa(e him from death. /hereupon the
emperor was contented to ha(e him li(e.
A 2oc3 and a Hard 4lace
(%-01#%)55'
In This Chapter
Puritans, *e!aratists, Pil&rims
*ettlement of Plymouth and Massachusetts By colonies
,eli&ious tolerance in ,hode Island, Maryland, and Pennsyl#ania
/&lethor!e%s uto!ia e0!eriment
Introduction of sla#ery
/he settlement of @irginia was moti(ated by a combination of commercial enthusiasm and the
intense social and economic pressures of an 8ngland that had outgrown its ancient feudal system.
&arther north in merica, in the area still known as #ew 8ngland, settlement was moti(ated more
immediately by religious 9eal.
s early as the reign of 8li9abeth !, certain members of the $hurch of 8ngland ;which the
:ueens father, )enry @!!!, se(ered from the Doman $atholic $hurch during 0%E7'21< had become
e.tremely critical about what they considered compromises made with $atholic practice. group of
nglican priests, most of them graduates of $ambridge 6ni(ersity, ad(ocated such articles of
religion as direct personal spiritual e.perience, rigorously sincere moral conduct, and radically
simple worship ser(ices. /hey felt that the mainstream nglican church had not gone far enough in
reforming worship and purging it of $atholic influence. 3hen Iames ! ascended the throne in 071E,
Puritan leaders clamored for reform, including the abolition of bishops. Iames refused, but
Puritanism ;as the new reform mo(ement came to be called< gained a substantial popular following
by the early 0?th century. /he go(ernment and the mainstream nglican $hurch, especially under
rchbishop 3illiam Laud, reacted with repressi(e and discriminatory measures amounting to a
campaign of persecution. Some Puritans left the country, settling in religiously tolerant )olland,
while others remained in 8ngland and formed a powerful bloc within the parliamentarian party that,
under the leadership, of Oli(er $romwell, ultimately defeated ;and beheadedN< $harles ! in the
8nglish $i(il 3ar ;072F'27<.
The 8e+ #srael
/he Puritans who left 8ngland were, logically enough, called Separatists. =ost of them were
farmers, poorly educated, and of lowly social status. One of the Separatist congregations was led by
3illiam Brewster and the De(erend Dichard $lifton in the (illage of Scrooby, #ottinghamshire.
/his group left Scrooby for msterdam in 071C, then, the following year, mo(ed to another >utch
town, Leyden, where they li(ed for 0F years. lthough the Scrooby group had found religious
freedom, they were plagued by economic hardship and were concerned that their children were
growing up >utch rather than 8nglish. !n 070?, they decided on a radical course of action. /hey
(oted to immigrate to merica.
Brewster knew Sir 8dwin Sandys, treasurer of the @irginia $ompany of London, and, through
him, the Scrooby congregation obtained a pair of patents authori9ing them to settle in the northern
part of the companys merican territory. 3ith supplementary financial backing from a London iron
merchant named /homas 3eston, somewhat less than half of the congregation finally chose to
lea(e Leyden. /hey boarded the Speedwell, bound for the port of Southampton, 8ngland, where
they were to unite with another group of Separatists and pick up a second ship. )owe(er, both
groups were dogged by delays and disputes. 6ltimately, 01F souls ;fewer than half of whom were
Separatists< piled into a single (essel, the =ayflower, and embarked from Plymouth on September
07, 07F1.
fter a grueling 7%'day (oyage, the Pilgrims ;as their first historian, 3illiam Bradford, would
later label them< sighted land on #o(ember 05. pparently, rough seas off #antucketforced the
=ayflowers skipper, $aptain $hristopher Iones, to steer away from the mouth of the )udson
Di(er, where the Pilgrims were supposed to establish their ,plantation,- to a landing at $ape $od.
/his lay beyond the @irginia $ompanys 4urisdiction, and some historians belie(e that the Pilgrims
actually bribed $aptain Iones to alter course precisely in order to insure the groups independence
from e.ternal authority. Be that as it may, the =ayflower dropped anchor off present'day
Pro(incetown, =assachusetts, on #o(ember F0.
/here remained two problems. &irst, the settlers consisted of two distinct groupsB the
Separatists, united by their religious beliefs, and the others ;whom the Separatists called
,Strangers-< united by nothing more or less than a desire for commercial success. Second, neither
group had a legal right to settle in the region, which was beyond the boundary of their charter.
3hile riding at anchor, the two groups drew up the ,=ayflower $ompact-+in effect, the first
constitution written in #orth merica'in which they all agreed to create a ,$i(il Body Politic- and
abide by laws created for the good of the colony.
%lymo"th .oc)
/he settlers probed for a good place to land and soon disco(ered Plymouth )arbor, on the
western side of $ape $od Bay. /hey set foot on shore'supposedly on a rock now car(ed with the
year 07F1+on >ecember F0, with the main body of settlers disembarking on >ecember F7. /hey
could hardly ha(e picked a less fa(orable time and place for their landing. bitter #ew 8ngland
winter was already under way, and the site boasted neither good harbors nor, gi(en its flinty soil,
e.tensi(e tracts of fertile land. s at Iamestown, people began to dieB during the first winter, more
than half of them. But these settlers were also (ery different from their earlier Iamestown
counterparts. /hey were neither moneyed gentlemen, on the one hand, nor indentured ser(ants on
the other. =ost were yeoman farmers, hard workers who were by right and inclination free.
&rom their number emerged a succession of able leaders, including Iohn $ar(er ;ca.
0%?7'07F0<, the first go(ernor of Plymouth $olonyG 3illiam Bradford ;0%51'07%?<, go(ernor for
more than E1 years and the colonys most able early historian, the author of )istory or Plymouth
Plantation, 07F1'072?G 3illiam Brewster ;0%7?'0722<G 8dward 3inslow ;0%5%'07%%<, the colonys
indispensable diplomat, who negotiated a treaty with local !ndian chief =assasoit, established (ital
fur'trading enterprises, and managed relations with 8nglandG and =yles Standish ;ca. 0%C2'07%7<, a
professional soldier who ser(ed as the colonys military ad(iser, established its defenses, negotiated
with !ndians, represented the interests of Plymouth in 8ngland ;07F%'F7<, and was a founder of
>u.bury, =assachusetts, in 07EF. But e(en able leadership would ha(e failed to bring the colony
through the first dreadful winter without the aid and succor of the neighboring 3ampanoag !ndians.
/wo in particular, S:uanto ;a Pawtu.et li(ing among the 3ampanoags< and Samoset ;an bnaki<,
ga(e the Pilgrims hands'on help in planting crops and building shelters. Samoset introduced the
settlers to =assasoit, principal leader of the 3ampanoags, and S:uanto ser(ed as interpreter
between the chief and the Pilgrim leaders. /hroughout his lifetime, =assasoit ;that was what the
8nglish called himG his !ndian name was 3awmegin, ,Yellow &eather-< treated the settlers as
friends.
!assach"setts Bay
!nspired by the success of the settlement of Plymouth ;and o(erlooking the hardships in(ol(ed
in it<, another group of Puritans+these only somewhat less radical than the Pilgrims+landed at
=assachusetts Bay in fi(e ships in 07E1. 8le(en more ships arri(ed the ne.t year. 6nder the
auspices of the =assachusetts Bay $ompany, a 4oint stock trading organi9ation chartered by the
8nglish crown in 07F5, F1,111 immigrants, mostly Puritans, would arri(e by 072F, authori9ed to
coloni9e a (ast area e.tending from three miles north of the =errimack Di(er to three miles south
of the $harles Di(er. Led by Iohn 3inthrop, the new =assachusetts Bay $olony was centered in a
city called Boston, and it soon prospered.
&ity on a Hill
/he Puritans wanted to create in the #ew 3orld a new center of right religion, to build what
their sermons ;with reference to the Old /estament< fre:uently called a ,city on the hill-+a place of
holiness that would be an e.ample for all humankind. /oward this end, the Puritans laid great
emphasis on family life and, in particular, on the education of children as well as the education of a
class of clergymen sufficiently learned to interpret the Scriptures as authentically as possible. &or
the Puritans intended to guide their actions by an intensi(e interpretation of the Bible, since they
saw themsel(es as li(ing out a kind of Biblical allegory and prophecy in which they were on an
,errand into the wilderness,- chosen by Aod to build the ,#ew Ierusalem.- /he most immediate
practical effects of these beliefs were the creation of Bostons )igh and Latin Schools as early as
07E%, and )ar(ard $ollege the (ery ne.t year. =oreo(er, the Puritan character rapidly e(ol(ed into
an unlikely combination of a limitless appetite for brilliant religious disputation and flinty
intolerance of nonconforming beliefs. #eedless to say, although they were smart folks, you
wouldnt want to spend a cocktail e(ening with one.
.hode #sland' Ha0en for the Heterodo@
One of the most brilliant masters of religious disputation was the De(erend Doger 3illiams
;ca. 071E'07CE<, who immigrated from 8ngland to Boston in 07E0. )e declined an offer to become
minister of the first Boston congregation because it had not formally separated from the nglican
$hurch. !nstead, 3illiams mo(ed first to Salem, then to Plymouth, and back to Salem. !n each
place, he was critici9ed for his ,strange opinions,- which included a con(iction that the lands
chartered to =assachusetts and Plymouth belonged by right to the !ndians, that a ci(il go(ernment
could not enforce religious laws, and that religion itself ultimately rested on profoundly indi(idual
conscience and perception. Ordered by the Puritan hierarchy to change his (iews, 3illiams refused
and was finally e.pelled from the colony by the =assachusetts Aeneral $ourt in October 07E%. )e
and a handful of followers found refuge in Ianuary 07E7 among the !ndians on #arragansett Bay. t
the head of that bay, 3illiams purchased from his protectors a small tract and founded a town he
called Pro(idence'the first settlement in Dhode !sland.
>uring the ne.t four decades, 3illiams welcomed to Dhode !sland those of all persuasions. !n
0722, during the 8nglish $i(il 3ar, he secured a patent for the colony from the Puritan'controlled
Parliament, and he established a genuinely representati(e go(ernment founded on the principle of
religious freedom. 3illiams returned to 8ngland again, where he successfully defended his colonys
grant against the onslaught of Puritan ob4ections, and after the restoration of $harles !! to the British
throne, he secured a royal charter in 077E, sanctioning the liberal institutions he had created.
!aryland' &atholics ,elcome
/he founding and sur(i(al of heterodo. Dhode !sland made it clear to the Puritans that their
,city on a hill- would not stand alone in merica. !n yet another colony, the interests of a group
e(en more repugnant to the Puritans were taking root.
!n 07EF, "ing $harles ! of 8ngland, under siege from the Puritan faction that would soon
o(erthrow him, granted the Doman $atholic Aeorge $al(ert, &irst Baron Baltimore a charter to
settle #orth merican lands between the 21th parallel and the south bank of the Potomac. /he &irst
Baron Baltimore died before the papers were e.ecuted, and the charter passed to his son $ecil
$al(ert, Second Baron Baltimore. !n #o(ember 07EE, F11 $atholic colonists set sail from 8ngland
in the rk and the >o(e, which landed on =arch F2, 07E2, on an island at the mouth of the
Potomac they named Saint $lement ;it is now called Blakistone !sland<. /he colonists purchased
the !ndian (illage of Yaocomico and called it St. =arys ;it is present'day St. =arys $ity<, which
ser(ed for the ne.t 71 years as the capital of the colony. 6nder Lord Baltimores direction, in 0725,
the $olonial ssembly passed the ct $oncerning Deligion, the first law in the merican colonies
that e.plicitly pro(ided for freedom of worship'although it applied only to $hristians.
%ennsyl0ania' A"a)er &olony
&reedom of worship was the theme for the creation of yet another non'Puritan colony. /he
Society of &riends+commonly called *uakers+was founded in 0?th'century 8ngland by a (isionary
leader named Aeorge &o.. )is belief was in the immediacy of $hrists teachingG that is, di(ine
guidance was not ,mediated- by Scripture, ceremony, ritual, or clergy, but came ultimately to each
indi(idual from an ,inward light.- ccordingly, worship meetings were held in silence, unless some
members of the meeting were ,mo(ed- or ,inspired- to speak. #o minister officiated.
By its nature, *uakerism is sub(ersi(e of authority imposed from the outside, and although a
prime tenet of *uakerism is non(iolence and supreme tolerance of all points of (iew, the religion
was :uickly percei(ed as a threat to the dominant order. *uakers were officially and unofficially
persecuted. Some immigrated to merica, settling in the =iddle tlantic region as well as #orth
$arolina. n early encla(e was established in Dhode !sland.
/he *uakers did ha(e some powerful adherents, one of whom was 3illiam Penn, the brilliant
young son of a prominent British admiral. On =arch 02, 07C0, Penn obtained from "ing $harles !!
a charter granting him proprietorship of the area now encompassed by Pennsyl(ania. !n 07CF,
>elaware was added to the charter. /he region was occupied by some 0%,111 >elaware, Shawnee,
and Sus:uehanna !ndians, as well as tribes associated with the !ro:uois League. >uring the 0?th
century, it was claimed by >utch, Swedish, and 8nglish interests. Penn landed at the site of
present'day #ew $astle, >elaware, and performed ,li(ery of seisin,- legally taking possession of
his grant by pulling up a tuft of grassy turf in his hand. !n 07CF, he founded Philadelphia, a name
Penn formed from two Areek words signifying ,brotherly lo(e.- /he name e.pressed the intent of
what Penn planned as a ,holy e.periment- of li(ing in harmony.
6nder Penn, ,/he Areat Law of Pennsyl(ania- e.tended male suffrage to those who
professed a belief in Aod and met modest property re:uirementsG imprisonment for debt+one of the
great scourges of life in 8ngland'was all but eliminatedG and the death penalty, liberally applied in
the =other $ountry, was restricted to cases of treason and murder. !n a combination of the best
tradition of 8nglish common law and a dramatic foreshadow of the 6nited States Bill of Dights, the
Areat Law specified that no person could be depri(ed of life, liberty, or ,estate- ;property< e.cept
by due, fair, and impartial trial before a 4ury of 0F.
Beorgia' 6to7ia and %rison
&ounded on firm+though di(erse+religious principles, Plymouth, the =assachusetts Bay
$olony, Dhode !sland, =aryland, and Pennsyl(ania were all e.pressions of hope, (ariations on a
theme of desire for a better life. /he origin of Aeorgia was e(en more frankly utopian.
!n 0?EF, Iames 8dward Oglethorpe, whose character combined military discipline ;he was a
general< with a passion for philanthropy, organi9ed a group of 05 wealthy and progressi(e
indi(iduals into a corporation that secured a royal charter to coloni9e Aeorgia as the southernmost
of Britains #orth merican colonies. Oglethorpes bold plan was to create a colony as a ha(en for
(arious Protestant dissenters, but, e(en more importantly, for the (ast and e(er'growing class of
insol(ent debtors who languished in British prisons and also for persons con(icted of certain
criminal offenses. Oglethorpe reasoned that the colony would gi(e the debtors a fresh start and
would reform and rehabilitate the criminals.
Selflessly, Oglethorpe and the other philanthropists agreed to act as trustees of the colony
without taking profits for a period of F0 years. /o promote a utopian way of life, Oglethorpe
prohibited the sale of rum and outlawed sla(ery in the colony. )e also set regulations limiting the
si9e of indi(idual land holdings in an effort to create e:uality. /he first colonists who arri(ed with
Oglethorpe in 0?EE were placed on %%'acre farms, which they were forbidden to sell or transfer. But
this arrangement, key to the pro4ect, was :uickly abandoned. /o begin with, few of the original 011
colonists were debtors or sufferers of religious persecution or e(en criminals ripe for rehabilitation.
/hey were speculators looking for opportunity. /hey soon found ways of circum(enting the %%'acre
limit to land holding, and once large plantations were established, sla(ery followed. Aeorgia was
now no different from 8nglands other southern colonies.
The Sla0es of Virginia
/he introduction of sla(es into Aeorgia was the hardest blow to Oglethorpes dream, and he
returned to 8ngland, disgusted with the entire enterprise. Like most other e(en modestly
enlightened indi(iduals, Oglethorpe regarded sla(ery as e(il. Yet it persisted+e(en in a would'be
utopia+and would persist until it tore a nation apart. 4ust as Aeorgia was a latecomer into the British
colonial fold, so it had adopted sla(ery late in the scheme of things. !n 0705, 4ust 0F years after
Iamestown got its shaky start, >utch traders imported frican sla(es at the behest of the @irginia
tobacco farmers. /he first F1 or so were landed at Iamestown and were not racially discriminated
against, but were classed with white indentured ser(ants brought from 8ngland under work
contracts. !ndeed, many years passed before frican sla(es were brought to the colonies in large
numbers. t first, they were purchased primarily to replace indentured ser(ants who had either
escaped or had ser(ed out the term of their indentures.
s the plantations of the southern colonies, @irginia, the $arolinas, and Aeorgia, e.panded,
demand for sla(ery grew, as did commerce in sla(es. /he so'called ,triangle trade- de(elopedB
Ships lea(ing 8ngland with trade goods landed on the frican west coast, traded the merchandise
for frican sla(es, transported this ,cargo- (ia the ,=iddle Passage.- to the 3est !ndies or the
mainland 8nglish colonies, where the sla(es were e.changed for the (ery agricultural products+
sugar, tobacco, and rice+sla(e labor produced. /he final leg of the triangle was back to 8ngland,
laden with #ew 3orld produce. #or were the northern colonies untouched by the ,peculiar
institution- of sla(ery. lthough a later generation of #ew 8nglanders would pride themsel(es on
being fierce abolitionists, fighters for the freedom of the sla(es, their forefathers had profited from
the trade. #ew 8ngland ports became a regular stop for (essels about to return to Old 8ngland. /he
sugar and molasses ac:uired at southern ports was often unloaded here in order to manufacture rum,
an important #ew 8ngland e.port.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he Pilgrims were Puritans who left 8ngland, settling first in )olland and then in #ew
8ngland ;at Plymouth< in 07F1. Separatists were somewhat less radical Puritans who
settled there ;at =assachusetts Bay< beginning in 07E1.
/he other ma4or 8nglish colonies were also established as ha(ens for freedom of
worshipG Aeorgia was meant to be a utopia.
!ntolerance among the Puritans and sla(ery in the South marred the colonies ideal of
liberty.
!ain ?0ent
!n the fall of 07F0, the Pilgrims in(ited their #ati(e merican benefactors to a feast in
celebration of the first har(est, in which !ndian aid had been so instrumental. /he e(ent was the first
/hanksgi(ing ;unless you count the collecti(e prayer of thanksgi(ing offered on >ecember 2, 0705,
by members of the Berkeley plantation near present'day $harles $ity, @irginia<. Our first president,
Aeorge 3ashington, proclaimed the first national /hanksgi(ing >ay, on #o(ember F7, 0?C5, but it
wasnt until 0C7E that President braham Lincoln made /hanksgi(ing an annual holiday to be
commemorated on the last /hursday in #o(ember. >uring 05E5'20, by proclamation of President
&ranklin >. Doose(elt, the day was celebrated on the third /hursday in #o(ember, but then was
returned by act of $ongress to the date set by Lincoln.
!ain ?0ent
!n &ebruary 075F, two daughters of the De(erend Samuel Parris and le of their friends are
diagnosed by a Salem, =assachusetts, physician as (ictims of witchcraft. 6nder :uestioning, the
girls accuse certain women of being witches. /he town magistrates proceed against the accused on
&ebruary F5 not of the year, accusations multiplyB 021 are accused, 01? of them women. /he royal
go(ernor of =assachusetts, Sir 3illiam Phips, establishes a special court to try more than ?1 of the
cases. Of F7 indi(iduals con(icted, 05 are e.ecuted.
/he Salem witchcraft epidemic, though e.treme, was hardly uni:ue. 3itches had been tried
before 075F in =assachusetts as well as $onnecticut and, e(en more fre:uently, throughout 8urope.
3ho stood accused in all of these placesO ,3itches- were usually poor, elderly women ;sometimes
men< who :uarreled with their neighbors and were generally disrupti(e, disagreeable social misfits.
,ord for the -ay
Pennsyl#ania , which means ,Penns 3oods,- was named by "ing $harles !! not after the
colonys founder and proprietor, but in honor of Penns father, also named 3illiam, a great British
admiral.
6hey Could7e !een Contenders
(%-01#%-10s'
In This Chapter
$ham!lain founds 1uebec
-oliet and Mar+uette disco#er Mississi!!i and claim Louisiana
The 2utch West India $om!any creates "e( "etherland
"e( *(eden
The En&lish seize "e( "etherland and rename it "e( 3or
$ompared to the Spanish, the 8nglish got off to a slow start in the #ew 3orld, but they soon
became one of the two principal forces in the mericas. /he other was &rance, which directed its
main efforts at settlement along the St. Lawrence Di(er in present'day $anada and in the 3est
!ndies. lthough ,black robes-+$atholic priests+came in the wake of &rench e.ploration and set up
missions to the !ndians, religion was ne(er as strong a component of settlement as it was for the
Spanish, nor so compelling a moti(e for settlement as it was for the 8nglish. /he fact was that the
ambitious $ardinal Dichelieu ;0%C%'072F<, who, in effect, ruled &rance as prime minister under the
weak'willed Louis J!!!, needed money to finance his campaign to make &rance the dominant
power in 8urope. nd the #ew 3orld offered opportunity for profit.
?nter &ham7lain
s a boy growing up in &rance, Samuel de $hamplain ;ca. 0%?1'07E%< showed a real flair for
drawing. )e especially liked to design maps+inspired in large part by the tales of ad(enture his
na(al captain father brought home. $hamplain followed in his fathers footsteps and was
commissioned by the &rench go(ernment no fewer than a do9en times between 071E and 07EE to
probe the waters of #orth merica and also e.plore inland. s with so many other e.plorers at this
time, $hamplains primary ob4ecti(e was to find a #orthwest Passage through to sia, but he also
worked to promote trade in furs and other commodities. 3hen Dichelieu became con(inced that
money was to be made from #orth merica, e(en if a #orthwest Passage were ne(er found, he also
authori9ed $hamplain to establish colonies and ;for Dichelieu was a cardinal of the Doman $atholic
$hurch, after all< to promote $hristianity.
$hamplain established a broad beachhead for &rance in #orth merica. >uring the se(en
(oyages made between 071E and 0707, he thoroughly mapped northern reaches of the continent
;accurately charting the tlantic coast from the Bay of &undy to $ape $od<, he established
settlements, he got the &rench fur trade off to a most promising start, and he struck alliances with
the lgon:uin tribes and )urons against the tribes of the powerful !ro:uois League. /hese alliances
would strengthen the &rench position in the #ew 3orld at the often bloody e.pense of their
archri(als, the British, who, during the ne.t 0%1 years, would make few !ndian allies but many
!ndian enemies. Beginning with $hamplain, the lines of alliance and enmity among &renchman,
8nglishman, and !ndian were sharply drawn. /hese would, by the middle of the ne.t century,
deepen into the wounds of the long and tragic &rench and !ndian 3ar.
$hamplain erected a crude settlement at Sainte'$roi. in 0712, then mo(ed it to Port Doyal the
following year. /his was the nucleus around which the colony of cadia would be formed. !n Iuly
071C, $hamplain directed the digging of a ditch and the erection of a stockade. )e called this
*uebec.
!n 0715, operating from his base in *uebec, $hamplain sailed up the St. Lawrence and the
ri(er he named after his patron, Dichelieu, to the lake that was subse:uently named after $hamplain
himself. )ere he attacked a group of !ro:uois, on behalf of his lgon:uin allies, thereby cementing
the &rench'lgon:uin alliance all the more strongly. Later, in 070%, he would (enture farther west,
across the eastern end of Lake Ontario, and help the )uron !ndians in an attack on the Oneida and
Onondaga ;two tribes of the !ro:uois League<. !n these actions, $hamplain was determined to
secure the St. Lawrence region for &rance. )e saw that this ser(ed as a ma4or a(enue of trade for
the !ndians. 3hoe(er commanded the region would also command trade in the upper #ortheast. Of
course, securing alliance with one !ndian group meant incurring the wrath of another. nd the
!ro:uois were enemies to be feared. )ighly organi9ed, the !ro:uois League+fi(e tribes, whose
territory stretched from the east coast west to Lake Ontario+waged war mercilessly, employing
tactics of torture and terror to intimidate their enemies.
$hamplain was an enthusiastic booster of $anada, promoting it in the &rench court of Louis
J!!! and Dichelieu, yet he initially discouraged out'and'out coloni9ation. Little wonder. &or
$hamplain was interested in operating *uebec as a kind of pri(ate trading post, with himself in a
position to collect a healthy portion of the profits. #e(ertheless, the settlement was the nucleus of a
&rench #orth merican fur'trading empire that would endure for the ne.t 0F% years.
The S"n *ing &asts His .ays
Louis J!@ was born to Louis J!!! and his :ueen, nne of ustria, on September %, 07EC.
&our years later, Louis J!!! died, and his son ascended the throne under the regency of $ardinal
=a9arin. Only on the death of =a9arin in 0770 did Louis J!@ begin to rule in his own right, and
thoughts of #ew &rance, while not uppermost in his mind, were at least in his mind. 6nlike his
father+and $ardinal Dichelieu+Louis J!@ did not want #ew &rance to be merely a source of :uick
trade profit. )e understood that, in order to hold the colony, it had to be a genuine colony, populated
not 4ust by coureurs de bois, but by sturdy, stable yeoman farmers.
3hat happened in 07?0, then, shouldnt ha(e been a surprise. Pierre'Spirit Dadisson and
=edart $houart two coureurs, proposed to the emperor a scheme to create a company that would
effecti(ely monopoli9e the northern fur trade. But that wasnt all. /hey promised also to find the
#orthwest Passage, which ;they said< would become an e.clusi(ely &rench route for the
transportation of fur directly to sia. !n Iapan and $hina, a little fur would buy a lot of spice. But
the king was not interested in sending his sub4ects on such errands. !n response to the proposal, he
sent women to #ew &rance in order to entice trappers like Dadisson and $houart to settle downG he
also offered a bounty to be paid for those who sired large families in #ew &ranceG and, finally, he
urged the $hurch to e.communicate men who left their farms without the go(ernments permission.
!n turn, Dadisson and $houart made their own responseB /hey went to the 8nglish and secured
backing to create the )udsons Bay $ompany, which would be for many years the single most
powerful mercantile force on the #orth merican continent.
/wo years later, the &rench intendant ;chief administrator< in $anada, Iean Baptiste /alon,
stuck his neck out and went against official policy by hiring a fur trader named Louis Ioliet to
follow up on something he had heard from the !ndians'tales concerning a ,father- of all the ri(ers.
Perhaps this would pro(e to be the passage to the Pacific, /alon thought. /he !ndians called it the
,=esippi.- But /alon despaired of e(er actually getting Ioliet on the mo(e, because a new go(ernor
was due to arri(e from &rance, and surely he would nip the e.pedition in the bud.
/o /alons surprise and delight, the go(ernor, Le $omte de &rontenac, a crusty old man who
ne(ertheless possessed a combination of shrewd practicality and (ision for the future, appro(ed the
e.pedition. 8(en if Ioliet failed to find a passage to the Pacific, &rontenac reasoned, pushing the
claims of &rance westward was of great strategic importance in and of itself.
Ioliet, with a Iesuit priest named Iac:ues =ar:uette, did not find a shortcut to the western
ocean, but did find the =ississippi, thereby establishing &rances claim to a (ast portion of what one
day would be the 6nited States. !n honor of their monarch, they called the territory Louisiana, and it
encompassed ;as the &rench saw it< a (ast e.panse of land between the ppalachian and Docky
=ountains.
#ot that the &rench really knew what to do with all they had found. Louis J!@+called the
,Sun "ing- because of the magnificence of his opulent court and his e(en more opulent dreams of
greatness for a &rench empire+had (isions of a (ast agricultural kingdom to reflect in the #ew
3orld the glories of the Old. But, by the end of Louiss long reign and life, #ew &rance consisted of
nothing more than a scattering of precarious settlements in #o(a Scotia, along the St. Lawrence,
and one or two isolated outposts in Louisiana.
The -"tch #n0est C34 in !anhattan .eal ?state
So, lets see. /he 8nglish set up Iamestown in 071?. *uebec was founded by &rance the ne.t
year. nd, in 0715, )enry )udson, sailing in the >utch ser(ice, reached the site of present'day
lbany. Like e(erybody and his brother, he was looking for the #orthwest Passage. nd like
e(eryone who looked for it, he failed. )owe(er, his search did gi(e the #etherlands a claim to the
richest fur'bearing region of #orth merica south of the St. Lawrence.
/his did not bring a rush of coloni9ation. handful of >utch sea captains traded for furs with
the !ndians+often bartering hard li:uor+but a colonial mo(ement did not get underway until the
>utch 3est !ndia $ompany was founded in 07F0. lthough it strikes us today as culturally and
geographically bi9arre, )olland was once controlled by Spain. !t was one of that nations se(en
#orthern Pro(inces until 0%C0, when it declared independence. 6nfortunately, Spain did not
recogni9e this claim, and the >utch 3est !ndia $ompany was founded by the young >utch
Depublic as part of a long, ongoing struggle to remain free.. /he company was authori9ed to
commission pri(ateers to disrupt Spains trade with its merican colonies and, a little later, to
undertake coloni9ation efforts in Bra9il, >utch Auiana ;now Surinam<, the ntilles, and in the
#orth merican region staked out by )enry )udson, which, in 07FE, was christened #ew
#etherland. /he following year, the company established a trading post at &ort Orange ;present 'day
lbany<, and in 07F7 dispatched Peter =inuit ;ca. 0%C1'07EC< to ser(e as the colonys first
director'general.
/he con:uistadors of Spain, when they came to the mericas, simply took the !ndians land.
But most of the other 8uropean coloni9ers made attempts to buy the land. !t seemed more legal that
way. =inuits first step, then, was to legitimate >utch claims to #ew #etherland by purchasing
=anhattan !sland from the =anhattan !ndians, a band of the >elaware tribe, for trade goods (alued
in 07F2 at 71 guilders. #ow, that figure was computed by a 05th'century historian as being the
e:ui(alent of PF2, but, with a hundred and more years worth of inflation, that computation hardly
stands as an eternal truth. Still, it is interesting to contemplate the fact that, today, all PF2 will buy
you is a slot in a =anhattan parking garage near Dadio $ity =usic )all for about 0F hours, and
generations of self'satisfied readers of history ha(e chuckled o(er what has been called the greatest
real estate bargain in history. &ew ha(e stopped to think, howe(er, that the 4oke was not on the
!ndians. fter all, they ne(er claimed to own =anhattan !sland. /he concept of land ownership was
foreign to most #ati(e merican cultures. &or them, land was part of the natural world, and you
could no more own the land you walked on than you could own, say, the air you breathed. !f =inuit
wanted to part with a load of trade goods 4ust because an island was named after them, the
=anhattan !ndians were not about e.plain to him the error of his ways. !n any case, =inuit built a
fort at the tip of the island and called it #ew msterdam.
A Tale of T+o Bo0ernors
/he >utch established a profitable trade with the !ndians of #ew #etherland during the 07F1s
and 07E1s+a period ;as we shall see in the ne.t chapter< during which #ew 8ngland settlers were
locked in bloody war with their #ati(e merican neighbors. !t wasnt that the >utch were kinder
and gentler than the 8nglish, but that, at first, they were interested in trading rather than settling
down on farms. Once the local supply of bea(ers ;whose pelts were the principal trade commodity<
became depleted due to o(erhunting, the >utch also started to stake out farms, thereby displacing
the !ndians.
By 07EC, when 3illem "ieft ;0%5?'072?< arri(ed in #ew #etherland as the colonys fifth
go(ernor, two intimately related truths were operati(eB @iolence between the >utch and !ndians was
fre:uent, and aggressi(e territorial e.pansion had become a prime >utch ob4ecti(e. "ieft was
appalled by the condition of #ew msterdam. !ts defenses were practically none.istent, and its
capacious harbor boasted only one seaworthy (essel. ssuming dictatorial powers, he made
sweeping reforms in ci(il and military administration. mong these was a hea(y ta. imposed on the
local !ndians in return for defending them against ,hostiles-+mainly the =ohawks. !n truth, the
=ohawks had become important trading partners with the >utch and were now allies+henchmen,
really+whom "ieft deliberately used to terrori9e other tribes. /he ,defense- ta. was actually
protection money, and "ieft was beha(ing no better than a gangster.
3hen the Daritan !ndians, li(ing near #ew msterdam, refused to pay the protection money
in 0720 and attacked an outlying >utch colony, "ieft declared brutal war on them. /wo years later,
he put the s:uee9e on the 3appinger !ndians, who li(ed along the )udson Di(er abo(e =anhattan.
/o con(ince them of the wisdom of paying tribute, he unleashed the =ohawks on them. /he
3appingers fled down to Pa(onia ;present'day Iersey $ity, #ew Iersey<, 4ust across the )udson
from =anhattan. &ailing to understand the situation, they appealed to "ieft for aid. !n response, he
dispatched the =ohawks to Pa(onia, then sent >utch troops in to finish off the refugees. >uring the
night of &ebruary F%'F7, 072E, >utch soldiers killed men, women, and children in what was later
called the ,Slaughter of the !nnocents.- /he heads of C1 !ndians were brought back to #ew
msterdam, where soldiers and citi9ens used them as footballs. /hirty prisoners were publicly
tortured to death.
&ollowing the atrocity, 00 local tribes united in waging war against the settlers of #ew
#etherland. "ieft frantically parleyed with the !ndians, fruitlessly seeking peace. )is own colony,
panic'stricken, threatened rebellion. t last, in 072%, the >utch 3est !ndia $ompany recalled "ieft
to )olland and replaced him with a crotchety one'legged son of a $al(inist minister, Peter
Stuy(esant.
/he autocratic Stuy(esant immediately set about whipping the colony into shape, restricting
the sale of alcohol and persecuting *uakers and Lutherans, whom he feared would lead the
impending re(olt. On the positi(e side, he tried earnestly to pro(ide an honest and efficient
administration, including a limited public works campaign of impro(ing roads, repairing fences,
constructing a wharf on the 8ast Di(er, and building a defensi(e wall on the northern edge of #ew
msterdam along a ,crosstown- pathway that would be named for itB 3all Street.
s to the !ndians, Stuy(esant stro(e to reestablish trading relationships, but he continued
"iefts policy of ruthlessness, especially against the 8sopus, whose children he took and held as
hostages in 0.7%5 to insure the tribes ,good beha(ior.- nd when the 8sopus refused to yield all of
their children as directed, Stuy(esant sold those he held into the 3est !ndian sla(e trade. /heir
parents ne(er saw them again.
!t was, howe(er, Stuy(esants despotism in go(erning the colony itself that led to the decay of
his power, as the burghers of #ew msterdam clamored for increased self'go(ernment, which the
3est !ndia $ompany finally granted them. Beyond the confines of #ew #etherland, Stuy(esant had
mi.ed success in dealing with the colonies of other 8uropean powers, beginning with #ew Sweden.
S+eden #n the -ela+are Valley
!n 07%%, Stuy(esant e.panded his colony into the >elaware @alley. /he fact that the region
was already held by Sweden did not deter him. )e simply in(aded, and #ew Sweden 4ust as simply
yielded. /he colony had been founded by =anhattans own Peter =inuit, who, ha(ing been recalled
from #ew #etherland to )olland in 07E0, subse:uently entered into the ser(ice of Sweden ;=inuit
was neither >utch nor Swedish by nationality, but had been born in the >uchy of $le(es, a
Aermanic state<. !n any case, the #ew Sweden $ompany, formed in 07EE, was a 4oint Swedish and
>utch enterprise. =inuit led the companys first e.pedition in 0.7EC and established a settlement on
the site of present'day 3ilmington, >elaware, which he named &ort $hristina in honor of the
Swedish :ueen. 3ithin a short time, the >utch dropped out of the colony, and #ew Sweden, lying
along >elaware Di(er in what is now >elaware, #ew Iersey, and Pennsyl(ania, became e.clusi(ely
Swedish. 6nder the administration of go(ernors Iohan B4ornsson Print9 ;0, 72E'%E< and Iohan
$laesson Dising ;07%2'%%<, friction de(eloped with #ew #etherland, and Stuy(esant in(aded,
anne.ing the territory. /hus concluded the cameo appearance of Sweden as an actor on the #ew
3orld stage.
8e+ 8etherland Becomes 8e+ Yor)
But for Stuy(esant, it was win a little, lose a little+and then lose it all. Delations between #ew
#etherland and #ew 8ngland became increasingly strained as the colonies competed for !ndian
loyalty and trade. /he >utch were at a disad(antage not 4ust militarily, but also as (ictims of the
settlement scheme established by the >utch 3est !ndia $ompany. 3hereas the 8nglish settled #ew
8ngland, @irginia, and the other southern colonies with relati(e speed, putting in place a
combination of wealthy planters and yeoman farmers, >utch settlement was hampered by the
patroon system, a process whereby land grants of appro.imately 07 miles along one side of the
)udson ;and other na(igable ri(ers< or about C miles on both banks ;and e.tending for unspecified
distances away from the ri(er< were made to absentee landlords who installed tenant farmers. /hus
#ew #etherland was largely a colony of tenants rather than property holders, and this state of
affairs retarded settlement and made patriotism among the #ew #etherlanders pretty much a lost
cause. 8(en in the 0?th century, tenancy, as opposed to ownership, went counter to the merican
>ream.
By the 0771s, #ew #etherland was weak and torn by dissension. Peter Stuy(esant stumped
about on his peg leg and rattled his saber, but he could not rally his countrymen. On September C,
0772, a fleet of British warships sailed up the )udson. /he >utch colonists simply declined to offer
resistance, lea(ing a supremely frustrated Stuy(esant no choice but to surrender, albeit on the
important condition that the 3est !ndia $ompany continue to en4oy substantial trading rights. /he
British promptly renamed both the colony and its chief town after the >uke of York ;the future "ing
Iames !!<, and Stuy(esant retired peacefully to his farm, which he called the Bouwerie. /hrough the
years, the tran:uil country path passing through his farm was transformed. !n the 05th century, it
became a racy street of ine.pensi(e theaters, and, by the early F1th, a gray and dilapidated a(enue
of cheap bars known as the Bowery and symbolic of other merican dreams that somehow went
awry.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he &rench claimed (ast tracts of land, but failed to ade:uately coloni9e them.
lthough they set up a li(ely trade with the !ndians, the >utch likewise failed to create an
enduring colony.
,ord for the -ay
$anada and the northeastern 6nited States are filled with &renchified !ndian place names.
1uebec is how an lgon:uian !ndian word meaning ,abrupt narrowing of the ri(er- sounded to
$hamplains &rench ears. *uebec $ity is located at the narrow head of the St. Lawrence Di(er
estuary.
,ord for the -ay
/he terms Al&on+uin, Al&on+uian cause confusion. ,lgon:uin- describes any of (arious
#ati(e merican peoples who li(e or li(ed in the Ottawa Di(er (alley of *uebec and Ontario.
,lgon:uian- is a family of !ndian languages. /ribes linguistically related through dialects of this
language are collecti(ely referred to as lgon:uian+not lgon:uin. /he other ma4or !ndian
linguistic family in eastern #orth merica is the Iro+uoian .
,ord for the -ay
$oureurs de bois +runners of the woods+was a name applied to a class of men who got their
li(ing by trapping fur'bearing animals. /heir profession re:uired them to combine the roles of
e.plorer, woodsman, diplomat, trader, hunter, and trapper. /he coureurs, though often barely
ci(ili9ed sel(es, were the pioneers of ci(ili9ation in the upper #ortheast.
,ord for the -ay
/he landlords of #ew #etherland were called !atroons . /hey were in(estors in the >utch
3est !ndia $ompany who were granted estates along the )udson and other na(igable ri(ers on the
condition that they send %1 settlers within four years to occupy the land. /he system ne(er worked
well, in part because the landlords+many of whom remained in )olland+were unable to manage
their lands efficiently, and the tenants felt they had little stake in the colony.
Fires in the Wilderness
(%-5-#%)(1'
In This Chapter
The Pe+uot War
4in& Phili!%s War
Euro!e%s (ars come to "orth America
Wars in the southern colonies
War be&ins o#er a se#ered ear
merica was and remains a synonym for hopes and dreams. merica has brought out the best
of which humanity is capable+a dream of 4ustice, a hope for liberty+and it has brought out the
worst. &irst it became a battleground on which #ati(e mericans fought against an in(asion from
8urope. /hen it became a battlefield on which the in(aders fought one another, often embroiling the
#ati(e mericans in their conflicts. Often, the in(aders retreated into the distance and let the #ati(e
mericans fight their wars for them. ll in all, it was a (ery bloody beginning.
8e+ ?ngland Bleeds
/he only thing thats certain is that the murder of $aptain Iohn Stone in 07E2 was not the
work of Pe:uots. s to the rest, the accounts of the !ndians and the 8nglishmen differ.
/he Pe:uots were a powerful lgon:uian tribe settled along the $onnecticut Di(er. Desenting
the intrusion of >utch traders in the $onnecticut (alley, they waged a small, bitter war against the
>utch. /hen, in 07E2, Stone, an 8nglishman, was killed as his ship lay at anchor at the mouth of the
$onnecticut Di(er. #e(er mind that Stone was a pirate, who had tried and failed to hi4ack a (essel in
#ew msterdam, had brandished a knife before the go(ernor of Plymouth $olony, and had been
deported from the =assachusetts Bay $olony for drunkenness and adultery, and ne(er mind that the
!ndians claimed Stone had kidnapped some of their people. /ensions were so high between
colonists and !ndians that the #ew 8nglanders demanded action against the Pe:uots for the murder
of Iohn Stone.
The %e9"ot ,ar
&or their part, the Pe:uots didnt want any trouble. lthough no one accused any Pe:uot of
ha(ing laid a finger on Stone, the murder was clearly the work of western #iantics, a tribe that was
nominally under Pe:uot control. Seeking to a(ert a war, the Pe:uots accepted responsibility and
signed a treaty with the =assachusetts Bay $olony in which they promised to surrender those guilty
of the murder. /hey also agreed to pay an e.orbitant indemnity, relin:uish rights to a (ast tract of
$onnecticut land, and trade e.clusi(ely with the 8nglish rather than the >utch. part of the
indemnity was paid, but the Pe:uots claimed that, of the murderers, all were dead ;one at the hands
of the >utch, the others of smallpo.<, e.cept for two, who had escaped.
&or two years, the =assachusetts Bay colonists did nothing. /hen, on Iune 07, 07E7,
=ohegan !ndians warned the 8nglish that the Pe:uots, fearful that the colonists were about to take
action, had decided on a preempti(e strike. new conference between the Pe:uots and the colonists
was called at &ort Saybrook, $onnecticut, and agreements were reached, but word soon arri(ed of
the death of another captain, Iohn Oldham, off Block !sland. /his time, the perpetrators were
#arragansetts ;or a tribe sub4ect to them<, and although the #arragansett sachems immediately
dispatched F11 warriors to a(enge the deaths on behalf of the colony, the 8nglish sent $aptain Iohn
8ndecott to Block !sland with orders to sei9e the !ndians stores of wampum, slaughter all the men
they could find, and take capti(e the women and children for sale as sla(es in the 3est !ndies.
/he !ndians, anticipating 4ust such beha(ior, had fled. frustrated 8ndecott paid a (isit to the
Pe:uots 4ust beyond &ort Saybrook and set about burning their (illages.
Soon, all of the $onnecticut (alley burned, as the enraged !ndians retaliated, putting to the
torch one 8nglish settlement after another, and the colonists responded against the Pe:uots in kind.
3hat moti(ated 8ndecott to bring down a bloody war upon !ndian and colonist alikeO Dacial
hatredO Blind stupidityO $ertainly, both of these things. But, as would be the case with all the
white'!ndian wars of the colonial period, there was a moti(e of power politics as well, in which the
!ndians figured as pawns ruthlessly played by the competing 8uropean powers. !n the case of the
Pe:uot 3ars, both of the competitors were 8nglish. /he =assachusetts Bay $olony and the settlers
of the $onnecticut (alley disputed o(er possession of the (alley. 3hoe(er asserted dominion o(er
the Pe:uots, whose country lay precisely within the disputed territory, would ha(e a strong legal
claim to the region. 8ndecott, a soldier in ser(ice to =assachusetts Bay, was eager for a fight in
order to dominate the Pe:uots and thereby beat out the $onnecticut settlers. But the (ery
competiti(eness of the #ew 8ngland colonies made effecti(e unified action against the !ndians
almost impossible, and it wasnt until the spring of 07E? that the disorgani9ed colonial forces were
able to enlist the aid of the #arragansetts, 8astern #iantics, and =ohegans+all ri(als of the
Pe:uots+in order to mount a counteroffensi(e. $aptain Iohn =ason, in command of the
colonial'!ndian coalition, attacked a (illage at =ystic, $onnecticut, where he killed 711'?11
Pe:uots+mostly women, children, and old men+in the space of an hour.
&ollowing the =ystic massacre, the Pe:uots were defeated at e(ery turn. On September F0,
07EC, the /reaty of )artford di(ided the Pe:uot prisoners of war as sla(es among the allied tribes+
=ohegans, #arragansetts, and #iantics+and further stipulated that no Pe:uot could inhabit his
former country again. !ndeed, the treaty proclaimed, the (ery name ,Pe:uot- would be fore(er
e.punged.
*ing %hili7/s ,ar
n e(en more destructi(e war broke out in #ew 8ngland less than 21 years later, again o(er a
murder. On Iune 00, 07?%, a farmer saw an !ndian looting his cattle. )e killed the !ndian. /he local
3ampanoag chief, called =etacomet by the !ndians and ;with contempt< "ing Philip by the
8nglish, sought 4ustice from the local garrison. Debuffed, the !ndians took 4ustice into their own
hands and killed the hot'tempered farmer, then killed his father and fi(e other settlers.
But the war had actually been brewing for some time. "ing Philip was the son of =assasoit,
the chief who had been so friendly to the #ew 8nglanders. &aced with the colonists insatiable land
hunger, their rising population, and their highhanded, contemptuous treatment of himself, "ing
Philip was not inclined toward friendship. Beginning about 077F, he stirred rebellion among the
#arragansetts and the #ipmucks as well as his own 3ampanoags. t first, the colonists were
hobbled by the same problem they had during the Pe:uot 3ar. >isorgani9ed and apparently
incapable of unified action, the #ew 8nglanders suffered (ery hea(y losses during the first months
of the war. !t was only after they managed to 4oin forces as the 6nited $olonies that =assachusetts,
Plymouth, Dhode !sland, $onnecticut, and the more remote ,8astern $olonies-+=aine and #ew
)ampshire+began to take the initiati(e.
"ing Philips 3ar was an unmitigated catastrophe for colonists and !ndians alike. >uring
07?%'?7, half the regions towns were badly damaged and at least 0F utterly wiped out. /he colonial
economy was left in tatters because of the disruption of the fur trade, coastal fishing, and the 3est
!ndian trade. /he 3ampanoags, #arragansetts, and #ipmucks lost a great many of their number. s
for the colonists, proportional to the population at the time, "ing Philips 3ar stands to this day as
the costliest conflict in merican history.
The $rench and #ndian ,ars
/he Pe:uot 3ar and "ing Philips 3ar were strictly colonial tragedies. /he series of wars that
followed, howe(er, were reflections of conflicts that had engulfed 8urope.
*ing ,illiam/s ,ar
"ing 3illiam !!! ascended the 8nglish throne in 07C5, after Iames !! had been ousted in a
Protestant re(olt. 3illiam almost immediately ;=ay 0F, 07C5< committed his nation to the Arand
lliance, 4oining the League of ugsburg and the #etherlands to oppose &rench king Louis J!@s
in(asion of the Dhenish Palatinate. !n 8urope, this resulted in an eight'year conflict known as the
3ar of the League of ugsburg. !n merica, the struggle was called "ing 3illiams 3ar and pitted
the &rench and bnaki !ndians ;of =aine< against the 8nglish and their allies among the !ro:uois.
/he #ew 3orld theater of this war ga(e rise to a new kind of fighting. !n 07C5, Louis J!@
dispatched Louis de Buade, comte de &rontenac, to merica as go(ernor of #ew &rance. )e had
ser(ed in that capacity before+from 07?F to 0?CF+but was so dictatorial that he was recalled to
&rance at the re:uest of those he go(erned. Louis understood that what his colonies needed 4ust now
was precisely what this tough ?1'year'old had to offerB a stomach for relentless aggression.
&rontenac proposed not merely a defensi(e strategy against the British, but an in(asion of #ew
York. )is only problem, he soon reali9ed, was that he did not ha(e the manpower to in(ade
anybody. /he solution, &rontenac decided, was to fight a ,little war,- one that consisted not of grand
strategies and the mass mo(ement of great armies fighting 8uropean'style battles, but of ambushes,
murders, and terror+mostly carried out by !ndian allies. Properly coordinated, such action would
demorali9e the 8nglish settlers while simultaneously draining their military resources.
&rontenacs ,little war- was a dreary pattern of raid and counter'raid, without much decisi(e
action, but with plenty of misery to go around from Iuly 07C5, when La $hine, *uebec, was
ra(aged by !ro:uois, to September 0750, when Ben4amin $hurch, aged hero of "ing Philips 3ar,
was called out of retirement to defend Saco, =aine. By the end of the month, the 8nglish struck a
truce with bnakis, which, howe(er, was soon (iolated.
!n September 075?, the /reaty of Dyswyck ended the 3ar of the League of ugsburg in
8urope and, therefore, officially ended "ing 3illiams 3ar in merica, but raids and counter'raids
continued through the end of the 0?th century.
A"een Anne/s ,ar
#ow its time to return to the cheerful precincts of ,ci(ili9ed- 8urope. 8ngland, )olland, and
ustria had the 4itters o(er an alliance struck between &rance and Spain when "ing $harles !! of
Spain, a )apsburg ;that is, originally an ustrian<, died in 0?11, ha(ing named a Bourbon ;that is,
originally a &renchman< as his successor. /he &rench, naturally, backed $harless nominee, Philip
of n4ou, the grandson of Louis J!@. 8ngland, )olland, and ustria threw their support behind the
Ba(arian rchduke $harles, second son of the )apsburg emperor Leopold !. /hese three nations
then formed a new Arand lliance in 0?10, and the 3ar of the Spanish Succession was declared
between the Arand lliance and &rance and Spain on =ay 2, 0?1F. !n merica, the conflict was
called *ueen nnes 3ar. /he war began on September 01, 0?1F, when the South $arolina
legislature authori9ed an e.pedition to sei9e the Spanish'held fort and town of Saint ugustine,
&lorida. 3hen a combined force of %11 colonists and $hickasaw !ndians failed to breach the fort,
they settled for burning the town instead.
#ot une.pectedly, this act brought a series of counter'raids from Spanish'allied ppalachee
!ndians, which prompted South $arolina go(ernor Iames =oore to lead a force of militiamen and
$hickasaws in a destructi(e sweep of western &lorida during Iuly 0?12. /he resultB Se(en (illages
and 0E Spanish missions ;out of 02 in the area< were ra9ed, and the ppalachee were effecti(ely
annihilated as a tribe. Strategically, =oores campaign opened a path into the heart of &rench
Louisiana. nticipating this, &rench colonial authorities hea(ily bribed the $hoctaws into an
alliance which blocked =oores ad(ance into Louisiana.
!n the meantime, up north, the &rench had managed to gather e(en more !ndian allies,
especially among the bnakis, who ra(aged 8nglish settlements in =aine ;where *ueen nnes
3ar was called the bnaki 3ar<. &arther north, in #o(a Scotia, Ben4amin $hurch, now so
enfeebled by old age that he had to be carried into battle, terrori9ed the &rench cadian settlements
of =inas and Beaubassin during Iuly 0?12, while, in #ewfoundland, &rench and !ndian forces
retaliated during ugust by destroying the 8nglish settlement at Bona(ista. /he war raged+from
Saint ugustine, &lorida, to St. Iohns, #ewfoundland ;captured by the &rench 4ust before $hristmas
0?1C<+not in a series of great battles, but in a string of murders, raids, and counter'raids.
!n 0?0E, Louis J!@, weary of war and crushed under hea(y debt, was ready to end the wars in
8urope and merica. /he cause of the 3ar of the Spanish Succession had become a moot point.
/he 00'year'old Ba(arian archduke backed by the Arand lliance had died, and Louiss grandson
Philip of n4ou ascended the Spanish throne by default. /he /reaty of 6trecht ;Iuly 0E, 0?0E<
ended the 8uropean and merican wars, with )udson Bay and cadia becoming 8nglish and the St.
Lawrence islands becoming &rench. /he bnakis swore allegiance to the 8nglish crown, but
continued to raid the 8nglish settlements of =aine for years.
T"scarora and Yemasee ,ars
t about the time *ueen nnes 3ar was winding down, the /uscarora !ndians in #orth
$arolina were growing tired of being cheated and abused by colonial traders, to whom they
continually lost goods and land and at whose hands they e(en suffered abduction for sale into the
3est !ndies sla(e trade. 3ishing to a(oid war, the /uscaroras, in 0?15, obtained permission from
the go(ernment of Pennsyl(ania to migrate there. /he go(ernment of #orth $arolina refused to
furnish the re:uired certificate to make the migration possible. fter all, the #orth $arolina traders
en4oyed making a profit from the !ndians. !n 0?01, a Swiss entrepreneur named Baron $ristoph (on
Araffenried founded the settlement of #ew Bern at the confluence of the #euse and /rent ri(ers in
#orth $arolina. Araffenried chose not to purchase his land from the /uscaroras, but instead secured
the blessing of #orth $arolinas sur(eyor general to ,appropriate- the property and dri(e the
!ndians off.
/hat was the final straw for the /uscaroras. On September FF, 0?00, they attacked #ew Bern,
killing F11 settlers, including C1 children. Demarkably, Araffenried, captured and released,
managed to negotiate peace, only to ha(e it broken by 3illiam Brice, who, thirsting for re(enge,
captured a local chief of the $oree tribe ;allies of the /uscaroras< and roasted him ali(e. /he war
was renewed, and, as if Brices act had set its tone, was filled with more than the usual :uota of
atrocities, including the death'by'torture of scores of capti(e soldiers and settlers.
#orth $arolina called on South $arolina for help. !n 0?0E, South $arolinas $olonel Iames
=oore combined EE militiamen and 0,111 allied !ndians with the troops of #orth $arolina to strike
all the principal /uscarora settlements. /his force killed hundreds of /uscaroras and captured some
211 more, whom the go(ernor sold into sla(ery to defray the costs of the campaign. peace treaty
was signed in 0?0%, and those /uscaroras who managed to escape death or ensla(ement migrated
north, e(entually reaching #ew York. !n 0?FF, they were formally admitted into the !ro:uois
League as its ,si.th nation.-
#o sooner was the 0?0% treaty concluded than the Yemasees, a South $arolina tribe, rose up
against their white neighbors for much the same reasons that had moti(ated the /uscarorasB abuse,
fraud, and ensla(ement. /he military response, led by South $arolina go(ernor $harles $ra(en, was
swift and terrible. 3ith the aid of $herokee allies, the Yemasees were hunted to the point of tribal
e.tinction.
*ing Beorge/s ,ar
=en ha(e seldom needed to look (ery hard for a reason to start a war. /his one began with the
loss of an ear. &ollowing *ueen nnes 3ar ;or, if you prefer, the 3ar of the Spanish Succession<,
8ngland concluded the ,ssiento- with &rances ally, Spain. /his was a contract permitting the
8nglish to trade with the Spanish colonies in goods and sla(es.
8nglish traders soon abused the pri(ileges granted by the ssiento, howe(er, and Spanish
officials responded harshly. !n one case, Spanish coast guards sei9ed Dobert Ienkins, master of the
British merchant ship Debecca, and cut off his ear during an interrogation. 3ord of this outrage
triggered the ,3ar of Ienkinss 8ar- in 0?E5 between 8ngland and Spain, resulting in an aborti(e
in(asion of Spanish &lorida by Aeorgias Iames Oglethorpe in 0?21.
>uring this time, the 3ar of Ienkinss 8ar dissol(ed into a larger conflict, known in 8urope as
the 3ar of the ustrian Succession ;0?21'2C<. /he death of the )oly Doman 8mperor $harles @! in
0?21 brought se(eral challenges to the succession of daughter =aria /heresa as monarch of the
)apsburg ;ustrian< lands. !t looked as if the )apsburg territories were ripe for the plucking, and
"ing &rederick the Areat of Prussia mo(ed first to claim his slice by in(ading Silesia. &rance,
Spain, Ba(aria, and Sa.ony 4oined &redericks fold, while Britain came to the aid of =aria /heresa.
Once again, the 8uropean conflict also appeared in an e.port (ersionB "ing Aeorges 3ar.
!t was fought mainly by #ew 8nglanders against the &rench of #o(a Scotia and again resulted
in a wilderness in flames. /erritory changed hands, but only temporarilyG for the 0?2C /reaty of
i.'la'$hapelle, which ended the 3ar of the ustrian Succession, also ended "ing Aeorges 3ar,
restoring ;as treaty language puts it< the status :uo ante bellumB the way things were before the war.
But treaty language can be misleading, and the status was no longer :uite :uo, 8nmities and
alliances among the &rench, the !ndians, and the 8nglish were now not only lines drawn on a map,
but scars seared into the souls of all in(ol(ed. 3ait a few more years. /here would be a new, far
bigger, far more terrible war.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
3ars were fought with the !ndians to gain their land.
$olonies often used !ndians as pawns in (iolent struggles with one another.
#orth merica fre:uently was a theater of wars that originated in 8urope.
,ord for the -ay
Wam!um is the nglici9ed (ersion of the lgon:uian word (am!om!ea& . lthough the,
term came to describe any kind of (aluable item used as the e:ui(alent of money, it originally was
applied to cylindrical seashells strung on strings or beaded into belts and used as money or as
tokens of good faith ;wampum belts were e.changed at treaty signings, for e.ample<.
,ord for the -ay
mong the lgon:uian tribes, a sachem was the e:ui(alent of a chief. 3ithin the !ro:uois
confederacy of tribes, a sachem was a member of the ruling council. #either chiefs nor sachems
were absolute rulers in the 8uropean sense of a monarch but were influential and powerful tribal
leaders.
Stats
mong the colonists, 0 in 07 men of military age was killed in "ing Philips 3ar. t least
E,111 !ndians diedG many more were deported and sold into sla(ery in the 3est !ndies.
,ord for the -ay
!n &rench, ,little war- is la petite guerre. /his phrase soon e(ol(ed into the single word
guerrilla to describe a limited, co(ert style of warfare as well as the combatants who fight such
wars.
Stats
)ow much was a human being worthO /he wholesale price for the /uscaroras sold on the
3est !ndies sla(e market was L01 each at a time when L011 year was considered a handsome li(ing.
Global War8American &tyle
(%)(0#%)-5'
In This Chapter
$onflict o#er the /hio )alley
Braddoc%s defeat at 5ort 2u+uesne
5orbes%s #ictory at 5ort 2u+uesne
Wolfe%s taeo#er of 1uebec
Aftermath. Pontiac%s ,ebellion
/he treaty of i.'la'$hapelle, which ended "ing Aeorges 3ar on October 0C, 0?2C, brought
no more than fleeting peace to the merican frontier. On =arch F?, 0?25, "ing Aeorge !! granted
huge wilderness tracts to a group of entrepreneurs called the Ohio $ompany, stipulating that, within
se(en years, the company must plant a settlement of 011 families and build a fort for their
protection. /he grant and the stipulation accompanying it rekindled the hostility of the &rench and
their !ndian allies, who feared an 8nglish in(asion.
/heir fears were (alid. /hroughout 0?25, an influ. of British traders penetrated territories that
had been the e.clusi(e trading pro(ince of the &rench. !n response, on Iune F7, 0?25,
Doland'=ichel Aalissoniere, mar:uis de La Aalissoniere, go(ernor of #ew &rance, dispatched
$aptain Pierre'Ioseph $eleron de Blain(ille with F0E men to the Ohio country. By #o(ember F1,
0?25, $eleron had made a round trip of E,111 miles, burying at inter(als lead plates inscribed with
&rances claim to so(ereignty o(er the territory. /he lines of battle were drawn.
The $rench and #ndian ,ar
La Aalissoniere was replaced as go(ernor by Iac:ues'Pierre de Ion:uiere, mar:uis de La
Ion:uiere, in ugust 0?25. )e decided it would take more than buried lead plates to control #orth
merica, and he began to build forts. )e also attacked the Shawnees, the most powerful of the Ohio
country tribes who traded with the 8nglish. !n the meantime, an 8nglish trader named $hristopher
Aist negotiated a treaty ;0?%F< at Logstown ;mbridge<, Pennsyl(ania, between @irginia and the
Ohio $ompany, and the Si. !ro:uois #ations ;plus the >elawares, Shawnees, and 3yandots<. /his
treaty secured for @irginia and the Ohio $ompany deeds to the (ast Ohio lands. )owe(er,
&rench'allied !ndians dro(e the 8nglish out of this wilderness country by 0?%F, and yet another
go(ernor of #ew &rance, nge >u:uesne de =enne(ille, mar:uis >u:uesne, :uickly built a string
of forts through the Ohio country that ultimately stretched from #ew Orleans to =ontreal. Lord
)alifa., in 8ngland, pushed the British cabinet toward a declaration of war, arguing that the &rench,
by trading throughout the Ohio @alley, had in(aded @irginia.
$irst Blood for the $ather of :"r &o"ntry
!n the heat of war fe(er, Ao(ernor Dobert >inwiddie of @irginia secured authority from the
crown to e(ict the &rench from territory under his 4urisdiction. )e commissioned F0'year'old
@irginia militia captain Aeorge 3ashington to carry an ultimatum to the &rench interlopersB Aet out
or suffer attack. 3ashington set out from 3illiamsburg, @irginias capital, on October E 0, 0?%E,
and deli(ered the ultimatum to the commandant of &ort LeBoeuf ;3aterford, Pennsyl(ania< on
>ecember 0F, 0?%E. $aptain Legardeur, E1 years older than 3ashington, politely but firmly
declined to lea(e. !n response, Ao(ernor >inwiddie ordered the construction of a fort at the
strategically critical ,forks of Ohio,- the 4unction of the =onongahela and llegheny ri(ers, the site
of present'day Pittsburgh.
!n the meantime, up in #o(a Scotia, British authorities demanded that the cadians+
&rench'speaking Doman $atholic farmers and fishermen who freely intermarried with the =icmac
and bnaki !ndians+swear loyalty to the British crown. /hese people had the misfortune of li(ing in
the midst of the most important fishery in the world, waters co(eted by all the nations of 8urope.
3hile the British threatened the cadians with e.pulsion from #o(a Scotia, the &rench threatened
to turn their !ndian allies against any cadians who took the loyalty oath. /ensions mounted.
Back at the forks of the Ohio, the &rench, ha(ing patiently watched the construction of
>inwiddies fort, attacked. Badly outnumbered, 8nsign 8dward 3ard, in command of the new
outpost, surrendered on pril 0?, 0?%2, and was allowed to march off with his men the ne.t day.
/he 8nglish stronghold was now christened &ort >u:uesne and occupied by the &rench. 6naware
of this takeo(er+and on the (ery day that the fort fell'>inwiddie sent 3ashington ;now promoted to
lieutenant colonel< with 0%1 men to reinforce it. 8n route, on =ay FC, 3ashington surprised a
EE'man &rench reconnaissance party. !n the ensuing combat, 01 of the &renchmen were killed,
including 8nsign Ioseph $oulon de @illiers de Iumon(ille, a &rench ,ambassador.- /his battle,
then, was the first real battle of the &rench and !ndian 3ar.
;,ho ,o"ld Ha0e Tho"ght #t=<
Deali9ing that the &rench would retaliate, 3ashington desperately sought reinforcement from
his !ndian allies. grand total of 21 warriors answered the call. !t was too late to retreat, so at Areat
=eadows, Pennsyl(ania, 3ashington built a makeshift stockade and christened it &ort #ecessity.
On Iuly E, =a4or $oulon de @illiers, brother of the man 3ashingtons small detachment had killed,
led 511 &rench soldiers, >elawares, Ottawas, 3yandots, lgon:uins, #ipissings, bnakis, and
&rench'allied !ro:uois against &ort #ecessity. 3hen the outposts defenders had been reduced by
half, on the 2th of Iuly, 3ashington surrendered. )e and the other sur(i(ors were permitted to
lea(e, sa(e for two hostages, who were taken back to &ort >u:uesne.
3ith the loss of the Ohio fort and the defeat of 3ashington, it was the 8nglish rather than the
&rench who had been e(icted from the Ohio country. desperate congress con(ened at lbany from
Iune 05 to Iuly 01, 0?%2, and produced a plan for colonial unity. /he plan managed to please no
one. !n the meantime, from &ort >u:uesne, the &rench and their many !ndian allies raided freely
throughout Pennsyl(ania, =aryland, and @irginia. &inally, in >ecember 0?%2, the 8nglish crown
authori9ed =assachusetts go(ernor 3illiam Shirley to reacti(ate two colonial regiments.
/hese F,111 men were 4oined by two of the British armys absolutely worst regiments,
commanded by one of its dullest officers, =a4or Aeneral 8dward Braddock. /he &rench responded
by sending more troops as well, and British forces were e.panded to 01,111 men. On pril 02,
0?%%, Braddock con(ened a council of war and laid out a plan of attack. Brigadier Aeneral Dobert
=onckton would campaign against #o(a Scotia, while Braddock himself would capture &orts
>u:uesne and #iagara. Ao(ernor Shirley would strengthen and reinforce &ort Oswego and then
proceed to &ort #iagara+in the unlikely e(ent that Braddock was detained at &ort >u:uesne.
nother colonial commander, 3illiam Iohnson, was slated to take &ort Saint &rederic at $rown
Point.
=onckton and Iohn 3inslow ;a colonial commander< achie(ed early success in #o(a Scotia,
but Aeneral Braddock struggled to get his e.pedition under way to &ort >u:uesne. Braddock
managed to alienate would'be !ndian allies, and e(en insulted the >elawares so profoundly that
they went o(er to the &rench side. Braddock also alienated the ,pro(incials,- of whom he was so
thoroughly contemptuous that the colonial go(ernors resisted collecting war le(ies and generally
refused to cooperate with the general.
t long last, Braddock led two regiments of British regulars and a pro(incial detachment
;under Aeorge 3ashington< out of &ort $umberland, =aryland. !t was an unwieldy force of F,%11
men loaded down with hea(y e:uipment. long the way, &rench'allied !ndians sniped at the
slow'mo(ing column. 3ashington ad(ised Braddock to detach a ,flying column- of 0,%11 men to
make the initial attack on &ort >u:uesne, which Braddock belie(ed was defended by C11 &rench
and !ndians. By Iuly ?, the flying column set up a camp 01 miles from their ob4ecti(e.
Spies out of &ort >u:uesne made Braddocks forces sound (ery impressi(e, and the forts
commandant, $laude'Pierre Pecaudy de $ontrecoeur, was prepared to surrender. But $aptain
Lienard de Beau4eu con(inced him to take the initiati(e and attack. ll he had a(ailable were ?F
regulars of the &rench =arine, 027 $anadian militiamen, and 7E? assorted !ndians. /hese he threw
against Braddocks encampment on the morning of Iuly 5, 0?%%. /he result was panic among the
British. /roops fired wildly+or at each other. !t is said that many of the British regulars huddled in
the road like flocks of sheep. Braddock, stupid but bra(e, had fi(e horses shot from under him as he
(ainly tried to rally his troops. t last, mortally wounded, he continued to obser(e the disaster. Of
0,2%5 officers and men who had engaged in the Battle of the 3ilderness, only 27F would return.
;Aeorge 3ashington, though unhurt, had two horses shot from under him and his coat pierced by
four bullets.< s he lay dying, Braddock said simplyB ,3ho would ha(e thought itO-
%anic, .etreat, .etrenchment
/he defeat at the Battle of the 3ilderness dro(e many more !ndians into the camp of the
&rench and laid 8nglish settlements along the length of the frontier open to attack. /o make matters
worse, the &rench had captured Braddocks pri(ate papers, which contained his main war plan.
&rench go(ernor @audreuil had intended to mo(e against &ort Oswego on the south shore of Lake
OntarioG learning from Braddocks abandoned papers that &orts #iagara and Saint &rederic would
be the ob4ects of attack, he reinforced these positions, using the (ery cannon the routed 8nglish had
left behind.
3hile the Pennsyl(ania, =aryland, and @irginia frontiers were con(ulsed by !ndian raids,
3illiam Iohnson was (ictorious at the Battle of Lake Aeorge and built the strategically important
&ort 3illiam )enry on the south end of the lake. 3ashington, returned from the Battle of the
3ilderness, persuaded authorities to build more forts, e.tending from the Potomac and Iames and
Doanoke ri(ers, down into South $arolina. /hese forts, 3ashington said, were the only effecti(e
means of combating the widespread !ndian raids unleashed by the &rench.
By Iune 0?%7, British settlers in @irginia had withdrawn !SO miles from the prewar frontier.
Aeorge 3ashington complained to Ao(ernor >inwiddieB ,the Bleu'Didge is now our &rontier K
there will not be a li(ing creature left in &rederick'$ountyB and how soon &airfa., and Prince
3illiam may share its fate, is easily concei(ed.-
Se0en Years of Bad ("c)
&or its first three years, the &rench and !ndian 3ar had been strictly a #orth merican
conflict. !n 0?%7, it became a world war as Prussia in(aded Sa.ony. /he following year, the )oly
Doman 8mpire ;in effect, ustria< declared war on Prussia, which then in(aded Bohemia. /hrough
a comple. of interests, intrigues, and alliances, the &rench, the British, the Spanish, and the
Dussians also 4oined the war, which e(entually encompassed more than E1 ma4or battles in 8urope,
!ndia, $uba, the Philippines, and #orth merica. /he world conflict was gi(en the generic title of
the Se(en Years 3ar.
%aths of Blory
s part of its commitment to an e.panded war, &rance sent the dashing and highly capable
Louis Ioseph, mar:uis de =ontcalm to take charge of $anadian forces on =ay 00, 0?%7. &or their
part, the British forces suffered defeat after defeat. t last, in >ecember 0?%7, 3illiam Pitt became
British secretary of state for the southern department, a post that put him in charge of merican
colonial affairs. )e took command away from inept, politically chosen officers and ga(e it to those
with genuine military skill'colonial commanders included. /he result was a gradual re(ersal of
Britains ill fortune.
Pitt chose Brigadier Aeneral Iohn &orbes, one of his best commanders, to assault'for the third
time in the war+&ort >u:uesne. >espite many delays, mainly caused by the incompetence and
corruption of the British :uartermaster ;supply< corps, an army of %,111 pro(incials, 0,211
)ighlanders, and an e(er'diminishing number of !ndian allies lumbered toward the stubborn
ob4ecti(e at the forks of the Ohio. 3hen the main force became bogged down in the mud not far
from the fort, one of &orbess subordinates, $olonel )enry Bou:uet, became impatient and, on
September 00, hastily ordered C11 )ighlanders to attack. /hey were cut down by &rench and
!ndians, who killed a third of their number.
/his triumph, howe(er, pro(ed a Pyrrhic (ictory for the &rench. Losses among their !ndian
allies were so hea(y that most of the !ndians, after sei9ing plunder, deserted the cause. !n the
meantime, a treaty concluded at 8aston, Pennsyl(ania, in October 0?%C brought peace between the
&rench'allied >elaware and the 8nglish. $olonel Bou:uet, still reeling from defeat, proclaimed with
relief that the /reaty of 8aston had ,knocked the &rench on the head.-
On #o(ember F2, &orbes was at last ready to make his ad(ance on &ort >u:uesne. Suddenly,
a distant e.plosion was heard. Dather than allow the 8nglish to capture the fort, the &rench had
blown it up. /he heads of Bou:uets )ighlanders, captured earlier, had been skewered on upright
stakes, the soldiers kilts tied below them. !t was a grisly greeting, yet &orbes knew that the nation
in control of the forks of the Ohio+the confluence of the =onongahela, llegheny, and Ohio ri(ers+
held the gateway to the 3est. nd that gateway was now in British hands.
!f the year 0?%C marked the turning of the tide in fa(or of the British, 0?%5 was the year of
&rench disaster, culminating in the siege, battle, and loss of *uebec on September 0C, 0?%5. /his
loss effecti(ely brought to an end &rench power in #orth merica.
lthough the war had been decided with the surrender of *uebec, the fighting did not stop.
=ontreal remained in &rench hands, and *uebec had to be held. &or the ne.t two years, howe(er,
the British steadily contracted the circle around &rench $anada. t last into the fray, during its
waning months, came Spain, which sided with &rance. 8ngland declared war on the new combatant
on Ianuary F, 0?7F, and crushed the ad(ersary with sea power alone. s it became clear to e(eryone
in(ol(ed that the war in merica and in 8urope was about to end, &rance rushed to conclude in
secret the /reaty of San !ldefonso with Spain ;#o(ember E, 0?7F<, in which it ceded to that country
all of its territory west of the =ississippi and the !sle of Orleans in Louisiana. /his offering was
intended as compensation for the loss of Spains $aribbean holdings to the British. On &ebruary 01,
0?7E, the great /reaty of Paris followed, which officially ended hostilities in merica and abroad.
/he scoreO &rance ceded all of Louisiana to Spain and the rest of its #orth merican holdings
to Areat Britain. Spain reco(ered $uba ;in compensation for the loss of territories in &lorida and in
the $aribbean<, and &rance retained the $aribbean islands of Auadeloupe, =artini:ue, and St.
Lucia.
%ontiac/s .ebellion
!n far'off Paris, pens had been put to paper. 3ithin a few days of the /reaty of Paris, on pril
F?, 0.?7E, Pontiac ;ca. 0?F1'75<, war chief of the Ottawa !ndians, called a grand council of Ottawa
and other tribes'most notably the >elaware, Seneca ;as well as elements of other !ro:uois tribes<,
and the Shawnee. /he chief pushed for an attack on >etroit. /his decision ignited a series of bloody
assaults on the western outposts that the &rench had 4ust officially surrendered to the 8nglish.
lthough many !ndian war leaders participated, this coda to the &rench and !ndian 3ar would be
called Pontiacs Debellion.
Pontiac had been mo(ed to war by British general Ieffrey mhersts refusal to continue the
&rench custom of gi(ing presents to the !ndians, especially gifts of ammunition, on which the tribes
had come to depend for hunting. /his outrage, combined with the bellicose pronouncements of an
!ndian mystic named #eolin+better known to the whites as the >elaware Prophet'fanned the flames.
#eolin, Pontiac, and others urged action against the 8nglish now, before they became too numerous
to dri(e from the land.
Pontiacs Debellion tore the white frontier apart, as !ndian warriors tortured, mutilated, and
killed with e.uberance. mherst, in desperation, decided to wage total war, gi(ing orders to take no
prisoners, but to kill all belligerents. )e e(en instituted biological warfare, directing one of his
officers deliberately to infect the tribes with smallpo.. lthough this plan was officially abandoned
for fear of spreading the infection among the white settlements, Simon 8cuyer, a Swiss mercenary
temporarily acting as commander of the besieged &ort Pitt ;the former &rench &ort >u:uesne<,
called a peace conference with his >elaware attackers. s a token of esteem, he presented them
with two blankets and a handkerchief. /hey had been pro(ided by $aptain 3illiam /rent from the
forts smallpo. hospital. ,! hope they will ha(e the desired effect,- /rent remarked to 8cuyer.
/hey did. n epidemic swept through the >elaware, and this misfortune, along with the
!ndians reali9ation that the supply of 8nglish settlers was apparently ine.haustible, brought Pontiac
to the peace table at the end of 0?7E. By the following year, other disaffected tribal leaders had also
surrendered+but not before a band of renegade white settlers had gone on their own rampage.
On >ecember 02, 0?7E, a mob of %? Scotch'!rish Presbyterians from Pa.ton and >onegal,
settlements in the heart of the raid'racked Pennsyl(ania frontier, butchered a party of si. $onestoga
!ndians, notwithstanding the fact that the $onestogas were and had always been peaceful. >espite
Ao(ernor Iohn Penns call for the arrest of the ,Pa.ton Boys,- frontier Pennsyl(ania appro(ed of
their action and encouraged more. /he magistrates of Lancaster $ounty gathered the remaining
$onestogas into a public workhouse for their protection. /he Pa.ton Boys raided the building on
>ecember F?, killing 02 !ndians as they knelt in prayer. /he sur(i(ors+again, for their ,protection-+
were once more remo(ed, this time to a barren island in the middle of the windswept >elaware
Di(er. Safe from the Pa.ton Boys, the !ndians were ra(aged by the elements of a brutal winter.
&iftysi. !ndians sickened and died.
/his sordid end to a brutal period of war would pro(e but a prelude to yet another, e(en more
momentous, struggle in the wilderness.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he &rench and !ndian 3ar was the merican phase of the Se(en Years 3ar, which
historians consider the first ,world- war.
lthough the 8nglish had more colonists, the &rench had more !ndian allies and were far
better at wilderness combat tactics than the infle.ible British regulars.
Pontiac attempted to unite se(eral tribes in a campaign to stem the tide of 8nglish
immigration into the Ohio @alley.
,ord for the -ay
=ost of the colonial'!ndian conflicts of the 0?th and early 0Cth century ;"ing 3illiams 3ar,
*ueen nnes 3ar, and "ing Aeorges 3ar< are collecti(ely called the 5rench and Indian Wars .
/he cataclysmic #orth merican war of 0?%2'7E is the &rench and !ndian 3ar.
!ain ?0ent
One of the best'lo(ed poems in merican literature is 8(angeline published in 0C25 by )enry
3adsworth Longfellow. /he poem takes as its sub4ect the separation of lo(ers brought about by an
incident of the &rench and !ndian 3ar. !n Iuly 0?%%, the cadians of #o(a Scotia refused to submit
to the loyalty oath the (ictorious British demanded. On Iuly FC, 0?%%, Ao(ernor $harles Lawrence
ordered the cadians deportation, and on October 0E, 0,011 cadians were sent into e.ile. =any
others followed+7,111 to ?,111 in all+resettling throughout the colonies, but especially in
Louisiana, where, through a contraction of the word cadians, they became $a4uns.
!ain ?0ent
/he British so hated and feared the !ndians that, on pril 01, 0?%7, the colonial council of
Pennsyl(ania began to offer a ,scalp bounty- on >elawaresB P%1 for a womans scalpG P0E1 for the
scalp of each man abo(e ten years of age. )ow officials were supposed to determine se. and age,
let alone tribe, based on the appearance of the scalps was not specified.
In7itation to a 6ea 4arty
(%)-5#%))5'
In This Chapter
Proclamation Line of 6789
Ta0ation (ithout re!resentation
The Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party
5irst $ontinental $on&ress
Battles of Le0in&ton and $oncord
The misnamed Battle of Buner :ill
$ommon *ense and The 2eclaration of Inde!endence
Britain finally won the &rench and !ndian 3ar, but in the process, started losing its #orth
merican colonies. &or most of the war, colonial leaders were the brunt of royal contempt, and
pro(incial military men saw how ineffectual the British regulars were in fighting wilderness wars.
/he ,=other $ountry- began to seem unresponsi(e, uncaring, arrogant, and e(en incompetent. /he
colonies, traditionally competiti(e with one another, emerged from the crucible of war feeling
stronger bonds among themsel(es than with an aloof and unfeeling go(ernment across the sea.
*ing Beorge -ra+s a (ine
/he /reaty of 8aston, concluded in 0?%C, had helped turn the tide toward the British in the
&rench and !ndian 3ar. By formally agreeing to prohibit white settlement west of the llegheny
=ountains, British authorities persuaded the war'weary !ndian allies of the &rench that they no
longer needed to fear in(asion by the 8nglish. But another product of the &rench and !ndian 3ar,
the road that Aeneral Iohn &orbes had hacked through the Pennsyl(ania wilderness to deli(er his
unwieldy army to do battle at &ort >u:uesne, ensured that the treaty would be (iolated almost
immediately. /he &orbes Doad was the first great a(enue into the #orth merican interior. !t led to
the confluence of the Ohio, llegheny, and =onongahela ri(ers+the site of present'day Pittsburgh
and the gateway to the trans'llegheny 3est. 8(en before the war was o(er, settlers began to use
the road, and the 8aston agreement was breached.
3ith the &rench neutrali9ed in #orth merica, the British crown saw the ne.t and continuing
threat of war to be conflict with the !ndians. But as long as a buffer 9one e.isted between the
!ndians and the colonists, peace could be maintained. ccordingly, on October ?, 0?7E, "ing
Aeorge !!! issued a new proclamation redrawing the limit of western settlement at the ppalachian
=ountains.
t first, the Proclamation of 0?7E worked like magic to calm the !ndians and to bring to an
end the bloody coda to the &rench and !ndian 3ar known as Pontiacs Debellion. 3hat the British
go(ernment hadnt reckoned on was that, while pacifying the !ndians, the Proclamation line enraged
the settlers, who went ahead and pushed settlement across the forbidden mountains. 3hen resentful
!ndians responded with raids, the illegal settlers appealed to royal authorities for aid. /hey were
rebuffed. /he gulf that had been created between the colonies and 8ngland during the &rench and
!ndian 3ar widened. s the frontier regions became more populous and powerful, the allegiance of
many authorities in the /idewater ;the more established coastal settlements< leaned westward rather
than back toward 8urope.
Ta@ation ,itho"t .e7resentation
&ighting any war is e.pensi(e, and no war is more costly than one fought across an ocean.
>uring the &rench and !ndian 3ar, the 8nglish treasury had amassed a huge debt. /he 8nglish
go(ernment, led by $hancellor of the 8.che:uer Aeorge Aren(ille, decided that it was fitting and
proper for the colonies to pay their fair share. Aren(ille pushed through Parliament hea(y duties on
numerous commodities imported into the colonies, most notably molasses and sugar, and the laws
became known collecti(ely as the Sugar ct. Passed in 0?72, this was the first act the 8nglish
Parliament passed for the specific purpose of raising ta. re(enues in the colonies.
t the same time, Parliament passed the $urrency ct, which forbade the colonies from
issuing paper money and re:uired the use of gold in all business transactions. /his act thereby
guaranteed that the colonies would be economically dependent on 8ngland. Parliament also decided
to enforce the cts of /rade and #a(igation, which had been passed during the 07%1s but ne(er
really put into effect. 8ngland used these acts to raise additional duty re(enue.
/he colonists, reeling from a business recession caused by the &rench and !ndian 3ar, and the
frontier regions, resentful of the Proclamation Line, were stunned and outraged at being ta.ed
without the benefit of parliamentary representation. fter a Boston town meeting denounced
,ta.ation without representation,- the phrase e(ol(ed into a battle cry that spread from that city to
the other colonies.
/he action Boston proposed was non(iolent. /he colonies made a #on'!mportation
greement, pledging to boycott a wide (ariety of 8nglish goods. Parliament, taking little heed of
this protest, passed the *uartering ct in 0?7%, re:uiring colonial go(ernments to furnish barracks
and pro(isions for royal troops. /he ne.t year, the act was e.tended to re:uire the billeting of
soldiers in ta(erns and inns at the e.pense of the colonists. #ot only were these measures a further
financial hardship on the colonies, they rankled in a way that reached beyond economics. /he
*uartering ct was seen as an in(asion of pri(acy and an affront to personal liberty. 8(en colonists
who were not directly affected by the re(enue acts were enraged by the *uartering ct.
Stam7s of Tyranny
Parliament had an e(en more offensi(e measure in store. !n 0?7%, it passed the Stamp ct,
which re:uired that e(ery paper document'ranging from newspapers, to deeds, to playing cards+
bear a re(enue stamp purchased from royally appointed colonial stamp agents. 3orse, (iolations of
the act were to be tried summarily by (ice'admiralty courts, in which there were no 4uries. #ot only
did the colonists see the stamps as e(il, but denial of trial by 4ury attacked a right as old as the
=agna $arta.
/he Stamp ct united the colonies in opposition to the ,tyranny- of the =other $ountry.
Sub(ersi(e secret societies such as the Sons of Liberty were formed in many towns, the boycott of
8nglish goods was stepped up, and a Stamp ct $ongress was called in #ew York in October 0?7%
;eight colonies sent delegates<. /he congress drafted a ,>eclaration of Dights and Arie(ances,-
claiming that the colonists had the rights of British sub4ects and that ta.ation without parliamentary
representation was a (iolation of those rights. Parliament repealed the Stamp ct in =arch 0?77,
but simultaneously deli(ered a political slap in the face by passing the >eclaratory ct, which
affirmed Parliaments authority to create laws for the colonies ,in all cases whate(er.-
Act ##
$hancellor of the 8.che:uer $harles /ownshend ;0?F%'7?< ne.t pushed through Parliament a
bundle of acts intended to raise re(enue, tighten customs enforcement, and assert imperial authority
in merica. 8nacted on Iune F5, 0?7?, the so'called /ownshend cts le(ied import duties on glass,
lead, paint, paper, and tea. dditional bills in the package authori9ed ,writs of assistance- ;blanket
search warrants<, created additional 4ury'less (ice'admiralty courts, established a board of customs
commissioners head:uartered in Boston, and suspended the #ew York assembly for its defiance of
the *uartering ct of 0?7%.
Samuel dams, of the =assachusetts Sons of Liberty, sent a ,circular letter- to the other 0F
colonies calling for renewal of the non'importation agreements. Doyal customs officials in Boston
were attacked after they sei9ed a ship belonging to the merchant Iohn )ancock. /he beleaguered
officials re:uested a contingent of 8nglish troops to occupy Boston.
>uring 0?7C'75, all the colonies e.cept #ew )ampshire boycotted 8nglish goods, and the
@irginia )ouse of Burgesses, led by Patrick )enry, created the @irginia ssociation to enforce the
boycott. t this, the royal go(ernor of @irginia dissol(ed the )ouse of Burgesses, thereby further
inflaming anti'British passions. )owe(er, in pril 0??1, Parliament again bowed to the pressure
and repealed all the /ownshend duties'e.cept for a ta. on tea.
!assacre in Boston
/he British troops sent to Boston at the re:uest of the beleaguered customs officials were, to
put it mildly, not popular. On =arch %, 0??1, one of the soldiers got into a brawl with a ci(ilian
workman. /his triggered an e(ening of protests by bands of colonists who roamed the streets.
&inally, a s:uad of Dedcoats, led by $aptain /homas Preston, fired into a small mob agitating in
front of the hated $ustoms )ouse. /hree colonists died instantly, and two others were mortally
wounded.
Prudently, British authorities immediately withdrew the troops from town. But the ,Boston
=assacre- became the focal point of anti'British propaganda and heightened merican fears about
standing armies established in the colonies. /he committees of correspondence became increasingly
acti(e, and the colonies drew closer together in opposition to the crown.
$rom Tea %arty to &ontinental &ongress
By 0??E, the only duty remaining from the /ownshend cts was the ta. on tea. /o modem
ears, this sounds rather tri(ial. >ont want to pay a ta. on teaO 3ell, then stop drinking teaN
But going without tea was ne(er a (iable option for 8nglish men and women. =oreo(er, in
the 0Cth century, tea was an e.tremely (aluable trade commodity'almost a second currency. /he
8ast !ndia $ompany, 8nglands chief tea producer, was (ital to British go(ernment interests because
it had e.tensi(e influence in !ndia. 8.penses, howe(er, were high, and by the 0??1s, the company
was close to bankruptcy. /o bail out the firm, Parliament suspended the ta. paid on tea in 8ngland
but retained the import ta. on tea sold in the colonies. 3orse, the go(ernment ruled that the 8ast
!ndia $ompany could sell the tea directly to agents at a set price rather than through colonial
merchants at public auction. #ot only was the ta. unfair, but colonial merchants, cut out of the
profit loop, resented the crowns intrusion into free enterprise.
/he committees of correspondence worked o(ertime to spread the word of opposition to the
tea duty and to impose an absolute boycott of 8nglish tea. On one occasion, the royal go(ernor of
=assachusetts refused demands to send recently arri(ed tea ships back to 8ngland. So on the night
of >ecember 07, 0??E, a band of Bostonians+lamely disguised as !ndians+boarded three ships in
Boston harbor and dumped a cargo of tea chests o(erboard. /he act triggered similar ,tea parties- in
ports up and down the coast.
#ntolerable Acts
"ing Aeorge !!! of 8ngland ;0?E C'0CF1< has always gotten a bad rap in merican
schoolbooks, which traditionally ha(e painted him as a tyrant seeking to s:uee9e out of the colonies
not only their cash, but their liberty as well. !n truth, Aeorge was a popular monarch, as earnest as
he was mediocre and incapable of thinking on his own. >uring the period immediately preceding
the merican De(olution, he depended entirely on the ad(ice of his prime minister, Lord #orth, an
aggressi(e autocrat. &ollowing the /ea Party, it was #orth who sponsored what the colonists called
the !ntolerable cts.
/he first of these acts, the Boston Port ct ;=arch E0, 0??2<, closed the harbor to commerce
until such time as Boston paid for the destroyed tea. #e.t, the =assachusetts Ao(ernment ct ;=ay
F1< reser(ed for the crown the power to appoint members of the upper house of the legislature. /he
Ao(ernment ct also increased the royal go(ernors patronage powers, pro(ided that 4uries be
summoned by sheriffs rather than elected by colonists. =ost onerous of all, the Ao(ernment ct
banned town meetings not e.plicitly authori9ed by law or by the go(ernor. t the same time, the
!mpartial dministration of 4ustice ct authori9ed a change of (enue to another colony or e(en to
8ngland for crown officers charged with capital crimes while performing official, duties.
!ntended to restore order to =assachusetts, the !ntolerable cts boomeranged, leading the
colonies to recogni9e their common cause and to con(ene the &irst $ontinental $ongress.
&ontinental &ongress
/he $ongress met in Philadelphia during September 0??2, and only Aeorgia failed to send
delegates. /he %7 delegates who con(ened represented the full spectrum of colonial thought, from
radicals who wanted to se(er all ties with 8ngland, to conser(ati(es who wanted to find a way to
heal the breach. /he =assachusetts delegation produced the Suffolk Desol(es, which the radicals
supported, calling for the people to arm, to disobey the !ntolerable cts, and to collect their own
colonial ta.es. /he conser(ati(es countered with a plan of union between 8ngland and the colonies.
3ith modifications, the Suffolk Desol(es were adopted by a margin of si. to fi(e. /he !ntolerable
cts were declared unconstitutional, and the non'importation boycott was gi(en teeth by the
creation of a colonial association to enforce it.
&ollowing the $ontinental $ongress, /homas Iefferson ;in his pamphlet, Summary @iew of
the Dights of British merica< and Iohn dams ;in a series of published letters he signed
,#o(anglus-< proposed dominion status for the colonies, whereby the colonies would go(ern
themsel(es but acknowledge the crown as the head of state. t the time, Parliament re4ected this
idea as too radical, but liberals in the 8nglish go(ernment did formulate a plan of conciliation in
0??%, which would ha(e granted a considerable degree of self'go(ernment to the colonies. /he
hyper'conser(ati(e )ouse of Lords re4ected the plan, howe(er, and Parliament as a whole declared
=assachusetts to be in rebellion. !n a sense, then, it was the British Parliament that declared the
merican De(olution.
The Shot Heard /.o"nd the ,orld
=assachusetts responded to the Parliamentary declaration by organi9ing special militia units
that could be ready for battle on a minutes notice. /hey were called the =inutemen.
Aeneral /homas Aage, commander of British regulars, ordered to use force against the defiant
colonials, dispatched Lieutenant $olonel &rancis Smith with a column from Boston to sei9e the
gunpowder stored at the =assachusetts Pro(incial $ongress in the town of $oncord. On the
morning of pril 05, 0??%, Smiths troops dispersed a company of =inutemen at Le.ington,
unintentionally killing se(eral in an unauthori9ed burst of musket fire. Smith reached $oncord but
found only a small portion of the gunpowder. )e had not reckoned with the resourcefulness of a
small band of swift riders.
Paul De(ere ;0?E%'0C0C< was a prosperous and highly skilled $harlestown, =assachusetts,
sil(ersmith, who was a leader of the Sons of Liberty and had been a participant in the Boston /ea
Party. courier for the =assachusetts $ommittee of $orrespondence, De(ere rode, on the night of
pril 0C, from $harlestown to Le.ington, alerting the populace to the approach of British troops. !n
Le.ington, he also warned Iohn )ancock and Samuel dams, the chief leaders of the =assachusetts
rebels, to escape. ccompanied by two other riders, $harles >awes and Samuel Prescott, De(ere
rode on to $oncord but was intercepted by a British patrol. lthough Prescott was the one who
actually managed to reach $oncord, it was De(ere whom )enry 3adsworth Longfellow celebrated
in his famous, if fanciful, poem of 0C7E, ,Paul De(eres Dide.-
3hile the battles of Le.ington and $oncord were not colonial (ictories, they were certainly
not British triumphs, either. s Smiths column returned to Boston, it was harassed by continual
Patriot gunfire, resulting in the deaths of ?E British soldiers and the wounding of an additional F11.
/he pattern would pro(e typical of the war. British forces, trained to fight 8uropean'style open'field
battles, would often win such engagements, only to be cut up piecemeal by colonial guerrilla groups
firing from concealed ambush.
,ashington Bac)s a (ong Shot
Soon after the battles at Le.ington and $oncord, colonial militia forces from all o(er #ew
8ngland con(erged on Boston and laid siege to the city. !n =ay 0??%, a @ermont landowner named
8than llen led a militia outfit he had organi9ed+the Areen =ountain Boys+against &ort
/iconderoga between Lake $hamplain and Lake Aeorge in #ew York and sei9ed it from British
regulars. #e.t, $rown Point, on the western shore of Lake $hamplain, fell to rebel forces. >espite
these early triumphs, anyone who assessed the situation with a cold eye would ha(e put money on
the British and not the $olonial mericans. Britain was an established imperial power, with deep
pockets, a tested army, and the most powerful na(y in the world. =oreo(er, while the colonies had
acted in unity, the colonists were hardly unanimous in the desire to rebel. 8ach colony contained a
large ,Loyalist- population.
/hen there was the matter of leadership. /he 8nglish had a king and a prime minister, while
the colonies had no king or other chief e.ecuti(e. nd that wasnt the half of it. /he colonies had no
go(ernment at all, no treasury, and no regular army. /rue, a $ontinental $ongress had con(ened, but
0E separate colonial assemblies (ied with it for power and authority.
&orty'three'year'old Aeorge 3ashington, now a prosperous @irginia planter, was accustomed
to long odds. )e had played them during his militia ser(ice in the &rench and !ndian 3ar.
Sometimes he had won. =ostly, he had lost. On Iune 0%, 0??%, at the suggestion of Iohn dams of
=assachusetts, the Second $ontinental $ongress asked 3ashington to lead the as'yet none.istent
$ontinental rmy. 3ashington accepted.
A Tho"sand $all 8ear B"n)er Hill
/he colonies new commander set off for #ew 8ngland to lead the =inutemen. Before
3ashington arri(ed, howe(er, British Aeneral /homas Aage ;who had been reinforced on =ay F%
by fresh troops from Britain and additional generals, including Iohn Burgoyne, 3illiam )owe, and
)enry $linton< offered to call the De(olution :uits+no harm, no foul. Aeneral Aage would grant an
amnesty to e(eryone e.cept Sam dams and Iohn )ancock, the two chief troublemakers. !n
response, the =assachusetts $ommittee of Public Safety ordered Aeneral rtemus 3ard to fortify
Bunker )ill on $harlestown )eights, o(erlooking Boston harbor. 3ard instead sent $olonel
3illiam Prescott with 0,F11 men to occupy nearby Breeds )ill, which was lower and more
(ulnerable. Aage opened up on Breeds )ill with a na(al bombardment at dawn on Iune 0?, 0??%.
/hen he launched an amphibious attack with F,%11 men under Aeneral )owe. /wice, the superior
British force attempted to take the hill, and twice they were repelled. third assault, with fi.ed
bayonets, succeeded only after the colonials had run out of ammunition. =isnamed for Bunker )ill
;the superior position that should ha(e been defended<, the battle was a tactical defeat for the
colonists, but it was a tremendous psychological (ictory for them. /hey had been defeated only
because of a shortage of ammunition.
An :li0e Branch Brea)s and a -eclaration #s ,ritten
/he Second $ontinental $ongress made its own final attempt to stop the re(olution by
sending to "ing Aeorge !!! and Parliament the so'called Oli(e Branch Petition. =eanwhile,
3ashington formed the first parade of the $ontinental rmy on $ambridge $ommon in $ambridge,
=assachusetts, on Iuly E, 0??%. !n September, Britain contemptuously re4ected the Oli(e Branch
Petition. Aeorgia, final holdout from the Second $ontinental $ongress, 4oined that assembly and the
De(olution. $ongress ne.t mo(ed to organi9e a post office department, a commission for
negotiating with !ndians, and a na(y. By >ecember 0??%, @irginia and #orth $arolina militia
defeated the forces of the royal go(ernor of @irginia and destroyed his base at #orfolk.
&ommon Sense and &onfederation
3ith the rebellion in full swing, it was time to create a feeling of historical purpose to catch
up with the rush of e(ents. !n Ianuary 0??7, /homas Paine, a Philadelphia patriot and orator,
anonymously published a modest pamphlet called $ommon Sense. !n brilliant, e(en melodramatic
prose, Paine outlined the reasons for breaking free from 8ngland, portraying the merican
De(olution as a world e(ent, an epoch'making step in the history of humankind.
3ith the colonies united as ne(er before, the ne.t great document to emerge from the
gathering storm was a formal declaration of independence. On Iuly 0, 0??7, Dichard )enry Lee,
one of @irginias delegates to the $ontinental $ongress, presented a draft proposal for a document
asserting that ,these 6nited $olonies are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent States.-
$ongress passed the draft document but sent it to a committee for discussion, debate, and
amendment. /homas Iefferson of @irginia, who had a fine reputation as a writer, was selected to
re(ise the committees draft. )e ended up wholly rewriting it.
/he >eclaration of !ndependence, like /homas Paines $ommon Sense, cast the merican
struggle for independence in a noble light as a profound gesture ,in the course of human e(ents,-
!nspired by the great 8nglish political philosopher Iohn Locke ;07EF'0?12<, Iefferson listed the
,inalienable rights- of humankind. /hese included life and liberty, but where Locke had listed
property as the third right, Iefferson specified ,the pursuit of happiness.- /he purpose of
go(ernment, Iefferson declared, was ,to secure these rights,- and the authority of go(ernment to do
so deri(ed ,from the consent of the go(erned.- 3hen a go(ernment ceased to ser(e its 4ust purpose,
it was the right and duty of ,the go(erned- to withdraw their allegiance. nd that is precisely what
the colonies had done. Ieffersons document was adopted by $ongress on Iuly 2, 0??7.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
6nfair ta.ation, limits on westward settlement, and the in(oluntary :uartering of British
soldiers united the colonies in rebellion.
/homas Paine ;$ommon Sense< and /homas Iefferson ;/he >eclaration of !ndependence
helped ele(ate a colonial re(olution to the status of a momentous world e(ent.
merican troops were citi9en soldiers, fighting at home and committed to their cause.
/he British soldiers were a professional army doing a grim 4ob in a distant land.
.eal (ife
Samuel dams ;0?FF'0C1E< inherited a one'third interest in his fathers prosperous brewery
but lost most of his fortune through mismanagement. !f he was not (ery adept at handling money,
dams was highly skilled at politicsG after attending )ar(ard, he attracted a wide following among
members of Bostons many political clubs. dams was instrumental in creating the most influential
and radical of the clubs, the Sons of Liberty. !n 0?7%, dams organi9ed the protest against the
Stamp ct.
8lected to the lower house of the =assachusetts legislature, dams ser(ed from 0?7% to 0??2
and composed the great protest documents of the era, including the $ircular Letter ;0?7C< against
the /ownshend cts. )e fanned the flames of resistance and rebellion in the popular press, and after
0??1, was chief architect of intercolonial ,committees of correspondence,- which coordinated the
de(eloping re(olution. dams was a prime mo(er behind the Boston /ea Party of 0??E.
principal member of the &irst $ontinental $ongress, Samuel dams participated in drafting
the 0?C0 rticles of $onfederation, preecursor of the $onstitution.
!ain ?0ent
&irst to die in the cause of merican liberty was the leader of the Boston mob, $rispus
ttucks ;born about 0?FE<. )e was almost certainly a black man, perhaps of partly !ndian descent.
Stats
/he protesters dumped E2F chests of tea into Boston )arbor. /he cargo was (alued at L5,111+
a tremendous amount of money in a day when a man earning 8011 a year was considered
moderately wealthy.
Voice from the %ast
By the rude bridge that arched the flood,
/heir flag to prils bree9e unfurled,
)ere once the embattled farmers stood,
nd fired the shot heard round the world.
.al7h ,aldo ?merson, ;Hymn S"ng at the &om7letion of the
&oncord !on"ment, A7ril 14, 1DEF<
Stats
Of the F,%11 British troops engaged at Bunker )ill, 0,111 perished, a de(astating casualty rate
of 2F percent+the hea(iest loss the British would suffer during the long war.
Voice from the %ast
,/hese are the times that try mens souls. /he summer soldier and sunshine patriot will,
in this crisis, shrink from the ser(ice of his countryG but he that stands it now, deser(es
the lo(e and thanks of man and woman. /yranny, like hell, is not easily con:uered.-
Common Sense
6he Fires o9 :iberty
(%))-#%)15'
In This Chapter
Articles of confederation
Early Patriot trium!hs and losses
)ictory at *arato&a
*urrender of $orn(allis
Areat though it is, the >eclaration of !ndependence, a human document, is imperfect. !t failed
to deal with the issue of sla(ery ;Ieffersons fellow southerners. struck the references he had
included<, and it failed to specify 4ust how the separate colonies, each with its own go(ernment and
identity, could unite in a single go(ernment. /hroughout the early years of the De(olution, the
$ontinental $ongress struggled with this issue and finally produced, in #o(ember 0???, the
rticles of $onfederation.
timid document, the rticles ga(e the indi(idual states+not the federal go(ernment+most of
the power, including the authority to le(y ta.esG after all, ,ta.ation without representation- had
triggered the rupture with 8ngland. 8(entually, the rticles would be scrapped in fa(or of a
brand'new, much bolder $onstitution. But the earlier document, the product of agoni9ing debate,
would hold the nation together through a De(olutionary 3ar that, like most wars, went on much
longer than either side had any reason to e.pect.
The (ongest :dds
3hile the framers of the rticles of $onfederation in Philadelphia did battle with words and
ideas, soldiers in the field fought with powder and lead. Politician and militiaman alike were well
aware that, if "ing Aeorge earnestly willed it, if he sent to merica e(erything lie had, the colonies
would, in all likelihood, be defeated. But during the early years of the war, Britain was surprisingly
slow to take the offensi(e.
Siege of Boston
=ost of the ,Lobsterbacks- ;as the colonials called the red'coated British troops< were bottled
up in Boston, to which 3ashingtons forces laid siege. /ry as they might, the British were unable to
break out of their entrenchments. /hen, when 3ashington arrayed his artillery on >orchester
)eights, British commanders ga(e the order to e(acuate by sea in =arch 0??7, reestablishing their
head:uarters at )alifa., #o(a Scotia.
-o+n So"th
3hile )is =a4estys forces were being humiliated in #ew 8ngland, Sir )enry $linton sailed
with his troops along the southern coast. )is purpose was to rally property'rich Loyalists against the
upstart, ragtag rabble of the newly established ,merican- go(ernments in the $arolinas and
Aeorgia. s he prepared to disembark at $ape &ear, #orth $arolina, $linton recei(ed news that a
Loyalist uprising had been s:uelched by Patriot forces at the Battle of =oores $reek Bridge near
3ilmington, #orth $arolina, on &ebruary F?, 0??7, $linton pressed southward, reaching $harleston
)arbor. Seeking to establish a base for Loyalist resistance, $linton bombarded $harlestons harbor
fortifications, but Patriot forces dro(e off the British by Iune FC, 0??7. !t was a (aluable triumph,
which stalled British acti(ity in the South for more than two years.
A %ale $l"sh of Victory
/he first 0F months of the war had gone far better than any self'respecting oddsmaker would
ha(e predicted. /he British had been forced out of #ew 8ngland and the South. )owe(er, a key
merican hope had also been dashed. /he Patriots had tried to persuade the &rench citi9ens of
*uebec to make common cause with them against the British. merican strategists understood that,
as long as the British conducted the war from far'off London, the Patriot cause would en4oy a great
ad(antage. )owe(er, if the British should begin to use nearby $anada as the staging area for an
in(asion of the colonies, that ad(antage would e(aporate. 6nfortunately, the &rench $anadians were
unwilling to initiate any action themsel(es. But, fortified by successes in defending against the
British in #ew 8ngland and the South, the mericans decided to take the offensi(e.
n army under Aeneral Dichard =ontgomery marched from upper #ew York and captured
=ontreal on #o(ember 01, 0??%. Simultaneously, troops commanded by $olonel Benedict rnold
ad(anced through the wilderness of =aine to unite with =ontgomerys units in an attack on the
walled city of *uebec. /he in(aders were beaten back, and =ontgomery was killed on >ecember
E1. merican forces maintained a blockade of the $anadian capital through =ay 0??7, but the
offensi(e in $anada had petered out, and mericans would stay out of the region for the rest of the
war.
The British (ion .oars
/here was worse, much worse, to come.
Beginning in the summer of 0??7, British forces wrested the initiati(e from the mericans.
British general Auy $arleton, the (ery able go(ernor of *uebec, was ordered to chase the
mericans out of $anada and down through the region of Lake $hamplain and the )udson Di(er.
/his action would se(er the far northern tier of colonies from the southern. Simultaneously, a much
larger army led by Aeneral 3illiam )owe ;who had replaced Aage as supreme commander of
Britains #orth merican forces< was assigned to capture #ew York $ity and its strategically (ital
harbor.
$arleton succeeded handily in dri(ing the remaining mericans out of $anada, but, plagued
by supply problems and the approach of winter, was unable to pursue them back below the border.
/his setback, howe(er, did not stop )owe, who hurled against #ew York $ity the largest single
force the British would e(er field in the De(olutionB EF,111 troops, 211 transports, ?E warships
;commanded by his (ice'admiral brother, Dichard )owe, with whom he shared the merican
supreme command<, !t was all too apparent to Aeneral 3ashington that, militarily, the situation in
#ew York was hopeless. !n the course of the war, the merican commander would pro(e highly
skilled at the art of the strategic withdrawal, pulling back in a manner that cost the attacker and yet
left his own forces intact to fight another day. /his is precisely what he wanted to do in the case of
#ew York, but $ongress, fearing that the loss of a ma4or city would dispirit Patriots throughout the
colonies, ordered him to defend the position. 3ashington met with defeat on Long !sland on ugust
F?, 0??7.
!f 3ashington and the $ontinental $ongress had weighed the odds more soberly, perhaps they
would ha(e raised the white flag. But 3ashington did not surrender. !nstead, he fought a series of
brilliant rearguard actions against )owe on =anhattan !sland, which cost the British time, money,
and energy. !t took )owe from ugust to #o(ember to clear 3ashingtons forces from #ew York
$ity and its en(irons. /hen, instead of mo(ing inland (ia the )udson, )owe simply pushed
3ashington across #ew Iersey. !f he had hoped to corner and fight the $ontinental rmy to a
standstill, )owe was mistaken. /he mericans escaped across the >elaware Di(er into
Pennsyl(ania on >ecember ?, 0??7.
.ecrossing the -ela+are
,/hese are the times that try mens souls,- /homas Paine had written 4ust two years earlier.
/he present times transformed 3ashingtons men into a determined and disciplined army, e(en in
the depths of the wars first (icious winter. 3ashington, as Aeneral )owe saw the situation, was
defeated, crushed. $ertainly, he had no business striking back, especially not in this inclement
season. )owe was a competent 8uropean general. !n 8urope, the proper times of year for fighting
were spring, summer, and fall. !n 8urope, armies did not fight in winter. But 3ashington
understoodB /his was not 8urope. $ollecting his scattered regulars and militiamen, Aeneral
3ashington reorgani9ed his army and led it back across the >elaware Di(er, from Pennsyl(ania to
#ew Iersey.
On >ecember F7, 0??7, 3ashington surprised and o(erran a garrison of )essian mercenaries
at /renton, #ew Iersey, then went on to an e(en bigger (ictory at Princeton on Ianuary E, 0???. /he
triumphs were a sharp slap in Aeneral )owes face. &ortified by these miraculous (ictories,
$ongress re4ected the peace terms the )owe brothers, in their capacity as peace commissioners,
proposed. /he fight for independence would continue.
Saratoga !orning
3earily, the British laid out plans for a new assault on the northern colonies. =a4or Aeneral
Burgoyne was in charge of Britains $anadian'based army, but he and )owe failed to work out a
plan for coordinating their two forces. Burgoyne led his army down the customary Lake
$hamplain')udson Di(er route, while )owe was stalled by indecision. &inally, he decided not to
support Burgoynes offensi(e but to lea(e a garrison under Sir )enry $linton in #ew York $ity and
to transport the bulk of his army by sea to attack Philadelphia. !t was a fatal blunder.
Burgoynes operation began promisingly, as the merican #orthern army, suffering from lack
of supply and disputes among its own commanders, fell back before the British ad(ance. Burgoyne,
popularly known as ,Aentleman Iohn,- was so confident of (ictory that he in(ited officers to bring
wi(es and mistresses on the campaign. )e staged sumptuous dinner parties for all engaged in the
grand enterprise of teaching the rebels a lesson they would ne(er forget. t his arrogant leisure,
Burgoyne ad(anced on and recaptured &ort /iconderoga on Iuly %, 0???, but he mo(ed at such an
unhurried pace that merican forces had plenty of time to regroup for guerrilla combat in the
wilderness of upstate #ew York. /he mericans destroyed roads, cut lines of communication and
supply, and generally harassed Burgoynes columns. t Bemis )eights, on the west bank of the
)udson Di(er, he was met by the re(itali9ed #orthern forces of the $ontinental rmy commanded
by )oratio Aates and supported by Benedict rnold and >aniel =organ. t the opening of the
Battle of Saratoga, Burgoyne charged the mericans twice, on September 05 and October ?, 0???,
only to be beaten back with hea(y losses both times. Blocked to the south and without aid from
$linton, Aentleman Iohn surrendered 7,111 regulars plus (arious au.iliaries to the Patriot forces on
October 0?, 0???.
Tro"ble in the &ity of Brotherly (o0e
>espite the triumph at Saratoga, the news was not all good for the mericans. )owe took his
army by sea and landed on upper $hesapeake Bay, %? miles outside of Philadelphia, poised for an
assault on that city. On October 2, 0???, )owe won Philadelphia, the merican capital.
But what, really, had the British gainedO n entire army, Burgoynes, was lost. )owe had paid
dearly for the pri9e he now held. !n contrast, the merican forces remained intact, and the rebellion
continued. =ost important of all, the &rench were deeply impressed by the merican (ictory at
Saratoga, not the British capture of Philadelphia.
Vi0a (a $ranceG
s early as 0??7, Louis J@!s foreign minister, the $omte de @ergennes, persuaded his king
to aid+albeit secretly+the merican cause. Prudently, @ergennes withheld o(ert military aid until he
was confident of the mericans prospects for (ictory. )e did not want to risk a losing war with
Britain. /he (ictory at Saratoga, rumors that Britain was going to offer merica ma4or territorial
concessions to bring peace, and the e.traordinary diplomatic skills of Ben4amin &ranklin ;whom
$ongress had installed in Paris as its representati(e during this period< finally propelled &rance
openly into the merican camp. n alliance was formally concluded on &ebruary 7, 0??C, whereby
&rance granted diplomatic recognition to the ,6nited States of merica.- Shortly after the treaty of
alliance was signed, Spain, a &rench ally, also declared war on Britain.
A Hard $orge
#ations may disagree and fight one another, and they may agree and fight together, but nature
takes no notice in either case. /he winter of 0??C (isited great suffering on the $ontinental rmy,
which was encamped at @alley &orge, Pennsyl(ania. Yet on the cruel, cold an(il of that terrible
winter, a stronger army was forged, in large part through the efforts of Baron (on Steuben
;0?E1'52<, a Prussian officer who trained merican troops to 8uropean standards. ; number of
8uropeans played (aliant roles as (olunteers in the ser(ice of the merican De(olution. !n addition
to Baron (on Steuben, these included Iohann, Baron de "alb Q0?F0'C1R, a Aerman in the &rench
army, and two Polish patriots, /adeus9 "oclus9ko Q0?27'0C0?R and "asimier9 Pulaski Qca.
0?2?'?5R. =ost famous of all was the =ar:uis de Lafayette Q0?%?'0CE2R, a brilliant commander
fiercely loyal to 3ashington.< Spring brought 3ashington new recruits and the promise of &rench
au.iliary forces, while it brought the British nothing but new pressures. /he )owe brothers, ha(ing
failed to crush the De(olution, resigned their commands and returned to 8ngland. Sir )enry $linton
assumed principal command in #orth merica and e(acuated his army from Philadelphia ;which
had pro(ed a pri9e of no military (alue<, concentrated his forces at #ew York $ity, and dispatched
troops to the $aribbean in anticipation of &rench action there.
3ashington pursued $linton through #ew Iersey, fighting him to a stand at =onmouth
$ourthouse on Iune FC, 0??C. /he result, a draw, was ne(ertheless a moral (ictory for the
$ontinentals, who had stood up to the best soldiers 8ngland could field. !f =onmouth was not
decisi(e, it did mark the third year of a war in which the British could show no results whatsoe(er.
,hite ,ar, .ed Blood
/he merican De(olution was really two wars. long the eastern seaboard, it was a contest of
one army against another. &arther inland, the fighting resembled that of the &rench and !ndian 3ar.
Both sides employed !ndian allies, but the British recruited more of them and used them as agents
of terror to raid and burn outlying settlements. &rom the earliest days of the war, the royal lieutenant
go(ernor of >etroit, )enry )amilton, played a key role in stirring the !ndians of the !ndiana'!llinois
frontier to wage ferocious war on Patriot settlers. )amiltons !ndian nickname tells the taleB they
called him ,)air Buyer.- !n 0??C, the young Aeorge Dogers $lark ;0?%F'0C0C<, a hard'drinking
"entucky militia leader, o(erran the British'controlled !llinois and !ndiana region and took ,)air
Buyer- prisoner. 8(en more celebrated in the western war campaign+albeit less militarily
significant+was the intrepid frontiersman >aniel Boone.
Bloody though the "entucky frontier was, conditions were e(en worse on the #ew York+
Pennsyl(ania frontier, which was terrori9ed by the !ro:uois. 3ashington dispatched =a4or Aeneral
Iohn Sulli(an into western #ew York with instructions to wipe out tribal towns where(er he found
them. #e(ertheless, the !ro:uois persisted in raiding, as did the tribes throughout the Ohio country.
/hey were supported and urged on by Loyalist elements in this region, and their combined acti(ity
would not come to an end e(en with the conclusion of the war. !ndeed, this western frontier would
smolder and be rekindled periodically, bursting into open flame as the 3ar of 0C0F.
:n So"thern $ronts
!n the lower South, the British found effecti(e !ndian allies in the $herokee, who, despite
suffering early defeats at the hands of the merican militia in 0??7, continued to raid the frontier.
s the war ground on, the British regular army, which had generally neglected the South following
early failures there, began to shift attention to the region by late 0??C. /he British reasoned that the
region had a higher percentage of Loyalists than any other part of merica and also offered more of
the raw materials+indigo, rice, cotton+(alued by the British.
!n >ecember 0??C, British forces subdued Aeorgia, then, during 0??5, fought inconclusi(ely
along the Aeorgia'South $arolina border. combined &rench and merican attempt to recapture
British'held Sa(annah was defeated. !n &ebruary 0?C1, Sir )enry $linton arri(ed in South $arolina
from #ew York with C,?11 fresh troops and laid siege to $harleston. !n a stunning defeat,
$harleston was surrendered on =ay 0F by merican Aeneral Ben4amin Lincoln, who ga(e up some
%,111 soldiers as prisoners. *uickly, Aeneral )oratio Aates led a force to $amden in upper South
$arolina but was badly defeated on ugust 07, 0?C1, by troops under Lord $ornwallis, whom
$linton, returning to #ew York, had put in command of the Southern forces.
3ith the /idewater towns in British hands, the Piedmont shouldered the task of carrying on
the resistance. Such legendary guerrilla leaders as the ,Swamp &o.- &rancis =arion and /homas
Sumter cost the British dearly. /hen, on October ?, 0?C1, a contingent of Patriot frontiersmen+most
from the 3atauga settlements in present'day eastern /ennessee+engaged and destroyed a force of
0,111 Loyalist troops at the Battle of "ings =ountain on the border of the $arolinas.
Tri"m7h at Yor)to+n
&resh from his seaboard con:uests, $ornwallis was now pinned down by frontier guerrillas.
third merican army under =a4or Aeneral #athanael Areene launched a series of rapid operations
in brilliant coordination with the South $arolina guerrillas. >i(iding his small army, Areene
dispatched Brigadier Aeneral >aniel =organ into western South $arolina, where he decimated the
,/ory Legion- of Lieutenant $olonel Banastre /arleton at the Battle of the $owpens on Ianuary 0?,
0?C0. Breaking free of the guerrillas, $ornwallis pursued =organ, who linked up with Areene and
the main body of the Southern army. /ogether, =organ and Areene led $ornwallis on a punishing
wilderness chase into #orth $arolina, then fought him to a draw at Auilford $ourthouse on =arch
0%, 0?C0.
$ornwallis, effecti(ely neutrali9ed, withdrew to the coast. Areene returned to South $arolina,
where he retook e(ery British'held outpost, e.cept for $harleston and Sa(annah. lthough the
enemy would hold these cities for the rest of the war, its possession was of negligible military (alue,
because the occupying garrisons were cut off from the rest of the British forces.
$ornwallis had withdrawn to @irginia, where he 4oined forces with a raiding unit led by the
most notorious turncoat in merican history, Benedict rnold. $ornwallis reasoned that @irginia
was the key to possession of the South. /herefore, he established his head:uarters at the port of
Yorktown. Aeneral 3ashington combined his $ontinental troops with the &rench army of the
$omte de Dochambeau and laid siege to Yorktown on October 7, 0?C0. Simultaneously, a &rench
fleet under dmiral de Arasse pre(ented escape by sea. Seeing the situation, Aeneral $linton
dispatched a British na(al s:uadron from #ew York to the $hesapeake, only to be dri(en off by de
Arasse. 3ashington and Dochambeau relentlessly bombarded Yorktown. t last, the British general
surrendered his C,111 troops to the allies 0?,111 men on October 05, 0?C0. s $ornwallis
presented 3ashington with his sword, the British regimental band played a popular tune of times. !t
was called ,/he 3orld /urned 6pside >own.-
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
Aeorge 3ashingtons greatest accomplishments were to hold his armies together during a
long, hard war, to e.ploit British strategic and tactical blunders effecti(ely, and to make each British
(ictory e.tremely costly.
/he De(olution did not end in merican (ictory, so much as in the defeat of 8nglands will to
continue to fight.
/he De(olution was instantly percei(ed as a worldwide e(ent+a milestone in the history of
humankind.
,ord for the -ay
&ollowing the practice of the day, "ing Aeorge !!! paid foreign mercenary troops to do much
of his fighting in merica. /he :essians came from the Aerman principality of )esse'"assel.
lthough not all of the Aerman mercenaries employed in the war came from this principality, most
of them did. /he name was applied to all the hired soldiers+about E1,111 in all+who fought in most
of the ma4or campaigns, usually answering to British commanders. Some :essians stayed here
after the war and became merican citi9ens.
,ord for the -ay
/he Tide(ater is the traditional name for the coastal South. !n colonial times the Piedmont
;literally, ,foot of the mountains-< was the region 4ust east of the Blue Didge =ountains. /he
/idewater was the more settled and affluent region, whereas the Piedmont was the poorer, more
sparsely settled frontier region.
.eal (ife
Benedict rnold ;0?20'0C10< was born in #orwich, $onnecticut, and ser(ed as a teenager in
the &rench and !ndian 3ar. >uring the De(olution, he handled himself brilliantly, but became
embittered when he was passed o(er for promotion. 3hen he ser(ed as commander of forces in
Philadelphia, rnold was accused of o(erstepping his authority, and he made matters worse by
marrying =argaret Shippen ;0??5<, the daughter of a prominent Loyalist. )is new wife,
accustomed to affluence, encouraged rnold to spend freely, and he was soon buried in debt. rnold
was the British as a means of gaining promotion and cash. )e offered them a plan to betray the
fortifications at 3est Point, #ew York, but his treachery was re(ealed when British =a4or Iohn
ndre was captured in September 0?C1 carrying the turncoats message in his boot. ndre was
e.ecuted as a spy, but rnold escaped to enemy lines and was commissioned a brigadier general in
the British army. !n that capacity, he led two e.peditions, one that burned Dichmond, @irginia, and
another against #ew London in his nati(e $onnecticut. )owe(er, he ne(er recei(ed all of the career
ad(ancement and fortune the British has promised. )e went to 8ngland in 0?C0, was plagued by a
,ner(ous disease,- and died in London in 0C10.
From ;any ,ne
(%)1)#%)0)'
In This Chapter
Treaty of Paris and the end of the ,e#olution
;o#ernment of territories by the "orth(est /rdinance
$reation and ratification of the $onstitution
The Bill of ,i&hts
:amilton #s< -efferson
&or all intents and purposes, the Battle of Yorktown ended the merican De(olution. Yet
triumph here did not mean total (ictory for the mericans. Sir )enry $linton still occupied key
cities, and Britain continued to skirmish in this hemisphere with &rance and Spain. But Yorktown
marked the end of Britains will to fight its colonies, and it put mericas treaty negotiators,
Ben4amin &ranklin ;0?17'51< and Iohn Iay ;0?2%'0CF5<, in a strong bargaining position. /hey
understood that Britain was an.ious to pry merica free of the &rench sphere of influenceG
therefore, they correctly calculated that the British negotiators would be inclined to hammer out
generous peace terms. Iay and &ranklin obtained not only British recognition of merican
independence, but also the cession of the (ast region from the ppalachians to the =ississippi Di(er
as part of the 6nited States.
/he treaty also made na(igation of the =ississippi free to all signatories ;&rance, Spain, and
)olland<, restored &lorida to Spain and Senegal to &rance, and granted to the 6nited States (aluable
fishing rights off #ewfoundland. /he definiti(e /reaty of Paris was signed on September E, 0?CE,
and ratified by the $ontinental $ongress on Ianuary 02, 0?C2.
.o7e of Sand
>rafted in 0??? and ratified in 0?C0, the rticles of $onfederation became the first
constitution of the 6nited States. s the document was concei(ed by Iohn >ickinson ;0?EF'0C1C<
in 0??7, it pro(ided for a strong national go(ernment. But the states clamored for more rights+
especially the power of ta.ation+and >ickinsons document was watered down by re(ision and
amendment. !nstead of a nation, the rticles created a ,firm league of friendship- among 0E
so(ereign states. /he rticles pro(ided for a permanent national $ongress, consisting of two to
se(en delegates from each state ;yet each state was gi(en one (ote, regardless of its si9e or
population<, but did not establish an e.ecuti(e or 4udicial branch. $ongress was charged with
conducting foreign relations, declaring war, making peace, maintaining an army and na(y, and so
on, yet it was essentially powerless, since it was wholly at the mercy of the states. $ongress could
issue directi(es and pass laws, but it could not enforce them. /he states either chose to comply or
not. =iraculously, the rticles held the states together during the De(olution, but it soon became
clear that the rticles had created no union, but what (arious lawmakers called ,a rope of sand.-
8orth+est :rdinance
6nder the rticles of $onfederation, $ongress enacted at least one momentous piece of
legislation. /he #orthwest Ordinance ;Iuly 0E, 0?C?< spelled out how territories and states were to
be formed from the western lands won in the De(olution. 3hat was then called the #orthwest+the
(ast region bounded by the Ohio and =ississippi ri(ers and by the Areat Lakes+was to be di(ided
into three to fi(e territories. $ongress was empowered to appoint a go(ernor, a secretary, and three
4udges to go(ern each territory. 3hen the adult male population of a territory reached %,111,
elections would be held to form a territorial legislature and to send a non(oting representati(e to
$ongress. 3hen the territorial adult male population reached 71,111, a territory could write a
constitution and apply for statehood. 3hereas Britain had refused to make its merican colonies
full members of a national commonwealth, the rticles ensured that the frontier regions would
ne(er be mere colonies of the /idewater, but e:ual partners in a common enterprise.
Of e:ual importance, the Ordinance was the first national stand against sla(ery. /he law
prohibited sla(ery in the territories and also guaranteed in them such basic rights as trial by 4ury and
freedom of religion.
,e the %eo7leH
>espite the boldness of the #orthwest Ordinance, the weakness of $ongress under the
rticles of $onfederation was demonstrated almost daily. &or e.ample, the federal go(ernment
could do nothing to help =assachusetts, which was faced with its own minor insurrection when a
farmer named >aniel Shays led an attack on the state 4udicial system. #or could the go(ernment
inter(ene when Dhode !sland issued a mountain of absolutely worthless paper money. !n 0?C7, a
con(ention was held in nnapolis, =aryland, to discuss problems of interstate commerce. /he
delegates soon recogni9ed that these issues were only part of a much larger issue that could be
addressed by nothing less than a re(ision of the rticles. /he nnapolis delegates called for a
constitutional con(ention, which met in Philadelphia in =ay 0?C?. /he task of re(ision grew into a
pro4ect of building anew. By the end of =ay, the delegates agreed that what was re:uired was a
genuine national go(ernment, not a mere hopeful confederation of states.
&onstit"tional &on0ention
&ifty'fi(e delegates con(ened in Philadelphia and elected Aeorge 3ashington as president of
the con(ention. 4ust as 3ashington had held the $ontinental rmy together during the long trial of
re(olution, so now he managed the disputatious delegates with dignity and fairness.
The Virginia %lan
3hile some delegates held out for a simple re(ision of the rticles of $onfederation, the
@irginia delegation, led by 8dmund Dandolph, introduced the @irginia Plan, which proposed the
creation of a central federal go(ernment consisting of a bicameral legislature, an e.ecuti(e branch,
and a 4udicial branch. /he e.ecuti(e was to be elected by the members of the legislature, who, in
turn, were elected by the citi9ens. /he @irginia Plan further specified that representation in the
bicameral legislature would be proportionate to state population+a pro(ision that worried and
angered representati(es of the smaller states.
The 8e+ >ersey %lan
s debate raged o(er the @irginia Plan, 3illiam Paterson of #ew Iersey introduced a plan
labeled with the name of his state. /he #ew Iersey Plan retained most of the rticles of
$onfederation, and it ga(e all the states e:ual representation in the legislature, but it added a
separate and independent Supreme $ourt. #ow the debate became e(en more lengthy, tangled, and
heated.
&onnectic"t &om7romise
t last, Doger Sherman, delegate from $onnecticut, proposed a compromise between the two
plans. /his so'called Areat $ompromise called for a bicameral legislatureG howe(er, the ,upper
house- of this body, the Senate, would pro(ide each state with e:ual representation, whereas
representation in the ,lower house,- the )ouse of Depresentati(es, would pro(ide representation
proportionate to each states population. =oreo(er, the chief e.ecuti(e+the president+would not be
elected by the representati(es in the legislature, but by an 8lectoral $ollege.
ThreeI$ifths of a %erson
ny number of additional compromises remained to be made, but the stickiest in(ol(ed
apportioning representation in the )ouse of Depresentati(es. /he more representati(es a state could
claim, the more influential it would be in the federal go(ernment. !f representation was to be
proportional to population, the South wanted its sla(es counted as population. /he #orth ob4ected,
arguing that the sla(es should be e.cluded entirely from the calculation.
peculiar'sounding solution was reached. 8mbodied in the $onstitution as rticle 0, Section
F, the ,/hree'&ifths $ompromise- manages delicately to a(oid the word sla(e altogetherB
,Depresentation and direct ta.es will be apportioned among the se(eral states according to
respecti(e numbers determined by adding to the whole number of free persons including those
bound to ser(ice for a set number of years and e.cluding !ndians not ta.ed three'fifths of all other
persons.- &or purposes of le(ying ta.es and apportioning representati(es, sla(es were counted as
three'fifths of a person.
$ederalist %a7ers
3ith the compromises in place, 3illiam Iohnson ;secretary of the $on(ention<, le.ander
)amilton, Iames =adison, Dufus "ing, and Aou(erneur =orris wrote the actual $onstitution
document, the product of three and a half months of debate. 3hen EC of the %% $on(ention
delegates appro(ed the document, it was sent to $ongress, 3hich submitted it to the states for
ratification.
/hus began an uphill battle. /hose who supported the proposed $onstitution were called
&ederalists those opposed, nti'&ederalists. lthough >elaware, Pennsyl(ania, and #ew Iersey
instantly ratified the document, a total of nine states had to ratify in order for the $onstitution to
become law. /he process was hotly contested in many states and nowhere more so than in the key
states of @irginia and #ew York. /o con(ince #ew York (oters to ratify, le.ander )amilton, Iames
=adison, and Iohn Iay collaborated on a series of essays collecti(ely called /he &ederalist Papers,
published during 0?C?'CC in (arious #ew York newspapers under the name ,Publius.-
/he &ederalist Papers is a brilliant defense of the $onstitution. /he tenth essay penetrated to
the (ery heart of the principal nti'&ederalist argument that the nation was simply too big to be
regulated by a central go(ernment. =adison argued that precisely because the nation was so large, it
would be most effecti(ely go(erned by a strong central go(ernment, which would pre(ent any
single special interest from taking control. 8ssays 0% through FF deftly analy9ed the weaknesses of
the rticles of $onfederation.
@irginia ratified the $onstitution by a close (ote of C5 to ?5, but only after the framers
promised to add a ,Bill of Dights- to satisfy the nti'&ederalist argument that the $onstitution
failed to address the rights of indi(iduals. !n the meantime, /he &ederalist Papers tipped the balance
in #ew York+though 4ust barely. /he (ote was E1 to F?.
$ather of His &o"ntry
3hen #ew )ampshire became the ninth state to ratify the $onstitution on Iune F0, 0?CC, the
document became law, but it was not put into effect officially until =arch 2, 0?C5. /he ne.t month,
the 6.S. Senate con(ened to count ballots cast by members of the 8lectoral. $ollege for the first
president of the 6nited States. /he result surprised no one. Aeorge 3ashington had been
unanimously elected, and Iohn dams became his (ice president. !t was, in fact, with the
understanding that 3ashington would be elected that the framers of the $onstitution entrusted so
much power to the chief e.ecuti(e. 3ashington had amply demonstrated not only a genius for
leadership in commanding the $ontinental rmy, but his skill as a statesman in presiding o(er the
$onstitutional $on(ention. 8:ually important, 3ashington had made manifest the character of a
true republican. /oo often, re(olutions are followed by new tyrants and tyrannies. !t was clear to
$ongress and the people of the 6nited States that 3ashington was no tyrant.
/he new president was inaugurated in #ew York $ity on pril E1, 0?C5. 8(en with a
$onstitution in place, it was up to 3ashington to create much of the merican go(ernment and in
particular to shape the office of president. )e :uickly created key e.ecuti(e departments, naming
/homas Iefferson as Secretary of State, )enry "no. as Secretary of 3ar, le.ander )amilton as
Secretary of the /reasury, Samuel Osgood as head of the Post Office, and 8dmund Dandolph as
ttorney Aeneral.
3ashington became the model for the presidency, and the chief :uality he introduced into the
office was restraint. )e a(oided conflict with $ongress, belie(ing it was not the chief e.ecuti(es
duty to propose legislation. )e also opposed the formation of political parties+although, by the time
of his second term, two opposing parties had, indeed, been formedB the conser(ati(e &ederalists,
headed by Iohn dams and le.ander )amilton, and the more liberal >emocratic'Depublicans,
headed by /homas Iefferson. !n a measure of 3ashingtons steadfast refusal to become a
post're(olutionary tyrant, he declined to stand for a third term of office. /he two'term presidency
thereafter became an in(iolate tradition until the twin crises of the >epression and 3orld 3ar !!
prompted the nation to elect &ranklin >elano Doose(elt to a third and a fourth term. ;lthough the
nation was grateful to &>D, it also appro(ed the FFnd amendment to the $onstitution on &ebruary
F7, 05%0, restricting future presidents to no more than two elected terms.< 3ashington not only
created the office of president, he signed key treaties with 8ngland and Spain and appro(ed the
creation of a national bank. )e also proclaimed neutrality in what would become a long series of
wars between 8ngland and &rance, and he successfully :uelled a spasm of internal rebellion. =ore
than anything else, this able e.ecuti(e possessed a character that helped establish the 6nited States
among the other nations of the world. /he classical Domans reser(ed one title for their greatest
leaders+Pater Patriae, &ather of )is $ountry+and almost immediately, a grateful nation accorded
this epithet to Aeorge 3ashington.
Blorio"s Aftertho"ght' The Bill of .ights
/he framers of the $onstitution had no desire to deny indi(idual rights, but they belie(ed it
unnecessary to pro(ide a special, separate guarantee of those rights because the $onstitution states
that the go(ernment is one of ,enumerated powers- only. /hat is, the go(ernment can take no action
or assume any authority e.cept those e.plicitly pro(ided for in the $onstitution. /his assumption,
howe(er, was not a sufficient safeguard for the nti'&ederalists+those who feared too strong a
central go(ernment. !n 0?C5, $ongress began to consider amending the new $onstitution to
guarantee, in specific terms, a set of inalienable indi(idual rights. Iames =adison spearheaded the
effort, carefully e.amining, weighing, and synthesi9ing the rights already included in se(eral state
constitutions, especially the @irginia >eclaration of Dights, which had been adopted in 0??7.
6ltimately ratified on >ecember 0%, 0?50, the Bill of Dights is a set of the first ten
amendments to the $onstitution.
/he first protects freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and the right
of popular assembly for the purpose of petition for redress of grie(ances.
/he second amendment guarantees the right to bear arms, and the third se(erely limits the
:uartering of soldiers in pri(ate homes.
/he fourth amendment forbids unreasonable searches and sei9ures and re:uires warrants to be
specific ;not blanket documents< and to be issued only upon probable cause.
/he fifth amendment mandates grand 4ury indictments in ma4or criminal prosecutions,
prohibits ,double 4eopardy- ;being tried more than once on the same charge<, and guarantees that
no one need testify against himself or herself. /he amendment also forbids taking pri(ate property
for public use without 4ust compensation and prohibits depri(ation of life, liberty, or property
without due process of law.
/he si.th amendment guarantees a speedy public trial by 4ury. !t specifies that the accused
shall be fully informed of the accusation, shall be confronted with the witnesses against him or her,
shall ha(e the power to subpoena witnesses for his or her defense, and shall ha(e, access to legal
counsel.
/he se(enth amendment guarantees 4ury trials in ci(il cases, and the eighth prohibits
e.cessi(e bail, unreasonable fines, and ,cruel and unusual punishments.-
/he ninth and tenth amendments are specialB /he ninth e.plicitly pro(ides that the
enumeration of rights in the $onstitution does not deny others retained by the people. /he tenth
e.presses the ,doctrine of reser(ed powers-B all powers not delegated to the 6nited States are
reser(ed to the states or the people.
>istilled within the Bill of Dights is what most people would consider the (ery essence of all
that is most (aluable in the idea of the 6nited States of merica.
Secretary Hamilton
mong the most influential members of 3ashingtons cabinet was Secretary of the /reasury
le.ander )amilton. )e not only de(eloped a strong financial program for the infant nation but
also used finance to unify the 6nited States and to ele(ate federal authority o(er that of the states.
)e proposed a plan whereby the federal go(ernment would assume all debts incurred by the se(eral
states during the De(olution and pay them at par (alue rather than at the reduced rates some states
had already negotiated on their own. )amilton reasoned that this policy would demonstrate the
nations financial responsibility and ultimately impro(e its standing among other nations and its
ability to conduct commerce. 8(en more important, the plan would demonstrate to the world that
the federal go(ernment, not the indi(idual states, was the responsible contracting party in all
international commerce and foreign affairs. >espite great resistance from the Southern states,
)amiltons plan was enacted by $ongress.
8:ually contro(ersial was )amiltons proposal to create the Bank of the 6nited States.
&earing that this plan would concentrate far too much'power in the central go(ernment, /homas
Iefferson led the opposition against the proposal within 3ashingtons cabinet. )e argued that the
bank was unconstitutional, because the tenth amendment granted to the states and the people rights
and powers not e.plicitly gi(en to the 6nited States. !f this pro(ision was breached by the creation
of the bank, what other powers would the federal go(ernment usurpO
Ieffersons (iew of the $onstitution became known as ,strict construction.- )amilton, in
contrast, supported the constitutional (iew that became known as ,loose construction,- arguing in
support of it the doctrine of ,implied powers.- )amilton declared that the framers of the
$onstitution could not possibly ha(e anticipated all e(entualities and contingenciesG therefore, it is
impossible to list all the powers the federal go(ernment may assume. !n the case of the Bank of the
6nited States, )amilton held, the $onstitution does grant the federal go(ernment the power to ta.,
and ta.ation implies the creation of a place to keep the re(enue collected+namely, a bank.
/he disagreement between Iefferson and )amilton formed the foundation of the merican
two'party political system, with either party more or less defined and distinguished by its (iew of
the nature of the federal go(ernment. Ieffersons >emocratic'Depublican party belie(ed in a
restrained central go(ernment that allowed a great measure of power to indi(iduals and statesG
)amiltons &ederalist party stood for a relati(ely powerful and acti(e central go(ernment, which
claimed for itself the lions share of authority. /he dynamic, shifting balance between these two
poles of opinion has defined the li(ely merican political scene e(er since the days of the first
president. O(er the years, the running dialogue has sometimes erupted into ugly argument and e(en
terrible (iolence+as in the $i(il 3ar. Yet the two'party system has also insured a go(ernment and
society that is ne(er stagnant and always open to change and challenge.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he key to the $onstitution is a strong central go(ernment that is itself go(erned by a
system of checks and balances.
!n addition to the nations first president, Aeorge 3ashington, the defining personalities
of the early republic were /homas Iefferson ;who fa(ored the forces of liberal
democracy< and le.ander )amilton ;who fa(ored a powerful central go(ernment<.
,ord for the -ay
/he eagle on the Areat Seal of the 6nited States of merica holds in its beak a ribbon on
which the Latin motto e pluribus unum is inscribed. /he words mean ,from many, one- and e.press
the formidable nature of the task that faced the founding fathersB to forge a single nation from
se(eral states and many indi(iduals. /he motto was chosen by a committee appointed by the
$ontinental $ongress on Iuly 2, 0??7, and was officially adopted on Iune F1, 0?CF. /he phrase is a
:uotation from ,=oretum- by the Doman poet @ergil ;?1'05 B.$.< but was borrowed more
immediately from Aentlemans =aga9ine, a popular British periodical on whose co(er the phrase
had appeared for many years.
!ain ?0ent
!n ugust 0?C7, armed mobs of beleaguered farmers began forcing the closure of courts in
=assachusettss frontier counties. charismatic De(olutionary 3ar (eteran, >aniel Shays ;ca.
0?2?'0CF%<, emerged as the leader of what came to be called Shayss Debellion. !t was not until
Ianuary F%, 0?C?, that a state militia force was able to disperse rebels in Springfield.
,ord for the -ay
Bicameral literally means ,two'chambered- and refers to a type of legislature consisting of
two groups of representati(es. !n the case of the British Parliament, the two houses are the )ouse of
Lords and the )ouse of $ommonsG in the case of the 6.S. $ongress, they are the Senate and the
)ouse of Depresentati(es.
,ord for the -ay
/he framers of the $onstitution wanted to a(oid election of the president directly by the
people. s ultimately pro(ided in the $onstitution, each state has as many electors as it has senators
and representati(es combined. /ogether, the electors constitute the 8lectoral $ollege. Originally, the
electors were (oted into office by the state legislatures. /his e(ol(ed into election by the people.
;/oday, we may belie(e that, e(ery fourth #o(ember, we are (oting for a president, but actually, we
are (oting for electors pledged to cast their (otes for a particular candidate.<
Stats
Of the C% &ederalist essays, most scholars agree that )amilton wrote %F, =adison FC, and Iay
%.
.eal (ife
Aeorge 3ashington ;0?EF'55< was born in 3estmoreland $ounty, @irginia, to a prosperous
planter. fter his father died in 0?2E, he was raised by his half'brother Lawrence at =ount @ernon,
Lawrences Potomac Di(er plantation. 3ashington became a sur(eyor+a powerful profession in
colonial merica+and helped lay out Belha(en, @irginia ;now le.andria<. &ollowing the death of
his half'brother, 3ashington inherited =ount @ernon.
)e left that belo(ed home to ser(e in the &rench and !ndian 3ar, returning afterward to
=ount @ernon and ser(ice in @irginias )ouse of Burgesses.
3ashington made a happy+and opportune+marriage to a young and wealthy widow, =artha
>andridge $ustis and by 0?75 was a prominent leader of @irginias opposition to Britains
oppressi(e colonial policies. >uring 0??2'?%, 3ashington was a delegate to the &irst and Second
$ontinental $ongress, and in Iune 0? ?% was unanimously chosen as commander in chief of the
$ontinental forces, which he led brilliantly.
fter the war, 3ashington headed the @irginia delegation to the $onstitutional $on(ention
and was unanimously elected presiding officer. 6pon ratification of the $onstitution, he was
unanimously elected president in 0?C5 and was reelected in 0?5F. !n =arch 0?5?, when
3ashington left office, he left a well'established go(ernment and a stable financial system.
6nfortunately, the &ather of )is $ountry had little time to en4oy retirement at his belo(ed
=ount @ernon. !n mid'>ecember 0?55, he fell ill with acute laryngitis, which rapidly worsened. )e
died on >ecember 02.
!ain ?0ent
!n 0?50, $ongress le(ied a federal ta. on corn li:uor. !n frontier Pennsyl(ania, farmers
distilled whiskey to use up surplus corn, and the product became for them a form of currency.
&armers protested and often refused to pay the ta.. !n 0?52, President 3ashington sent collectors,
who were met by armed resistance in what constituted the first serious test of the new 6.S.
go(ernments ability to enforce a federal law. Secretary of the /reasury le.ander )amilton ad(ised
the president to call out the militia. !n a bold e.ercise of federal authority, 3ashington did 4ust that,
and the 3hiskey Debellion collapsed.
%1%< ,7erture
(%)01#%1%<'
In This Chapter
The =3> Affair and the Alien and *edition Acts
Marbury #< Madison
The Louisiana Purchase
"eutralization of the Barbary !irates
The Embar&o and its conse+uences
War in the West
3hen Aeorge 3ashington deli(ered his &arewell ddress in =arch 0?5?, the 6nited States
was recogni9ed by the worlds powers as a nation. /hat single fact was, in large part, his greatest
accomplishment. !n his speech, the outgoing president ad(ised his fellow mericans to a(oid
,foreign entanglements,- to preser(e the financial credit of the nation, and to beware of the dangers
of political parties, which might fragment the nation.
8(eryone agreed that the ad(ice was good, but the second presidential election, in 0?57, had
already shown that political parties were di(iding the nation. Iohn dams, a &ederalist, was elected
with ?0 (otes in the 8lectoral $ollege. !n those days, the runner'up became (ice president, and that
was /homas Iefferson, leader of the >emocratic'Depublican party, with 7C electoral (otes. /hus the
president and (ice president were of different parties and significantly different philosophies of
go(ernment. dams would ha(e been called a conser(ati(e in his day, a belie(er in a strong central
go(ernment. Iefferson, a liberal, wanted more authority entrusted to states and indi(iduals. /hat
these sharply different (iews did not tear the country apart was a measure of the essential strength
of the new nationG yet its recently won liberty was put to se(ere tests as the 0Cth century yielded to
the 05th.
$oreign Affairs
>uring 3ashingtons second term of office, intense friction de(eloped between Britain and
the 6nited States. /he British go(ernment refused to e(acuate the frontier forts in the Old
#orthwest, despite ha(ing agreed to do so in signing the /reaty of Paris. 3orse, many mericans
were con(inced that British traders as well as crown officials were encouraging the !ndians to attack
settlers. &inally, 8nglish na(al (essels had begun sei9ing merican merchant ships and impressing
merican sailors into the British ser(ice to fight its war against &rance. /he British also complained
that mericans had breached the terms of the Paris treaty by failing to pay pre'De(olutionary debts
owed British creditors and by refusing to compensate Loyalists for confiscated property during the
De(olution.
n.ious to a(ert a new war with Britain, 3ashington commissioned $hief 4ustice Iohn Iay to
conclude a treaty, signed on #o(ember 05, 0?52, to secure the British e(acuation of the frontier
forts and refer debt and boundary disputes to settlement by 4oint 6.S.'British commissions. /his
amicable solution greatly alarmed the &rench, who feared that their former ally, the 6nited States,
would now unite with Britain against them. $ertainly it was true that most mericans, especially
the &ederalists, recoiled in horror from the e.cesses of the &rench De(olution ;0?C5'55<. 4ust a year
before the Iay /reaty was concluded, 3ashington rebuffed the o(ertures of 8dmond $harles
8douard Aenet ;0?7E'0CE2<, a &rench diplomat sent to the 6nited States to secure merican aid for
&rance in its war with 8ngland. ,$iti9en Aenet- ;as &rench re(olutionary eti:uette dictated he be
addressed< defied 3ashington by plotting with merican pri(ateers to prey on British (essels in
6.S. coastal waters. /he president warned Aenet that he was (iolating 6.S. so(ereignty. 3hen
$iti9en Aenet responded with a threat to make a direct appeal to the merican people, 3ashington
asked the &rench go(ernment to recall him.
!n &rance, howe(er, a new re(olutionary party, the Iacobins, had replaced the Airondists, the
party to which Aenet belonged. !n contrast to the 6nited States, where political parties could
,disagree without being disagreeable,- ri(al factions in re(olutionary &rance settled their
differences with the guillotine. /he Iacobin go(ernment asked 3ashington to e.tradite Aenet, but
the president refused to compel Aenet to return to &rance, whereupon $iti9en AenS chose to
become a citi9en of the 6nited States.
As ?asy as JYK
/he Aenet episode, combined with the Iay /reaty, brought &ranco'merican relations to the
(erge of war. fter the &rench >irectory high'handedly refused to recei(e 6.S. minister $harles
$otesworth Pinckney, the new president, dams, sent a commission consisting of Pinckney, Iohn
=arshall, and 8lbridge Aerry to attempt to heal the breach by concluding a new treaty of
commerce. !ncredibly, &rench prime minister $harles =aurice de /alleyrand'Perigord ;0?%2'0CEC<
sent three agents to greet the merican commissioners in Paris in October 0?5?. /he agents told the
commissioners that before they could e(en discuss a treaty, the 6nited States would ha(e to loan
&rance P0F million and pay /alleyrand a personal bribe of PF%1,111.
On pril E, 0?5C, an indignant President dams submitted to $ongress the correspondence
from the commission, which designated the &rench agents as ,J,- ,Y- and ,H.- $ongress, e:ually
indignant, published the entire portfolio, and the public learned of the ,JYH ffair.- mericans of
all political stripes united in outrage, the nation mobili9ed for war with its erstwhile ally, and, in
fact, an undeclared na(al war was sporadically fought from 0. ?5C to 0C11. &ortunately, that conflict
was limited, and international tempers cooled as the &rench De(olution came to an end.
:0erreaction
Yet something far more sinister than another war was brewing. !n the summer of 0?5C, in
response to the Aenet episode, the JYH ffair, and the escalating war fe(er, the
&ederalistdominated $ongress passed the lien and Sedition cts, which included the
#aturali9ation ct ;Iune 0C, 0?5C<, raising the residence prere:uisite for citi9enship from % to 02
yearsG the lien ct ;Iune F%<, authori9ing the president to deport all aliens regarded as dangerousG
and the lien 8nemies ct ;Iuly 7<, authori9ing the president, in time of war, to arrest, imprison, or
deport sub4ects of an enemy power. =ost tyrannical of all, the Sedition ct ;Iuly 02< prohibited
assembly ,with intent to oppose any measure K of the go(ernment- and forbade printing, uttering,
or publishing anything ,false, scandalous, and malicious- against the go(ernment. 3hat made the
dangerous lien and Sedition cts e(en more insidious in the fledgling democracy was the fact that
many of the leading nti'&ederalists were recent refugees from 8urope. /he acts were aimed
directly at neutrali9ing their power.
!n 0?5C'55, @irginia and "entucky published resolutions ;written by Iames =adison and
Iefferson< opposing the acts as unconstitutional and, therefore, not binding on the states. Iefferson
maintained that a state had the right to 4udge the constitutionality of acts of $ongress and to
,nullify- any acts that it determined to be unconstitutional. Because to the resolutions, the lien and
Sedition cts were ;for the most part< short'li(ed.
The Age of >efferson
Public disgust with the lien and Sedition cts helped oust the &ederalist dams in the
elections of 0C11, but the 8lectoral $ollege (oted a tie between the two >emocratic Depublican
candidates, /homas Iefferson and aron Burr. s prescribed by the $onstitution, the tied election
was sent to the )ouse of Depresentati(es for resolution. )amilton, the implacable enemy of Burr,
con(inced fellow &ederalists to support Iefferson, who was elected on the E7th ballot. Dunner'up
Burr became (ice president.
)istorians speak of an ,ge of Iefferson,- but not of an ge of dams. Perhaps the reason is
that, despite &ederalist ob4ections to most of Ieffersons policies, the people embraced them, and
they became key elements of the popular merican agenda. !nternal ta.es were reduced, the
military budget was cut, the lien and Sedition cts were repealed or died. /he climactic triumph
of Ieffersons first term was the momentous e.pansion of the nation through the Louisiana
Purchase.
S"7reme &o"rt .eigns S"7reme
lthough Iefferson commenced his first term as president by proposing to the &ederalists that
they bury the hatchet, he was not abo(e manipulating the law to pre(ent a group of &ederalist
4udges, appointed by Iohn dams, from assuming office. fter his inauguration, Iefferson
disco(ered that, during dams final days as president, the former president had signed a number of
4udicial appointments but had not distributed them. #ot wanting to place &ederalists in important
circuit court and federal court positions, Iefferson decided not to distribute the signed appointments.
3hen one of the appointees, 3illiam =arbury, failed to recei(e his commission as 4ustice of
the peace for 3ashington, >.$., he petitioned the Supreme $ourt for a writ of mandamus+an order
to Secretary of State Iames =adison to distribute the commissions. /his order created a critical
dilemma for $hief 4ustice Iohn =arshallG if he issued the writ, he would put the court in direct
opposition to the president. !f =arshall denied the writ, he would dilute the power of the Supreme
$ourt by appearing to bow to the presidents wishes. Defusing to be impaled on the horns of the
dilemma, =arshall found that =arbury had been wrongfully depri(ed of his commission, but he
also declared that Section 0E of the Iudiciary ct of 0?C5, under which =arbury had filed his suit,
was unconstitutional. Section 0E added to the Supreme $ourts ,original 4urisdiction- by improperly
allowing into the Supreme $ourt a case that should be heard by a lower court. =arburys suit was
thrown out, a political crisis a(erted, and'most important of all'the right of the Supreme $ourt to
,4udicial re(iew- was established.
8(er since the case of =arbury (. =adison, the Supreme $ourt has functioned to set aside
statutes of $ongress the $ourt 4udged unconstitutional. /he case represented the birth of an
e.traordinary federal power, which made complete the definition of the system of ,checks and
balances- the framers of the $onstitution had created among the e.ecuti(e, legislati(e, and 4udicial
branches of go(ernment.
A %"rchase and a >o"rney
Ieffersons first term was crowned by an action that added a (ast new territory to the 6nited
States. /his triumph began with a crisis. &ollowing the &rench and !ndian 3ar, &rance ceded the
Louisiana /erritory to Spain. )owe(er, in 0C11, #apoleon Bonaparte reac:uired the territory by
secret treaty in e.change for parts of /uscany, which #apoleon pledged to con:uer on behalf of
Spain. #apoleon also promised to maintain Louisiana as a buffer between Spains #orth merican
settlements and the 6nited States. fter the secret treaty was concluded, #apoleon promptly
abandoned his /uscan campaign, and the two nations fell to disputing. >uring this period,
beginning in 0C1F, Spain closed the =ississippi to merican trade.
Iefferson could not tolerate an end to western trade, but neither did he relish the notion of
#apoleon at his back door. /o resol(e the crisis, the president dispatched Iames =onroe to &rance
with orders to make an offer for the purchase of the port city of #ew Orleans and &lorida.
=onroe, it turned out, was in the right place at the right time. One of #apoleons armies was
bogged down in the disease'infested 3est !ndies. Dather than lose his forces to illness, #apoleon
decided to withdraw from the hemisphere and focus his con:uests on 8urope. 8(en as =onroe was
crossing the tlantic, #apoleons minister /alleyrand asked 6.S. foreign minister to &rance Dobert
D. Li(ingston bow much Iefferson would offer not 4ust for #ew Orleans and &lorida, but for the
entire Louisiana /erritory. #egotiations proceeded after =onroe arri(ed, and the bargain was
concluded for 71 million francs.
/he Louisiana Purchase was an o(erwhelmingly popular mo(e, and it catapulted Iefferson to
a second term. !n contrast to the tie contest of 0C11, Iefferson swept e(ery state e.cept
two'$onnecticut and >elaware'in the election of 0C12.
%irates and ?mbargo
Ieffersons second term began with great promise as his administration negotiated a fa(orable
peace in the /ripolitan 3ar, putting an end to intimidation by the Barbary pirates of /ripoli, lgiers,
=orocco, and /unis, who had been e.torting protection money in return for safe passage of 6.S.
merchant (essels through the =editerranean. las, the rest of Ieffersons second administration was
marked by an economic crisis resulting from a. failure of foreign policy.
!n 8urope, the 3ars of the &rench De(olution had dissol(ed into the #apoleonic 3ars. 3hen
neither the 8nglish nor the &rench could score a decisi(e (ictory, they turned to attacks on the
commerce of noncombatant nations, including the 6nited States. /he 8nglish resumed the practice
of impressing merican sailors and also sei9ed merican (essels attempting to enter &rench ports.
Iefferson retaliated with the #on'!mportation ct, which prohibited the importation of many
8nglish goods.
/he simmering crisis came to a head on Iune FF, 0C1?, when the British man'of'war Leopard,
off #orfolk Doads, @irginia, fired on the 6.S. frigate $hesapeake. /he British boarded the frigate
and sei9ed four men they claimed to be deserters from )is =a4estys na(y. /he incident fanned the
flames of war fe(er throughout the nation, but President Iefferson resisted. !nstead of resorting to
war, he pushed through $ongress the 8mbargo ct of >ecember FF, 0C1?, prohibiting all e.ports to
8urope and restricting imports from Areat Britain.
/he embargo was a self'inflicted wound, se(erely crippling the merican economy and
pro(oking outrage from merican farmers and merchants. Smuggling became rampant, national
unity was threatened, and Ieffersons popularity plummeted while that of the &ederalists rose.
Tec"mseh .ises
3hile Iefferson was dealing with 8ngland and &rance, the 3est that he had done so much to
,open- with the Louisiana Purchase was erupting in (iolence. !n 0?52, the ma4or tribes of the Old
#orthwest ;the region from the Ohio Di(er to the Areat Lakes< were defeated by Aeneral ,=ad
nthony- 3ayne at the watershed Battle of &allen /imbers ;ugust F1<. fter almost a decade of
relati(e peace on that frontier region, President Iefferson in. 0C1E directed the territorial go(ernor of
!ndiana, 3illiam )enry )arrison ;0??E'0C20<, to obtain ,legal- title to as much !ndian land as
possible. O(er the ne.t three years, )arrison ac:uired ?1 million acres by negotiating with whate(er
chiefs and tribal leaders were willing to sign deeds. /he trouble was that for e(ery !ndian leader
who claimed authority to sell land, another rose up to repudiate that authority and that sale.
/he most prominent, brilliant, and charismatic of those who resisted the transfer of !ndian
lands to the whites was the Shawnee /ecumseh ;ca. 0?7C'0C0E<, who organi9ed a united resistance
against white in(asion while culti(ating an alliance with British interests. 3esterners were fearful
of /ecumseh and other British'backed !ndians, and they were also angry. #ot only did the !ndians
need a good whipping, but so did the British, who became the focus of concentrated hatred in the
new merican 3est, not only for inciting !ndians to war, but for disrupting merican shipping and
commerce. 3hat was bad for the coastal economy was disastrous for the 3est, which, during this
critical phase of its de(elopment, was being pre(ented from shipping out its abundant e.ports. /he
3est was spoiling for a war, and 3illiam )enry )arrison and /ecumseh would gi(e it one.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he liberal ,ge of Iefferson- swept away the repressi(e lien and Sedition cts and
e.panded the 6nited States with the Louisiana Purchase.
$hief 4ustice Iohn =arshall defined the function and power of the Supreme $ourt
through his decision in the case of =arbury (. =adison.
Ieffersons second term was marred by the 8mbargo ct and a breakdown in relations
with Areat Britain.
,ord for the -ay
Im!ressment was the practice+common, in 8ngland during the 0Cth and early 05th centuries+
of compelling+e(en kidnapping+indi(iduals to ser(e in the military, especially the na(y.
,ord for the -ay
"ullification would become a ma4or issue in the decade before the $i(il 3ar, when South
$arolinas Iohn $. $alhoun echoed Iefferson and asserted that the states could o(erride ;,nullify-<
any federal laws they 4udged unconstitutional. "ullification attacked the foundation of merican
nationhood.
.eal (ife
Born in #ewark, #ew Iersey, aron Burr distinguished himself in the De(olution, made a
prosperous marriage ;0?CF< to the widow of a former British officer, and set up a successful law
practice in #ew York $ity. )e entered the 6.S. Senate in 0?50 and ser(ed as 6.S. (ice president
from 0C10 to 0C1%.
Iefferson distrusted Burr and dropped him from the >emocratic'Depublican ticket in the 0C12
race. /hus re4ected, Buff ran for #ew York go(ernor, garnering support ;in part< by suggesting that
he would aid certain &ederalist radicals in their effort to break #ew York free of the 6nion. Burr
was attacked in print by le.ander )amilton, and when Burr lost the election, he challenged his
enemy to a duel on Iuly 00, 0C12. )amilton was mortally wounded, and Buff recei(ed the dubious
distinction of becoming the first ;and thus far only< 6.S. (ice president charged with murder.
Burr ultimately was ac:uitted, completed his (ice presidential term with dignity, but then
entered into a conspiracy of bewildering proportions. 8(en now, it is impossible to determine 4ust
what Burr intended to do, but he seems to ha(e en(isioned creating an empire stretching from the
Ohio Di(er to =e.ico+an empire o(er which he would rule. Burr conspired with 6.S. army general
Iames 3ilkinson to incite the 3est to a rebellion supported by =e.ico. Before Burr could take
significant action, howe(er, 3ilkinson betrayed him to President Iefferson. $hief 4ustice Iohn
=arshall presided o(er Burrs trial for treason, pointing out to the 4ury that Burr had not committed
any acts of treason, but had been shown only to ha(e intended to commit such acts. =arshall
declared that one could not be found guilty on account of ones intentions. fter F% minutes of
deliberation, the 4ury ac:uitted Burr, who fled to 8urope and did not return to the 6nited States until
=ay 0C0F. )e li(ed out the remainder of his life in retirement.
Stats
/he Louisiana Purchase added 51,111 s:uare miles 70 trans'=ississippi territory to the
6nited States. Purchased at a cost of 71 million francs ;about P 0% million<, it was a great ! estate
bargain at four cents an acre.
!ain ?0ent
Iefferson, fascinated like so many others with the idea of finding a #orthwest Passage
connecting the =ississippi with the Pacific, planned an e.pedition to Louisiana /erritory long
before the purchase, choosing his trusted secretary =eriwether Lewis ;0??2'0C15< to lead the
e.pedition. Lewis asked his close friend 3illiam $lark ;0??1'0CEC< to ser(e as co'captain.
/he e.pedition left Saint Louis on =ay 02, 0C12, and reached central #orth >akota in
#o(ember. ccompanied by a remarkable Shoshoni woman Saca4awea ;ca. 0?C2'0C0F<. who
ser(ed as translator and guide, the group e.plored the Dockies and reached the $ontinental >i(ide
on ugust 0F, 0C1%. Lewis and $lark were now con(inced that the #orthwest Passage did not e.ist.
)owe(er, they pressed on, reaching the $olumbia Di(er and the Pacific in #o(ember 0C1%. /hey
returned to Saint Louis on September FE, 0C17.
!f the e.pedition failed to find the none.istent #orthwest Passage, it did supply a wealth of
information about what had been a great blank space on the map of #orth merica.
Washin/ton !urns a *ation Is 2eborn
(%1%<#%1%('
In this Chapter
Early disasters and the near?colla!se of the West
"a#al trium!hs and Western #ictories
The burnin& of Washin&ton and the defense of Baltimore
The Battle of Lae $ham!lain and the Treaty of ;hent
-acson as the :ero of "e( /rleans
Late in the summer of 0C00, /ecumseh left the Ohio country for the South to e.pand his
alliances to the $hickasaws, $hoctaws, and $reeks. 8.cept for a militant $reek faction known as
the Ded Sticks, these groups wanted no part of /ecumsehs enterprise. 3orse, 3illiam )enry
)arrison used /ecumsehs absence to mo(e against /ecumsehs head:uarters at /ippecanoe. )a(ing
assembled a ragtag army of 0,111 men+including E%1 6.S. regulars, raw "entucky and !ndiana
militiamen, and a handful of >elaware and =iami !ndian scouts+)arrison attacked outside of
/ippecanoe on #o(ember ?, 0C00. Losses were e:ually hea(y on both sides+about %1 whites and %1
!ndians slain, but the battle cost /ecumsehs followers their head:uarters and prompted many of
them to desert /ecumseh. /hus the settlers of the 3est had their first taste of a ma4or fight and a
significant (ictory. Of fighting, they were about to get more than their fill during the ne.t three
years. @ictories, howe(er, would be (ery few.
,ar Ha+)s Tri"m7hant
/he 3ar of 0C0F is one of those historical e(ents nobody thinks much about nowadays. But
earlier generations of merican schoolchildren were taught that it was nothing less than the ,second
3ar of !ndependence,- righteous conflict fought because the British, at war with #apoleon and in
need of sailors for the Doyal #a(y, insisted on boarding 6.S. (essels to impress merican sailors
into )is =a4estys ser(ice. ctually, the 6.S. declared war on Britain on Iune 0.5, 0C0F, three days
after the British had agreed to stop impressing seamen. /he real cause of the war was not to be
found on the ocean, but in the trans'ppalachian 3est. !n $ongress, the region was represented by a
group of land'hungry ,3ar )awks,- spearheaded by Depresentati(e )enry $lay of "entucky.
/he 3ar )awks saw war with Britain as an opportunity to gain relief from British'backed
hostile !ndians and as a chance to gain what was then called Spanish &lorida+a ,parcel- of land
e.tending from &lorida west to the =ississippi Di(er. Spain, which held this land, was allied with
Britain against #apoleon. 3ar with Britain, therefore, would mean war with Spain, and (ictory
would mean the ac:uisition of Spanish &lorida, which would complete an unbroken territorial link
from the tlantic, through the recently purchased Louisiana /erritory, clear to the Pacific.
/he trouble was that President Iames =adison, elected to his first term in 0C1C, did not want
war. )e renewed the diplomatic and economic initiati(es Iefferson had introduced, but, facing a
tough reelection battle in 0C0.F, he at last yielded to $lay and the other leading 3ar )awks, Iohn
$alhoun of South $arolina and "entuckys Dichard =entor Iohnson, President =adison asked a
willing $ongress for a declaration of war.
ThreeI%ronged $lo7
Since colonial times, mericans shunned large standing armies. #ow, ha(ing declared war,
the country had to fight it+with an army of only 0F,111 regular troops scattered o(er a (ast territory.
/he troops were led by generals, most of whom had achie(ed their rank not through military
prowess but through political connections. s to the nations na(y, its officers were generally of a
higher caliber, but it was a (ery puny force, especially in comparison with the magnificent fleets of
the British. >espite these terrible handicaps, 6.S. planners de(eloped a three'pronged in(asion of
$anadaB a penetration from Lake $hamplain to =ontrealG another across the #iagara frontierG and a
third into 6pper $anada from >etroit.
/he sad fact was that the attacks, thoroughly uncoordinated, all failed.
The $all of -etroit
/he go(ernor of =ichigan /erritory, 3illiam )ull ;0?%E'0CF%< was nominated to command
the merican forces north of the Ohio Di(er. minor hero of the De(olution, )ull was almost 71
years old when he led his forces across the >etroit Di(er into $anada on Iuly 0F, 0C0F. )is
ob4ecti(e was to take &ort =alden, which guarded the entrance to Lake 8rie, but )ull belie(ed
himself outnumbered and delayed his assault, thereby pro(iding enough time for the highly capable
British commander, =a4or Aeneral !saac Brock, to bring his regulars into position. 3hile this
maneu(ering was going on, the merican garrison at &ort =ichilimackinac, guarding the =ackinac
Straits between Lake )uron and Lake =ichigan, was o(errun and surrendered without a fight on
Iuly 0?. On ugust F, /ecumseh chased )ull out of $anada and back to &ort >etroit. #ow Brock
united his men with /ecumsehs warriors, and )ull surrendered &ort >etroit and some 0,%11 men,
without firing a shot, on ugust 07.
&arther south, 4ust the day before )ull surrendered >etroit, &ort >earborn ;at the site of
present'day $hicago< surrendered. s troops and settlers e(acuated the fort, Potawatomi !ndians
attacked, killing E% men, women, and children, mainly by torture.
-efeat on the 8iagara $rontier
#ew York militia general Stephen @an Densselaer led F,F?1 militiamen and 511 regulars in.
an assault on *ueenston )eights, $anada, 4ust across the #iagara Di(er. Part of the force, mostly
the regulars, got across the ri(er before Aeneral Brock, ha(ing rushed to *ueenston from >etroit,
and pinned them down on October 0E. /he balance of the militia contingent refused to cross the
international boundary and stood by as 711 British regulars and 211 $anadian militiamen
o(erwhelmed their comrades.
A 8oIsho+ in &anada
/he principal 6.S. force had yet to attack. =a4or Aeneral )enry >earborn led %,111 troops,
mostly militia, down Lake $hamplain and on #o(ember 05, was about to cross into $anada. t that
point, the militia contingent, asserting its ,constitutional rights,- refused. to fight in a foreign
country. >earborn had no choice but to withdraw without seriously engaging the enemy.
The ,est in $lames
/he collapse of >etroit, &ort >earborn, and the $anadian campaign laid the 3est open to
!ndian assault and British in(asion. Suffering along the frontier was acute, yet neither the British
nor their !ndian allies were able to capitali9e decisi(ely on their ad(antages. lthough most of the
Old #orthwest soon fell under !ndian control, a coordinated British assault on the region, which
might ha(e brought the war to a :uick and crashing end, ne(er materiali9ed. /ecumseh was eager to
push the fight, but $olonel )enry Proctor, the British commander who had taken o(er from the
slain Brock, was as dull and hesitant as Brock had been brilliant and aggressi(e. Proctor failed to
support /ecumseh.
Proctors hesitation bought 6.S. general 3illiam )enry )arrison time to mount
counterattacks. s 0C0F drew to a close, )arrison destroyed (illages of the =iami !ndians near &ort
3ayne ;despite the fact that =iamis were noncombatants<, and he raided what amounted to !ndian
refugee camps near present'day Peru, !ndiana. !n Ianuary, )arrison mo(ed against &ort =alden,
ad(ancing across a fro9en Lake 8rie. But he suffered a stunning defeat on Ianuary F0 at the hands
of Procter and a contingent of Ded Stick $reeks. Yet, Procter was unable to score a final, decisi(e
(ictory.
British Bloc)ade
!n frankly miraculous contrast to the dismal merican performance on land was the acti(ity of
the 6.S. #a(y. /he British brought to bear 0,12C (essels to blockade 6.S. na(al and commercial
shipping in an effort to choke off the nations war effort. Opposed to this (ast armada were the 02
seaworthy (essels of the 6nited States #a(y and a ragtag fleet of pri(ateers. /he 6.S. frigates
emerged (ictorious in a series of single'ship engagements, the most famous of which were the
battles between the 6.S.S. $onstitution ;,Old !ronsides-< and the British frigates Auerriere, off the
coast of =assachusetts on ugust 05, 0C0F, and the Ia(a, off the Bra9ilian coast on >ecember F5,
0C0F. >espite such merican triumphs, the British were able to tighten their blockade into a
(eritable stranglehold that wiped out merican trade, bringing the 6.S. economy to the (erge of
collapse.
,e Ha0e !et the ?nemy and They Are :"rs
>uring 0C0E, renewed merican attempts to in(ade $anada were again unsuccessful. !n the
3est, howe(er, the situation brightened. 3illiam )enry )arrison managed to rebuild+and e(en
enlarge+his army, so that by late summer of 0C0E, he fielded C,111 men. !n the meantime, a dashing
young na(al officer named Oli(er )a9ard Perry ;0?C%'0C05< cobbled together an inland na(y.
Beginning in =arch 0C0E, he directed construction of an armed flotilla at Pres:ue !sle ;present'day
8rie<, Pennsyl(ania, while drilling his sailors in artillery techni:ue. By ugust, he was ready to
mo(e his (essels onto Lake 8rie. On September 01, Perry engaged the British fleet in a battle so
fierce that he had to transfer his flag from the se(erely damaged brig Lawrence to the #iagara, from
which he commanded nothing less than the destruction of the entire British s:uadron. )e sent to
Aeneral )arrison a message that instantly entered into merican historyB ,3e ha(e met the enemy
and they are ours.-
Perrys triumph cut off British supply lines and forced the abandonment of &ort =aiden, as
well as a general retreat eastward from the >etroit region. On October %, 0C0E, )arrison o(ertook
the retreating British and their !ndian allies at the Battle of the /hames. /he great !ndian leader
/ecumseh fell in this battle. lthough no one knows who killed him, it is certain that, with the death
of /ecumseh, the !ndians last real hope of halting the northwestward rush of white settlement
likewise died.
: Say &an Yo" See
/he merican (ictories in the 3est, so long in coming, might ha(e turned the tide of the war
had it not been for the defeat of #apoleon in 8urope and his first e.ile to St. 8lbe. 3ith #apoleon
out of the way, the British could now turn their attention to what had become ;from their point of
(iew< a (ery nasty little war in #orth merica. Soon, more ships and more troops+including
e.perienced (eterans of the campaigns against #apoleon+sailed across the tlantic.
/he British plan was to attack in three principal areasB in #ew York, along Lake $hamplain
and the )udson Di(er, which would se(er #ew 8ngland from the rest of the unionG in #ew Orleans,
which would block the (ital =ississippi arteryG and in $hesapeake Bay, a di(ersionary maneu(er
tactic that would draw off 6.S. manpower. /he British ob4ecti(e was to bring merica to its knees
and thereby e.tort ma4or territorial concessions in return for peace. By the fall of 0C02, the situation
looked (ery bleak for the 6nited States. /he nation was flat broke, and in #ew 8ngland, opponents
of the war had begun talking about lea(ing the 6nion.
Late in the summer of 0C02, merican resistance to the attack in $hesapeake Bay folded. /he
British, under =a4or Aeneral Dobert Doss, triumphed in =aryland at the Battle of Bladensburg
;ugust F2<, when ine.perienced =aryland militiamen commanded by the thoroughly incompetent
Aeneral 3illiam ). 3inder broke and ran in panic. Doss in(aded 3ashington, >.$., and burned
most of the public buildings, including the $apitol and the 3hite )ouse, as President =adison and
most of the go(ernment fled into the countryside.
Doss ne.t set his sights on Baltimore, but at last met stiffer resistance. )is forces bombarded
&ort =c)enry, in Baltimore )arbor, on September 0E'02, 0C02. /he e(ent was witnessed by a
young Baltimore lawyer, &rancis Scott "ey ;0??5'0C2E<, while he was detained on a British
warship. Peering an.iously through the long night, "ey saw at dawn that the ,Star'Spangled
Banner- yet wa(edG the fort had not fallen to the British, who ultimately withdrew. "ey was mo(ed
to write a poem that e(entually became our national anthem.
Sal0ation on (a)e &ham7lain
8(en while 3ashington burned and Baltimore fell under attack, a grim band of 01,111 British
(eterans of the #apoleonic wars was ad(ancing into the 6nited States from =ontreal. On land,
nothing more than an inferior merican force stood between them and #ew York $ity. But on
September 00, 0C02, merican na(al captain /homas =ac>onough ;0?CE'0CF%< defeated and
destroyed the British fleet on Lake $hamplain. /his e(ent was sufficient to send into retreat the
British army, which feared losing its lines of communication and supply.
/he failure of the British offensi(e along Lake $hamplain added some high cards to the hand
of merican peace negotiators meeting with their British counterparts across the ocean in the
&lemish city of Ahent. /he war'weary British decided to forego territorial demands, and the 6nited
States, relie(ed to escape without ma4or losses, let up on its demand that Britain recogni9e
merican neutral rights. /he /reaty of Ahent, signed on >ecember F2, 0C02, restored the ,status
:uo antebellum,- and the document was unanimously ratified by the 6.S. Senate on &ebruary 0?,
0C0%.
Hero of 8e+ :rleans
/he official outcome of the /reaty of Ahent is misleadingG for merica was not the same after
the war as it was before. /o begin, the nation suffered a crippling economic depression+though it
would, in time, reco(er. =ore important, withdrawal of British support for its wartime !ndian allies
greatly weakened the hostile tribes, making the 3est that much riper for white e.pansion. &inally, in
the world of 0C02, trans'tlantic communication was anything but instantaneous. 3ord of the
/reaty of Ahent did not reach Aeneral ndrew Iackson, who, fresh from (ictory against the ,Ded
Stick- $reek !ndians in the South, had mo(ed on to #ew Orleans to engage ?,%11 British (eterans
under =a4or Aeneral 8dward Pakenham sailing from Iamaica to attack the city.
Iacksons forces consisted of E,011 /ennessee and "entucky (olunteers, in addition to #ew
Orleans militiamen and a ragtag mob of locals, which Iackson wisely kept well to the rear.
Iacksons inferior forces withstood a fierce artillery bombardment and repulsed two British assaults
on their defensi(e positions. On Ianuary C, 0C0%, the British, ha(ing terrible losses ;including the
death of Pakenham and his two senior subordinates<, withdrew. lthough the 3ar of 0C0F had
actually ended in >ecember 0C02, Iackson ga(e his countrymen their most glorious (ictory of the
war.
/o most mericans, it now mattered little that the 3ar of 0C0F had been mostly a misery and
a disaster. /he (ictory at #ew Orleans, which made mericans feel like they had won the war,
greatly strengthened the bonds of nationhood and made the economic and physical hardships seem
worthwhile. /his last battle also ga(e to merica a new hero, a ,westerner- born and bred far from
the traditional seaboard seats of power. s Iefferson had before him, ndrew Iackson would lend
his name to an entire era.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he 3ar of 0C0F was pro(oked by 3esterners, who were eager to e.pand the territory of
the 6nited States.
lthough the war brought great hardship to the 6nited States, it ultimately reinforced the
bonds of national unity.
Stats
/he Battle of *ueenston was a terrible merican defeatB FF%1 6.S. soldiers lost their li(es and
?11 became prisoners of war. /he British lost 02 men, with 57 wounded. )owe(er, the brilliant
Aeneral !saac Brock was among the slain.
!ain ?0ent
/he )artford $on(ention met in )artford, $onnecticut, from >ecember 0%, 0C02, to Ianuary
%, 0C0 S. /wenty'si. delegates from fi(e #ew 8ngland states gathered to protest the disastrous
>emocratic'Depublican conduct of the war. /he secret con(ention raised alarms that the delegates
were plotting secessionG howe(er, the resolutions they actually formulated were :uite tame+
principally a call for amending the $onstitution to weaken the influence of the South on the federal
go(ernment. !ndeed, some recent historians suggest that the )artford $on(ention was actually a
;successful< attempt by moderate &ederalists to head off radical &ederalist attempts to bring about a
secession mo(ement. 3hate(er its intention, the )artford $on(ention turned out to be a bad public
relations mo(e for the &ederalists. /hey were generally regarded with deepening suspicion and,
outside of #ew 8ngland, the party rapidly collapsed.
!ain ?0ent
"ey penned ,/he Star'Spangled Banner- on September 02, 0C02, but the music for it had
been written in 0??? by the 8nglishman Iohn Stafford Smith. /he music was a setting for another
poem, ,/o nacreon in )ea(en,- which was a fa(orite of a London drinking club called the
nacreontic Society. Smiths original is a celebration of the pleasures of music, lo(e, and wine. /he
melody soon became popular in the 6nited States+both before and after "ey made up the new
words for it. !n fact, by 0CF1, at least C2 different poems were being sung to the ,nacreontic
melody.-
,/he Star'Spangled Banner- instantly became a popular patriotic air and was the informal
anthem of the 6nion rmy during the $i(il 3ar. /he 6.S. rmy adopted the song officially during
3orld 3ar 0, but it did not become truly the national anthem until =arch E, 05E0, when President
)erbert )oo(er signed it into law.
,ord for the -ay
/he Latin phrase status +uo antebellum is common in treaties and underscores the utter
futility of much combat. /he phrase means literally ,the way things were before the war.-
Stats
/he British lost F, 011 men at the Battle of #ew Orleans, including commanding general
8dward Pakenham. Iacksons badly outnumbered troops suffered fewer than 011 casualties.
Fan9are 9or the Common ;an
(%1%(#%15-'
In This Chapter
President Monroe%s misnamed Era of ;ood 5eelin&s
The Monroe 2octrine
Economic crisis. the Panic of 6@6A
The Missouri $om!romise
-acsonian 2emocracy
$asualties of the 3ar of 0C0F included many soldiers, settlers, and !ndians. $asualties also
included the 6.S. economy, which declined sharply during the war, bottoming out in the Panic of
0C05. lso slain in battle was the British desire to fight any more wars with its erstwhile colonies.
#o, Areat Britain certainly didnt lose the 3ar of 0C0F, but it didnt win it, either. Britain came
away con(inced that fighting the 6nited States 4ust wasnt worth doing. final casualty was the
&ederalist party. &ederalists, all of whom bitterly :uestioned the wisdom of the war and some of
whom e(en ad(ocated dissolution of the union because of it, were seen as unpatriotic and lacking in
resol(e. !n 0C07, >emocratic'Depublican Iames =onroe, presented to the electorate as the heir
apparent of Iames =adison, handily won election to the presidency.
Bood $eelings
/he history of the merican democracy is filled with contradictions, and one of the great
misnomers that describes this nation in the years following the 3ar of 0C0F is the ,8ra of Aood
&eelings.- /he famous phrase was coined sarcastically by a &ederalist newspaper following the
reelection of =onroe in 0CF1, when he stood unopposed and was ushered into office by an electoral
(ote of FE0 to 0. =onroe himself was popular, re(ered by the people as the last of the ,cocked
hats-+an affectionate name for the &ounding &athers. )owe(er, =onroe presided o(er a country
that, although proud of its nationhood after the war, was seriously torn by bitter sectional ri(alries
and disputes o(er the interpretation of the $onstitution.
=onroe tried to sal(e sectionalism by appointing a stellar cabinet that included the best
political minds of the day, among them Iohn *uincy dams ;Secretary of State<, Iohn $. $alhoun
;Secretary of 3ar<, and 3illiam ). $rawford ;Secretary of the /reasury<. But these leading lights
soon disputed with one another, not only o(er philosophical and sectional issues, but o(er who
would succeed =onroe as president.
>emocratic'Depublican, =onroe ne(ertheless broke with /homas Iefferson and supported
the rechartering of the Bank of the 6nited States, which had been the brainchild of &ederalist
le.ander )amilton. /he bank was popular with the 8ast $oast ,establishment,- because it
effecti(ely ga(e them control of the nations purse strings. /he bank was bitterly opposed by
3esterners, howe(er, who needed easy credit to e.pand and establish themsel(es.
/hose 3esterners also argued for a loose interpretation of the $onstitution, particularly the
phrase in the Preamble, ,to promote the general welfare.- /hese words, $alhoun and )enry $lay
;powerful $ongressman from "entucky< argued, mandated the federal go(ernment to build the
roads the 3est badly needed to de(elop its commerce and economy. =onroe consistently (etoed
road'building bills, but did support a high tariff on imports, which aided the industriali9ed
#ortheast. /his tariff heightened sectional strife.
?rie &anal
=onroes opposition to federally built roads for the 3est did not stop'and may e(en ha(e
spurred+de(elopment of the nations first great commercial link between the 8ast $oast and the (ast
inland realm. Aou(erneur =orris, 6.S. Senator from #ew York, proposed in 0C11 the construction
of a great canal from #ew York $ity to Buffalo on Lake 8rie. /he pro4ect was appro(ed by the #ew
York legislature in 0C0?, and it was completed in 0CF%. Dunning E7E miles, the 8rie $anal was a
spectacular engineering achie(ement and a testament to merican labor. /he pro4ect was also a
stunning commercial triumph, which :uickly repaid the P? million it had cost to build and soon
returned an a(erage of PE million in annual profits+all without the assistance of the federal
go(ernment.
/he success of the 8rie $anal, which truly inaugurated the commercial opening of the 3est,
touched off a canal'building boom, linking the #ortheast with the western system of natural
waterways. By 0C21, the 6nited States boasted E,EF7 miles of canals. /he result was a trend toward
commercial strength that helped pull the nation out of its postwar economic funk. /he canals also
tied the #ortheast more securely to the 3est, thereby making deeper the growing di(ision between
the #orth and South, which had few east'west connections.
Among then $amily of 8ations
/he completion and success of the 8rie $anal 4ustifiably puffed the nations pride, e(en if its
economy was still shaky and the 4arring demands of sectionalism increasingly strident. /he 6nited
States under =onroe could at least point to growing prestige among the family of the worlds
nations. Secretary of State Iohn *uincy dams negotiated the Dush'Bagot greement and the
$on(ention of 0C0C with Britain. /he first document established the 6.S. border with *uebec,
hitherto a bone of contention, and established the precedent of a nonfortified, open border between
the 6nited States and $anada.
/he second document, the $on(ention of 0C0C, addressed the issue of the disputed Oregon
/erritory ;that is, the land west of the Docky =ountains, north of the 2Fnd parallel to the %2
>egrees 2Fline<. /he con(ention specified 4oint 6.S. and British occupation of the area+a
temporary solution to a hot dispute, but also a demonstration that 8ngland now took merican
so(ereignty seriously.
On &ebruary 0F, 0C05, dams concluded a treaty with Luis de Onis, Spains minister to
3ashington, that secured both western and eastern &lorida for the 6nited States. 3ith the
ac:uisition of &lorida, a prime ob4ecti(e of the 3ar of 0C0F was reali9ed+albeit belatedly. thornier
problem was the establishment of the border between the 6nited States and =e.ico, at the time a
colonial possession of Spain. dams wanted a border that would pull /e.as into merican territory.
)owe(er, to get &lorida, he ultimately sacrificed /e.as and agreed on a boundary at the Sabine
Di(er, the western boundary of the present'day state of Louisiana. /he 6nited States renounced all
claims to /e.as. /hat renunciation was destined to endure during the handful of years before the
re(olutions by which =e.ico won its independence from Spain. fter the /e.an 3ar for
!ndependence in 0CE7, 6.S. rights to the territory would become a cause of war.
Yet one more treaty was concluded, this one with the c9ar of Dussia, who had asserted a claim
to the $alifornia coast as far south as San &rancisco Bay. dams managed to talk $9ar le.ander !
into a position north of the %2 >egrees 2F line, so that Dussia would no longer be a contender for
the Oregon /erritory. /he c9ar did retain his claim to laska, which at the time, nobody in the
6nited States wanted anyway.
!onroe -octrine
lthough these foreign agreements were of great importance to establishing merican
so(ereignty, the cornerstone of =onroes foreign policy came in 0CFE and has been stamped with
the presidents name. /he origin of the =onroe >octrine is found in the turbulent years of the
#apoleonic 3ars. /hese wars touched South merica, sparking widespread re(olution. fter peace
was re'established in 8urope in 0C0%, Spain began making noises about reclaiming its colonies.
President =onroe responded in his 0CFE message to $ongress with the four principles now known
as the =onroe >octrineB
0. /he mericas were no longer a(ailable for coloni9ation by any power.
F. /he political system of the mericas was essentially different from that of 8urope.
E. /he 6nited States would consider any interference by 8uropean powers in the mericas a
direct threat to 6.S. security.
2. /he 6nited States would not interfere with e.isting colonies or with the internal affairs of
8uropean nations, nor would the 6.S. participate in 8uropean wars.
Bad $eelings
/he so'called 8ra of Aood &eelings was filled with plenty of distinctly bad feelings, a mi.ture
of present financial hardships and an an.iety'filled foreboding of political and ci(il calamity 4ust
o(er the hori9on.
American System
=onroe and $alhoun were dri(en by a (ision of what came to be called the ,merican
System,- a way of harnessing the full power of the federal go(ernment to nurture struggling
merican industry through a protecti(e tariff to ward off competition from importsG the creation of
the Bank of the 6nited States to pro(ide a reliable source of credit to industryG and federal financing
of road, canal, and harbor construction. 6nfortunately, =onroe and $alhoun were ne(er able to
agree on all three of these components. 3hile both supported the bank, =onroe repeatedly (etoed
bills to fund ,internal impro(ements-+roads and the like+while he endorsed hea(y tariffs. 3ithout
ade:uate transport, $alhoun noted with bitterness, the 3est could not compete commercially with
the 8ast. )e also said that the tariff, instead of protecting all merican industry, fostered eastern
de(elopment while operating to keep the isolated 3est financially strapped. three'legged stool
can standG a two'legged one cannot. /he merican economy tottered.
%anic of 1D14
8conomic conditions in the wake of the 3ar of 0C0F read like a recipe for disasterB
Start with a grinding war debt.
dd high tariffs to create commodity inflation.
Stir in wild speculation on western lands opened by the war.
O(ere.tend manufacturing in(estments.
Pour the whole thing down the drain.
&rom 0C00, when constitutional challenges pre(ented the rechartering of the Bank of the
6nited States, until 0C07, when it was re(i(ed under =onroe, a host of shabby state banks rushed to
pro(ide credit to practically all comers. /hen, when the war broke out, all the state banks ;e.cept
for those in #ew 8ngland< suspended the practice of con(erting paper bank notes to gold or sil(er
;,specie-< on demand. /he (alue of all that paper money so recklessly loaned now plummeted.
Banks failed, in(estors collapsed, businesses went belly up.
=onroes Second Bank of the 6nited States stepped in with a plan to stabili9e the economy
by sharply curtailing credit and insisting on the repayment of e.isting debts in specie. /his plan
preser(ed the Bank of the 6nited States, but it hit the nation hard. ,/he Bank was sa(ed,- one
pundit of the day obser(ed, ,but the people were ruined.- !n the 3est and South, indi(iduals were
particularly hard hit, and these states passed laws to pro(ide debt relief, but not before 0C05, when
the panic peaked.
/he nation ultimately weathered the Panic of 0C05, but it created lasting resentment against
the Bank of the 6nited States ;called ,/he =onster- by =issouri Senator /homas )art Benton<.
/he panic deepened sectional ri(alries, chipping away at the solidarity of the 6nion. /he 3est and
the South mightily resented the economic stranglehold of the #ortheast.
&om7romise
/he deepening gulf between the northern and southern states gaped its widest in 0C0C'05. t
that point, the 6nited States Senate consisted of FF Senators from northern states and FF from
southern states. Since the era of the De(olution, the balance between the nonsla(eholding #orth and
the sla(eholding South had been carefully and precariously preser(ed with the addition of each
state. #ow, the territory of =issouri petitioned $ongress for admission to the 6nion as a
sla(eholding state. /he balance threatened suddenly to shift, like a hea(y burden on the back of a
weary laborer.
Depresentati(e Iames /allmadge of #ew York responded to =issouris petition by introducing
an amendment to the statehood bill calling for a ban on the further introduction of sla(ery into the
state ;but persons who were sla(es in the present territory would remain sla(es after the transition to
statehood<. /he amendment also called for the emancipation of all sla(es born in the state when
they reached F% years of age. /hus, gradually, sla(ery would be eliminated from =issouri. /he
)ouse passed the /allmadge amendment, but the Senate re4ected it+and then ad4ourned without
reaching a decision on =issouri statehood.
3hen the Senate recon(ened, a long and tortured debate began. #orthern Senators held that
$ongress bad the right to ban sla(ery in new states, whereas the Southerners asserted that new
states had the same right as the original 0E, to determine whether they would allow sla(ery or not.
#ot until =arch 0CF1 was a comple. compromise reached on this issue, which, in reality, could
admit of no satisfactory compromise. =issouri, it was agreed, would be allowed to 4oin the 6nion
as a sla(e state, but simultaneously, =aine ;hitherto a part of =assachusetts< would be admitted as a
free state. By this means, the sla(e stateTfree state balance was maintained.
/hen, looking toward the future, the =issouri $ompromise pro(ided that a line would be
drawn across the Louisiana /erritory at a latitude of E7 >egrees E1. #orth of this line, sla(ery
would be fore(er banned, e.cept in the case of =issouri. #obody was really pleased with the
=issouri $ompromise, but it did manage to hold together the increasingly fragile 6nion for another
three decades.
Age of >ac)son
/he single strongest candidate in the presidential election of 0CF2 was ndrew Iackson
;0?7?'0C2%<, ,Old )ickory,- ,/he )ero of #ew Orleans,- the candidate of the people. )owe(er,
Iackson did not win the election. s the facade of the 8ra of Aood &eelings crumbled away, no
party had replaced the &ederalists to oppose the >emocratic'Depublicans. 3ithin the
>emocratic'Depublican camp, howe(er, a host of candidates emerged, each reflecting deep regional
di(isions. /he /ennessee and Pennsyl(ania state legislatures nominated Iackson, "entucky
nominated )enry $lay, =assachusetts nominated Iohn *uincy dams, and $ongress presented
3illiam ). $rawford.
!n the subse:uent election, Iackson recei(ed 55 electoral (otes, dams C2, $rawford 20, and
$lay E?. Because none of the candidates had a ma4ority, the election was sent to the )ouse of
Depresentati(es to choose from among the top three. !llness forced $rawford out of the running,
and the choice was between dams and Iackson. Because dams had supported the merican
System, )enry $lay threw his support in $ongress behind him. /he )ouse (oted dams into office
o(er Iackson, who had recei(ed the greater number of electoral (otes. $harging that a corrupt
bargain had been made, Iacksons supporters split from the >emocratic'Depublican party and
became >emocrats. Supporters who remained loyal to $lay were known as #ational Depublicans.
dams bad a tough time as a ,minority president,- but he ne(ertheless boldly submitted a
nationally based program to a $ongress and a public that had become increasingly splintered into
regional and other special interests. damss support of canals and other internal impro(ements, his
call for the establishment of a national uni(ersity, and his ad(ocacy of scientific e.plorations+all for
the common, national good+were largely re4ected by $ongress. !nstead, $ongress focused on
laisse9'faire e.pansionism and frontier indi(idualism. /his attitude, which pre(ailed through the
nation, swept Iackson into office in 0CFC.
&ommon !an or *ing Andre+=
Iackson, se(enth president of the 6nited States, was the first who had not been born in
patrician @irginia or #ew 8ngland. lthough he was, in fact, a wealthy man who li(ed in a
magnificent mansion, the )ermitage, outside of #ash(ille, /ennessee, Iackson was also a self'made
son of the $arolina back country. By the political geography of the day, he was a ,westerner.-
/here can be no doubt that ndrew Iacksons two terms as president'from 0CF5 to
0CE?'brought a greater degree of democracy to merican go(ernment. Iacksons contemporaries, as
well as subse:uent generations of historians, ha(e debated whether the kind of democracy his
administration fostered was always a good thing. >uring the Iackson years, most states abandoned
property ownership as a prere:uisite for the right to (ote. /his mo(e broadened the electorate and
made elected officials act in a way that was more fully representati(e of the people who had put
them in office. 3hile this transformation nurtured democracy, it also encouraged demagoguery.
lthough Iackson introduced a policy of e:uitable rotation in federal 4obs+the forerunner of
the modern ci(il ser(ice system+he also brought with him the so'called ,spoils system,- boldly
rewarding his supporters with lucrati(e and secure go(ernment 4obs ;known today as political
patronage<. Iackson also engineered the defeat of a program of internal impro(ements that was
sponsored by )enry $lay and Iohn *uincy dams. Iackson argued that the plan fa(ored the
wealthyG yet, in defeating it, he retarded the de(elopment of commerce in the 3est+the (ery
territory of his constituency. belie(er in the paramount importance of preser(ing the 6nion,
Iackson worked (igorously to silence the growing abolitionist mo(ement, fearing that those who
wanted to end sla(ery would tear the nation apart.
The !onster
Iackson reser(ed his strongest (enom for the Second Bank of the 6nited States. #e(er
persuaded of the banks constitutionality, Iackson was also acutely aware that his supporters hated
the institution. 3hen the banks charter came up for renewal, Iackson opposed it, (etoing a
recharter bill. fter winning reelection in 0CEF, he issued an e.ecuti(e order withdrawing all federal
deposits from the bank. /hat was a fatal blow, and the bank fi99led, finally closing its doors when
its charter e.pired in 0CE7. 3ith the demise of the Second. Bank of the 6nited States, credit became
more plentiful, and westward settlement proceeded more rapidly. But for the rest of the 05th
century, the merican economy+especially in the rough'and'tumble 3est'was doomed to a
punishing roller'coaster ride, repeatedly rising to ,boom- only to plummet to ,bust.-
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
=onroe was a popular leader, who ne(ertheless presided o(er a period of great economic
hardship and bitter sectional ri(alries.
/he ,ge of Iackson- brought with it a (ast e.pansion of the concept of democracy.
)owe(er, this period also sacrificed some of the reason and restraint that had
characteri9ed the nation under the ,&ounding &athers.-
,ord for the -ay
tariff, as the word was used during the era of =onroe, is a ta. on imported goods. /ariffs
produce significant re(enues for the go(ernment, and they ,protect- certain domestic industries by
gi(ing their goods an artificial price ad(antage o(er imports. )owe(er, tariffs also result in higher
prices to domestic purchasers because the higher costs are ultimately passed on to them.
,ord for the -ay
Specie payments are payments in gold and sil(er rather than paper money.
Voice from the %ast
Iohn *uincy dams, recoiling from the bitter debate, called the =issouri $ompromise the
,title page to a great tragic (olume,- and the aged /homas Iefferson said that the clamor o(er
=issouri, ,like a fire bell in the night, awakened and filled me with terror.-
,ord for the -ay
Laisse9'faire, &rench for ,let it happen,- describes both a general political attitude of not
interfering or inter(ening in the actions of others and, more specifically, an economic doctrine
opposed to go(ernment regulation of commerce beyond the bare minimum.
6rails o9 6ears
(%1%)#%1(<'
In This Chapter
The "ullification $risis
Wars (ith the *eminoles and (ith Blac :a(
Indian remo#al to the West
>emocracy seems logical and sounds simple+a matter of gi(ing the people what they want.
But 4ust who are the merican peopleO !n ndrew Iacksons time, they were rich, poor, easterners,
westerners, northerners, southerners, whites and blacks, sla(es and masters, !ndians, and e(eryone
else. ll, of course, are people, but most of them wanted entirely different things.
/he ,ge of Iackson,- like Iackson the man, was full of contradiction and Parado.. Bringing
to the 6nited States its first full measure of true democracy, ,Old )ickory- was also derided as
,"ing ndrew,- a tyrant. belie(er in indi(idual rights, Iackson made the federal go(ernment more
powerful than e(er. frontier southerner, he didnt want to disturb the institution of sla(ery, yet he
turned against the South when that region threatened the authority of his go(ernment. military
hero who had built his reputation in large part by killing !ndians, he espoused what was considered,
in his day, the most enlightened approach to the so'called ,!ndian problem-+relocation from the
8ast ;,remo(al-< to new lands in the 3est. 8nlightenedO /he great ,remo(al- opened the darkest
chapter of !ndian'white relations in the 6nited States and fore(er stained the administration of
ndrew Iackson.
(iberty and 6nion, 8o+ and $ore0er
!n 0CFC, as the administration of Iohn *uincy dams drew to a close, $ongress passed the
latest in a long series of tariff laws designed to foster merican manufacturing industries by le(ying
a hefty duty on manufactured goods imported from abroad. /hese laws were warmly embraced by
the rapidly industriali9ing #ortheast, but they were deeply resented in the South. /he southern
economy thri(ed on trade in raw materials, such as rice, indigo, and cotton. mong the Souths best
customers were the nations of 8urope, especially 8ngland, which would buy the raw goods, turn
them into manufactured products ;such as fine fabric<, and e.port them to the 6nited States. !f
tariffs made it too costly for mericans to buy 8uropean goods, then 8urope would ha(e reduced
need for the Souths raw materials, and the regions e.port business would dry up.
Southerners called the 0CFC measure the ,/ariff of bominations.- Led by Iohn $. $alhoun,
6.S. Senator from South $arolina, Southerners charged that the act was both discriminatory in
economic terms and unconstitutional. $alhoun wrote the South $arolina 8.position and Protest in
0CFC, arguing that the federal tariff could be declared ,null and (oid- by any state that deemed it
unconstitutional.
$alhoun could point to an impressi(e precedent for his bold position. /wo founding fathers,
/homas Iefferson and Iames =adison, had introduced the concept of nullification when they wrote
the "entucky and @irginia Desolutions of 0?5C, which declared that the lien and Sedition cts
(iolated the Bill of Dights. But a ma4or showdown o(er the /ariff of bominations was temporarily
deferred by the 0CFC election of ndrew Iackson, who pledged tariff reform. Southerners, howe(er,
were soon disappointed by the limited scope of Iacksons reforms, and when the /ariff ct of 0CEF
was signed into law, South $arolina called a con(ention. On #o(ember F2, 0CEF, the con(ention
passed an Ordinance of #ullification forbidding collection of tariff duties in the state.
$alhoun gambled that Iacksons loyalty as a ,son of the South- would prompt him to back
down on the tariff. But Iackson responded on >ecember 01 with a declaration upholding the
constitutionality of the tariff, denying the power of any state to block enforcement of a federal law,
and threatening armed inter(ention to collect duties. /o show that he meant business, Iackson
secured from $ongress passage of a &orce ct, which might well ha(e ignited a ci(il war right then
and there. )owe(er, the same year that the &orce ct was passed, 0CEE, also saw passage of a
compromise tariff. lthough $alhouns South $arolina stubbornly nullified the &orce ct, it did
accept the new tariff, which rendered nullification moot. $i(il war was a(erted+for the time being+
but the theory of nullification remained a profound influence on Southern political thought and
pro(ided a key rationale for the breakup of the 6nion less than three decades later.
,ar +ith the Seminoles
/he political fabric was not the only aspect of the 6nion showing signs of wear during the
ge of Iackson. @iolence between settlers and !ndians had reached epidemic proportions during the
3ar of 0C0F and ne(er really subsided thereafter. >uring the war, Aeneral Iackson had scored a
ma4or triumph against the ,Ded Stick- $reeks in the lower Southeast, e.torting from them the
cession of (ast tracts of tribal lands. $losely allied with the $reeks were the Seminoles, who li(ed
in &lorida and labama. /he $reek land cessions made the Seminoles all the more determined to
hold their own homelands. 3hen the British withdrew in 0C0% from the fort they had built at
Prospect Bluff, &lorida, it was taken o(er by a band of Seminoles and a group of fugiti(e sla(es.
#ow known as ,U#egro &ort,- it posed a military threat to na(igation on key water routes in
&lorida, Aeorgia, and labama. =oreo(er, sla(eholders were angered that the fort sheltered their
escaped ,property.-
!n 0C07, Aeneral Iackson ordered Brigadier Aeneral 8dmund P. Aaines to build &ort Scott on
the &lint Di(er fork of the palachicola in Aeorgia, !n Iuly of that year, Iackson dispatched
Lieutenant $olonel >uncan Lamont $linch, with 007 army regulars and 0%1 white'allied $oweta
$reeks, to attack #egro &ort. Ordered to reco(er as many fugiti(e sla(es as possible, $linch
attacked the fort on Iuly F? and was supported by a pair of ri(erborne gunboats. /he skipper of one
of these (essels decided that bombardment would be most effecti(e if he heated the cannonballs red
hot and fired them with an e.tra'hea(y charge. /he first pro4ectile launched in this way landed in
the forts powder maga9ine, setting off a spectacular e.plosion that has been described as the
biggest bang produced on the #orth merican continent to that date. /hree hundred fugiti(e sla(es
and E1 Seminoles were blown to bits, and the !ndian tribe was propelled to the brink of war.
Late in 0C0?, a Seminole chief named #eamathla warned Aeneral Aaines to keep whites out
of his (illage, &owl /own. !n response, Aaines sent a force of F%1 to arrest #eamathla. /he chief
escaped, but the troops attacked the town, and the &irst Seminole 3ar was underway.
ndrew Iackson led C11 regulars, 511 Aeorgia militiamen, and a large contingent of friendly
$reeks through northern &lorida, bringing destruction to the Seminole (illages he encountered and
high'handedly capturing Spanish outposts in the process. /he taking of Pensacola on =ay F7, 0C0C,
created a diplomatic crisis, which was resol(ed, howe(er, when Spain decided to abandon &lorida
and cede the territory to the 6nited States. 3ith that, many more settlers rushed into the region,
o(erwhelming the battered Seminoles and their remaining $reek allies. minority of these tribes
signed treaties in 0CF0, 0CFE, and 0CF%, turning o(er F% million acres to the 6nited States. /he
Seminoles were ordered to a reser(ation inland from /ampa BayG few actually went to it. ma4ority
of the $reeks repudiated the land cessions but were mercilessly persecuted under the policies of
Aeorgia go(ernor Aeorge /roup. 3hen the $reeks appealed to ndrew Iackson ;now president< for
help, he ad(ised them to mo(e to ,!ndian /erritory- west of the =ississippi. 6ltimately they did 4ust
that.
The .ise and $all of Blac) Ha+)
!n the meantime, the so'called Old #orthwest was racked with (iolence as well. /he end of
the 3ar of 0C0F and the death of /ecumseh failed to bring peace as white settlement pushed farther
and farther west, through present'day Ohio and !ndiana, and into !llinois. group of determined
!ndian militants rallied behind Black )awk ;0?7?'0CEC<, charismatic chief of the closely allied Sac
and &o. tribes.
Black )awk had fought at the side of /ecumseh during the 3ar of 0C0F, after a minority of
Sac and &o. warriors signed away tribal lands in !llinois to 3illiam )enry )arrison. fter the war,
a flood of settlers rushed onto the now'disputed Sac and &o. lands. /ensions mounted, but the
go(ernment managed to persuade Black )awk to mo(e to !owa, across the =ississippi. )owe(er,
the winter hunt pro(ed meager, and in desperation, Black )awk and the British Band mo(ed back
into !llinois, where officials responded with militia and army regulars. Black )awk bested the
troops during the early encounters but was soon betrayed by 8nglish traders in the region and by the
3innebagos, both of which failed to deli(er promised aid. 3orse, a Sac and &o. chief named
"eokuk, belie(ing that the !ndians best hope for the future lay in cooperating with the whites,
tipped off an !ndian agent to Black )awks whereabouts. "eokuk also dissuaded a large number of
Sac and &o. from participating in what had come to be called Black )awks 3ar.
On ugust 0, 0CEF, Black )awk tried to persuade his band to tra(el up the =ississippi to seek
refuge among the 3innebagos. Only a minority agreedG the rest started cobbling together makeshift
rafts and canoes for a dash westward across the ri(er. few had made it across when the steamboat
3arrior ho(e into sight, bearing troops and a si.'pounder cannon. /he boat anchored, and the
British Band raised a white flag of truce, but a ner(ous commander opened fire with the
si.'pounder. /wenty'three of the British Band were slain, and the others were stranded on the east
bank of the ri(er. Black )awk himself, together with his closest followers, had escaped northward
and were on their way to 3isconsin.
On ugust E, 0,E11 more troops arri(ed and began slaughtering men, women, and children
indiscriminately. /he 3arrior returned as well and again opened fire. bout F11 Sac and &o.
!ndians made it through the general chaos to the west bank of the =ississippi, only to be intercepted
and killed there by white'allied Siou..
Black )awk did find the 3innebagos in 3isconsin, but in e.change for a P011 reward and F1
horses, they betrayed the chief to the authorities. )e was captured and imprisoned. /he sur(i(ing
Sac and &o.es signed a new treaty, ceding many more millions of acres to the 6nited States, and
they agreed to ,remo(e- to lands west of the =ississippi Di(er. !n the meantime, Black )awk was
paroled to be taken on a tour of the nation as a kind of battle trophy. /o the surprise and dismay of
his keepers, the chief was honored in most places as a noble ad(ersary.
The #ndian .emo0al Act
s seen by later generations, ndrew Iackson is one of our most contro(ersial chief
e.ecuti(es. )owe(er, e(en his most enthusiastic admirers ha(e difficulty 4ustifying his role in the
passage of the !ndian Demo(al ct of 0CE1. /his law effecti(ely e(icted the ma4or !ndian tribes
from land east of the =ississippi and consigned them to ,!ndian /erritory- in the 3est. !n fairness
to Iackson and $ongress, it was reasonably enlightened legislation by the standards of the time. /he
act, passed on =ay FC, 0CE1, did not propose to rob the !ndians of their land, but to e.change
western for eastern territory and to make additional compensation, including payment of tribal
annuities.
A Hollo+ Victory in the S"7reme &o"rt
!n theory, and by law, !ndian ,remo(al- was a (oluntary e.change of eastern lands for western
lands. !n practice, howe(er, !ndians were most often coerced or duped into making the e.change.
/ypically, go(ernment officials would secure the agreement of some !ndian leaders deemed+by the
go(ernment+to speak for the tribe, make the e.change, and declare that e.change binding to all
members of tribe. 3hether or not a ma4ority of the tribe acknowledged the authority of these leaders
hardly mattered. fter an agreement was concluded, the go(ernment claimed the right to mo(e all
the !ndians off the land, by force if necessary.
Some indi(iduals and tribes went :uietlyG others, such as the Seminoles, fought. Still others,
including numbers of $herokees, holed up in the mountains to e(ade remo(al. /he $herokees, a
politically sophisticated tribe, also took legal action. /he tribes ma4ority party, called the
#ationalist party, appealed to the 6.S. Supreme $ourt in 0CEF to protest state'sanctioned sei9ures of
property and pre4udicial treatment in state and local courts, all intended to pressure the !ndians into
accepting the ,e.changes- mandated by the Demo(al ct. !n 3orcester (. Aeorgia ;0CEF<, $hief
Iustice Iohn =arshall declared Aeorgias persecution of the !ndians unconstitutional. But this
4udgment pro(ed a hollow (ictory, because President Iackson refused to use federal power to
enforce the high courts decision. /he chief e.ecuti(e, who had shown himself :uite capable of
threatening South $arolina with armed inter(ention during the #ullification $risis, now claimed
that the federal go(ernment was powerless to interfere in the affairs of a state. Iackson ad(ised the
!ndians to resol(e their difficulties by accepting remo(al.
!n the meantime, Iacksons officials were directed to negotiate a remo(al treaty with the
compliant minority faction of the $herokees ;called the /reaty party<, representing perhaps 0,111
out of 0?,111 $herokees li(ing in the South. On >ecember F5, 0CE%, the Iackson administration
concluded the /reaty of #ew 8chota, binding all of the $herokees to remo(e. /o crush resistance,
Iackson barred the $herokee #ational party from holding meetings to discuss the treaty or
alternati(e courses of action. #e(ertheless, under the leadership of Iohn Doss, the #ationalists
managed to delay the ma4or phase of the remo(al operation until the fall and winter of 0CEC'E5.
A !an &alled :sceola
3hile the $herokees were being subdued and remo(ed, federal authorities turned their
attention to the always troublesome Seminoles. Like the $herokees, the Seminoles suffered abuse
from state and local go(ernmentsG their suffering was compounded in 0CE0 by a de(astating
drought. &aced with annihilation, Seminole leaders signed a pro(isional treaty on =ay 5, 0CEF,
agreeing to remo(al pending tribal appro(al of the site designated for resettlement. ccordingly, a
party of se(en Seminoles tra(eled westward. But before they returned, an !ndian agent named Iohn
Phagan coerced tribal representati(es into signing a final treaty, binding the Seminoles to lea(e
&lorida by 0CE?. #ot only did the tribe rescind the signatures as fraudulent, but e(en the
go(ernment acknowledged the wrongdoing by remo(ing Phagan from office. #e(ertheless+and
despite the fact that the Seminoles report on the proposed new homeland was negati(e+President
Iackson sent the treaty to the Senate for ratification. 3ith the treaty secured, troops were sent into
&lorida to begin organi9ing the remo(al.
By early in the winter of 0CE%, the increasing troop strength made it clear to Seminole leaders
that war was in the offing. >uring this period, Osceola ;0C1E'0CEC<+called Billy Powell by the
whites+emerged as a charismatic Seminole leader. )e negotiated with federal !ndian agents to put
off remo(al until Ianuary 0%, 0CE7, hoping to buy sufficient time to prepare for the coming combat.
Osceola set about organi9ing Seminole and ,Ded Stick- $reek resistance.
Beginning in >ecember 0CE%, Osceola initiated guerrilla warfare, taking special pains to
attack bridges critical for transporting troops and artillery. !n e(ery respect, Osceola pro(ed a
formidable ad(ersary, a brilliant tactician who made e.tensi(e use of effecti(e reconnaissance, and
a fierce warrior. Aenerals 8dmund Aaines, >uncan $linch, 3infield Scott, Dobert $all, /homas
Iesup, and Hachary /aylor all failed to bring the Second Seminole 3ar to a conclusion. Osceola
himself was finally captured, on October F0, 0CE?, not through the military skill of the federal
troops, but by deception. Aeneral Iesup re:uested a ,truce- conference in Osceolas campG Osceola
complied+and was treacherously taken capti(e. $onsigned to a prison cell at &ort =oultrie, South
$arolina, Osceola contracted ,acute :uinsy- and died on Ianuary E1, 0CEC.
>espite Osceolas capture and death, the war continued from 0CE% to 0C2F, a period during
which E,111 Seminoles did submit to remo(al, but at the a(erage cost of one soldier killed for e(ery
two !ndians ,remo(ed.- /he Second Seminole 3ar ne(er really ended, but petered out, only to
become reacti(ated during 0C%%'%C as the /hird Seminole 3ar. /he last Seminole holdouts refused
to sign treaties with the 6nited States until 05E2.
;The &r"elest ,or) # ?0er *ne+<
>uring the summer of 0CEC, =a4or Aeneral 3infield Scott began a massi(e roundup of
$herokees. !n accordance with the terms of the fraudulent /reaty of #ew 8chota, the $herokees
were to be remo(ed to ,!ndian /erritory,- an area encompassing present'day Oklahoma and parts of
#ebraska, "ansas, and the >akotas. /hose few !ndians who did not successfully find refuge in the
Blue Didge =ountains were herded into concentration camps, where they endured the misery of a
long, hot, disease'plagued summer.
>uring the fall and winter of 0CEC'E5, the !ndians were marched under armed escort along the
0,F11'mile route to !ndian /erritory. $old, short of food, sub4ect to the abuse of their military
guards ;including theft, rape, and murder<, 2,111 of the 0%,111 who made the 4ourney perished.
=any years later, a Aeorgia soldier recalledB ,! fought through the $i(il 3ar and ha(e seen, men
shot to pieces and slaughtered by thousands, but the $herokee remo(al was the cruelest work ! e(er
saw.- /he $herokees fore(er afterward called the e.perience the ,/rail of /ears.-
#ndian Territory
3hat awaited the $herokees and other #ati(e peoples remo(ed from the 8ast was a (ast tract
of relati(ely barren western land. 3hereas their eastern homelands had been lush and green, the
Oklahoma, "ansas, #ebraska, and >akota region was arid. =uch of the stubborn soil was resistant
to culti(ation and certainly unsuited to the type of agriculture the !ndians had pursued in the 8ast.
/he hardships of soil and climate, combined with the callous inefficiency and general corruption of
the federal system that was obligated by treaty to aid and support the ,resettled- !ndians, killed
many. Others, certainly, died of nothing more or less than broken hearts. Yet, o(er time, many
among the remo(ed tribes made the best of their grim situation and, in (arying degrees, e(en
prospered.
$ontrary to treaty agreements, the "ansas'#ebraska ct of 0C%2 reduced the area of !ndian
/erritory. >uring the $i(il 3ar, many $herokee, $reeks, and others allied themsel(es with the
$onfederates. /he (ictorious 6nion forces punished these !ndians in 0C77 by further reducing the
si9e of !ndian /erritory, confining it to the area encompassed by present'day Oklahoma.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
!n the #ullification $risis, ,states rights- confronted federal authority in a prelude to
ci(il war.
/he !ndian Demo(al ct was an attempt to separate !ndians and whites by means of land
e.changes. !n practice, the act authori9ed the brutal e.ile of $herokee, Semi 'nole.
$hickasaw, $hoctaw, and $reek !ndians ;the ,&i(e $i(ili9ed /ribes-< to and !ndian
/erritory concentrated in present'day Oklahoma.
,ord for the -ay
/o cede land is to gi(e it up, usually as a condition of surrender or in e.change for something
of (alue ;money or other land<. $ession is the noun form of the word and is not to be confused with
secession, which refers specifically to the breakaway of 00 Southern states that precipitated the
$i(il 3ar.
Voice from the %ast
s was true of all white'!ndian wars, much time was consumed in fruitless pursuit without
encountering the enemy. young braham Lincoln was a member of the !llinois militia in 0CEF. )e
later recalledB
,!f Aeneral $ass Q=ichigans territorial go(ernor, who later became ndrew Iacksons
secretary of warR went in ad(ance of me in picking whortleberries, ! guess ! surpassed
him in charges upon wild onions. !f he saw any li(e fighting !ndians, it was more than !
did, but ! had a good many bloody e.periences with the mos:uitoesG and although ! ne(er
fainted from loss of blood, ! can truly say ! was often (ery hungry.-
Chains Whips and Heartbrea3
(%)<(#%15)'
In This Chapter
A nation di#ided o#er the sla#ery issue
Abolition mo#ements, the Bnder&round ,ailroad, and rebellion
$om!romises on the sla#ery issue
Bleedin& 4ansas and the 2red *cott decision
By the early 0?11s, sla(ery had caught on in a big way throughout the Southern colonies. !n
places like South $arolina, sla(ery became essential to the economy, and sla(es soon outnumbered
whites in that colony. /he >eclaration of !ndependence declared no sla(e free, and the $onstitution
mostly a(oided the issue, e.cept for the purposes of le(ying ta.es, determining representation in
$ongress ;for purposes of such enumeration, sla(es were deemed three'fifths of a human being<,
and specifying that the sla(e trade ;that is, importation< was to end within F1 years.
/he irony was most bitter. /he sweet land of liberty persisted in maintaining an institution
that the rest of the worlds nations were :uickly abandoning. /he British Parliament outlawed the
sla(e trade in 0C1? and all sla(ery in 0CEE. /he emerging nations of South merica made sla(ery
illegal, and Spain and Portugal officially abolished sla(e trading in 0C21. But merica remained a
sla(e nation, and this fact was tearing the country apart.
Against the American Brain
&rom the beginning, a great many mericans were opposed to sla(ery. /he first organi9ed
opposition came from the *uakers, who issued a statement against the institution as early as 0?F2.
>uring the colonial periods, sla(e markets were acti(e in the #orth as well as the South.
)owe(er, the agricultural economy of the northern colonies was built upon small farms rather than
(ast plantations. lthough many people in the #orth were passionately opposed to sla(ery on moral
grounds, it is also true that the region lacked the economic moti(es for it. /herefore, an increasing
number of colonists regarded sla(ery as unnecessary and undesirableG following independence,
(arious states outlawed sla(ery. Dhode !sland, traditionally a seat of tolerance, abolished the
institution as early as 0??2. nother bright spot e.isted in this early eraB /he #orthwest Ordinance
of 0?C? e.cluded sla(ery from the (ast #orthwest /erritory.
&otton Bin
Iust si. years after passage of the #orthwest Ordinance, howe(er, a #ew 8nglander working
as a tutor in Aeorgia in(ented a brilliantly simple machine that re(olutioni9ed the cotton industryG in
so doing, he ensured the continuance of sla(ery. 8li 3hitney ;0?7%'0CF%<, fascinated by operations
on the large Southern plantations, saw that planters were (e.ed by a problem with the short 'staple
cotton raised in the lower South. /he plants seeds re:uired e.tensi(e handwork to remo(e. 8(en
done by sla(es, the labor was so time'consuming that profits were sharply curtailed. By pril 0?5E,
3hitney had fashioned a machine that used a toothed cylinder to separate the cottonseed from the
cotton fiber. 8ach ,cotton gin- could turn out %1 pounds of cleaned cotton a day+far more than what
manual labor could produce.
3ith cotton production suddenly becoming e.tremely profitable, farmers all o(er the South
turned to it, and ,"ing $otton- soon displaced tobacco, rice, and indigo as the primary Southern
e.port crop. 3ith increased production also came a greatly increased demand for sla(e labor to pick
the cotton.
6ndergro"nd .ailroad
s an earlier generation had been fascinated by in(entions like the cotton gin, so now
mericans were enthralled by another inno(ation, railroads, which began appearing in the 6nited
States during the late 0CF1s. !f the railroad seemed a technological miracle, abolitionists ;those who
wanted to abolish sla(ery< were aware that they needed a spiritual and moral miracle. By 0CE1, the
highly organi9ed abolitionists de(eloped a network they called the 6nderground Dailroad.
/he system was a loose network of indi(iduals+whites and free blacks, called ,conductors-+
and safe houses ;,stations-< dedicated to nothing less than the secret deli(ery+and deli(erance+of
sla(es ;,passengers-< from sla(e states to free ones. !n the years prior to the $i(il 3ar, %1,111 to
011,111 sla(es found freedom (ia the 6nderground Dailroad.
Southern sla(eholders did not suffer the 6nderground Dailroad gladly. ,$onductors- were
menaced, assaulted, and e(en killed. &ugiti(e sla(es, once retaken, were often se(erely punished as
an e.ample to others. 3hen the Supreme $ourt ruled in 0C2F ;Prigg (. Pennsyl(ania< that states
were not re:uired to enforce the &ugiti(e Sla(e Law of 0?5 E ;which pro(ided for the return of
sla(es who escaped to free states<, opposition to the 6nderground Dailroad became rabid.
8at T"rner/s .ebellion
Desistance to sla(ery was not always non(iolent, and the fear of sla(e rebellion was ne(er far
from the thoughts of Southern sla(e holders. #at /urner was a sla(e on the South'hampton $ounty,
@irginia, plantation of Ioseph /ra(is. fiery lay preacher, /urner gathered about him a band of
rebellious fellow sla(es, and 4ust before dawn on ugust FF, 0CE0, lie and his followers killed e(ery
white member of the /ra(is household. /he band then swept through the countryside, killing e(ery
white they encountered during the ne.t F2 hours+perhaps 71 whites in all. Deaction, in turn, was
swift and terrible. /urner and %1 of his band were apprehended and :uickly tried. /wenty were
summarily hanged. /he enflamed white a(engers went beyond this measure, howe(er, indulging in
their own rampage of killing and torture, directed indiscriminately at whate(er blacks they
happened to run across.
lthough sla(e rebellions were hardly new in 0CE0, in an atmosphere of organi9ed opposition
to sla(ery, #at /urners Debellion created unprecedented panic in the South and hardened Southern
antagonism to abolitionist efforts.
The (iberator and the 8arrati0e
/he year that saw #at /urners Debellion also witnessed the emergence of a new newspaper
in the #orth. 3illiam Lloyd Aarrison ;0C1%'0C?5< was a genteel #ew 8ngland abolitionist+a nati(e
of #ewburyport, =assachusetts+who became coeditor of a moderate periodical called /he Aenius
of 6ni(ersal 8mancipation. But the in4ustice of sla(ery soon ignited a fiercer fire in Aarrisons
belly, and on Ianuary 0, 0CE0, he published the first issue of /he Liberator. /his was a radical and
elo:uent abolitionist periodical that declared sla(er, an abomination in the sight of Aod and that
demanded the immediate emancipation of all sla(es, without compromise. /he Liberator gal(ani9ed
the abolitionist mo(ement, /hree years after the first number was printed, Aarrison presided o(er
the founding of the merican nti'Sla(ery Society. 6sing /he Liberator and the society, Aarrison
embarked on a massi(e campaign of what he called ,moral suasion.- )e belie(ed that sla(er<,
would be abolished when a ma4ority of white mericans e.perienced a ,re(olution in conscience.-
Aarrison grew increasingly strident in his (iews, and by the late 0CE1s, some abolitionists
broke with him. !n 0C2F, he made his most radical stand, declaring that #ortherners should disa(ow
all allegiance to the 6nion because the $onstitution protected sla(ery. pacifist, Aarrison
ne(ertheless hailed Iohn Browns bloody 0C%5 raid on )arpers &erry for the purpose of stealing
guns to arm sla(es for a general uprising.
!f /he Liberator was the most powerful white (oice in support of abolition, a gripping account
of sla(ery and liberation by an escaped =aryland sla(e named &rederick >ouglass was the most
compelling frican'merican (oice. Published in 0C2%, #arrati(e of the Life of &rederick >ouglass
was widely read and discussed. #ot only did the #arrati(e (i(idly portray the inhumanity of
sla(ery, it i simultaneously made manifest the intense humanity of the sla(es, especially of the
brilliant, self'educated >ouglass himself. cti(e as a lecturer in the =assachusetts nti'Sla(ery
Society, >ouglass parted company with Aarrison o(er the issue of breaking with the 6nion.
>ouglass wanted to work within the $onstitution.
The Tort"red &o"rse of &om7romise
/he awkward =issouri $ompromise hammered out in 0CF1 began to buckle in 0C2C'25 when
gold was disco(ered in $alifornia. /he territory was officially transferred to the 6nited States by
the /reaty of Auadalupe )idalgo, which ended the =e.ican 3ar on &ebruary F, 0C2C. On Ianuary
F2, 0C2C, 4ust a few days before the treaty was signed, gold was found at a sawmill on the South
&ork of the merican Di(er. >uring the height of the gold rush, in .0C25, more than C1,111 fortune
seekers poured into the territory. /his e(ent suddenly made statehood for the territory an urgent
issue. But would $alifornia be admitted as a sla(e state or freeO
!n 0C27, $ongress, seeking a means of bringing the =e.ican 3ar to a speedy conclusion, had
debated a bill to appropriate PF million to compensate =e.ico for ,territorial ad4ustments.-
Pennsyl(ania congressman >a(id 3ilmot introduced an amendment to the bill, called the 3ilmot
Pro(iso, that would ha(e barred the introduction of sla(ery into any land ac:uired by the 6nited
States as a result of the war. s usual, Southern opposition to the limitation of sla(ery was
articulated by South $arolinas Iohn $. $alhoun. )e proposed four resolutionsB
0. /erritories, including those ac:uired as a result of the war, were the common and 4oint
property of the states.
F. $ongress, acting as agent for the states, could make no law discriminating between the
states and depri(ing any state of its rights with regard to any territory.
E. /he enactment of any national law regarding sla(ery would (iolate the $onstitution and the
doctrine of states rights.
2. /he people ha(e the right to form their state go(ernment as they wish, pro(ided that its
go(ernment is republican.
s if $alhouns resolutions were not enough, he dropped another bombshell, warning that
failure to maintain a balance between the demands of the #orth and the South would lead to ,ci(il
war.-
1D50
$ongress labored o(er the ne.t three years to bolster the 0CF1 compromise. /hanks to
abolitionists such as Aarrison and >ouglass, most #ortherners were no longer willing to allow
sla(ery to e.tend into any new territory, whether it lay abo(e or below the line drawn by the
=issouri $ompromise. /o break the dangerous stalemate, Senator Lewis $ass of =ichigan
ad(anced the doctrine of ,popular so(ereignty,- proposing that new territories would be organi9ed
without any mention of sla(ery one way or the other. 3hen the territory wrote its own constitution
and applied for admission as a state, the people of the territory would (ote to be sla(e or free. s to
$alifornia, it would be admitted to the 6nion directly instead of going through an interim of
territorial status.
Southerners cringed. /hey assumed that $alifornia would (ote itself free, as would #ew
=e.ico down the line. Senators )enry $lay and >aniel 3ebster worked out a new compromise.
$alifornia would indeed be admitted to the 6nion as a free state. /he other territories ac:uired as a
result of the =e.ican 3ar would be sub4ect to ,popular so(ereignty.- !n addition, the sla(e trade in
the >istrict of $olumbia would be discontinued. /o appease the South, howe(er, a strong &ugiti(e
Sla(e Law was passed, strictly forbidding #ortherners to grantB refuge to escaped sla(es. &inally,
the federal go(ernment agreed to assume debts /e.as ;admitted as a sla(e state in 0C2%< incurred
before it was anne.ed to the 6nited States.
s with the =issouri $ompromise, the $ompromise of 0C%1 pleased no one completely.
bolitionists were outraged by the &ugiti(e Sla(e Law, while states rights supporters saw the
sla(e'free balance in $ongress as shifting ine.orably northward.
*ansasI8ebras)a Act
!n the $ompromise of 0C%1, many obser(ers saw the handwriting on the wallB the 6nion was
coming apart at the seams. !n 0C%2, the territories of #ebraska and "ansas applied for statehood. !n
response, $ongress repealed the =issouri $ompromise and passed the "ansas'#ebraska ct, which
left the :uestion of sla(ery to ,popular so(ereignty.- /here was ne(er any doubt that #ebraskans
would (ote themsel(es a free state, but "ansas was (ery much up for grabs. Pro'sla(ery
=issourians suddenly flooded across the border, elected a pro'sla(ery territorial legislature, then,
mission accomplished, returned to =issouri. nti'sla(ery !owans likewise poured in, but they
decided to settle. Soon a chronic state of ci(il warfare de(eloped between pro'and anti'sla(ery
factions in "ansas. /he situation became so ugly that the territory was soon called ,Bleeding
"ansas.-
/he anti'sla(ery faction set up its head:uarters at the town of Lawrence. !n 0C%7, pro'sla(ery
,border ruffians- raided Lawrence, setting fire to a hotel and a number of houses, and destroying a
printing press. !n the process, se(eral townspeople were killed. >uring the night of =ay F2, Iohn
Brown, a radical abolitionist who had taken command of the territorys so'called &ree Soil =ilitia,
led four of his sons and two other followers in an assault on pro'sla(ery settlers along the
Pottawatomie Di(er. &i(e defenseless settlers were hacked to death with sabers. $laiming
responsibility for the act, Brown pronounced it payback for the sack of Lawrence. /he incident was
4ust one 4arring passage in a grim o(erture to the great $i(il 3ar.
The -red Scott -isgrace
!n 0C%?, at the height of the "ansas bloodshed, the 6.S. Supreme $ourt weighed in with a
decision concerning the case of one >red Scott, a fugiti(e sla(e. Scott had belonged to Iohn
8merson of Saint Louis. n army surgeon, 8merson had been transferred first to !llinois and then to
3isconsin /erritory, with his sla(e in tow. 3hen 8merson died in 0C27, Scott returned to Saint
Louis and sued 8mersons widow for his freedom, arguing that lie was a citi9en of =issouri, now
free by (irtue of ha(ing li(ed in !llinois, where sla(ery was banned by the #orthwest Ordinance,
and in 3isconsin /erritory, where the terms of the =issouri $ompromise made sla(ery illegal. /he
=issouri state court decided against Scott, but his lawyers appealed to the Supreme $ourt.
/he high court was di(ided along regional lines. /he anti'sla(ery #orthern 4ustices sided with
Scott, while the pro'sla(ery Southerners upheld the =issouri state court decision. $hief Iustice
Doger B. /aney had the final word. )e ruled, in the first place, that neither free blacks nor ensla(ed
blacks were citi9ens of the 6ntied States and, therefore, could not sue in federal court. /hat ruling
would ha(e been enough to settle the case, but /aney went on. )e held that the !llinois law banning
sla(ery had no force on Scott after he returned to =issouri, a sla(e state. /he law that obtained in
3isconsin was likewise null and (oid, /aney argued, because the =issouri $ompromise was ;he
said< unconstitutional. ccording to /aney, the law (iolated the fifth amendment to the $onstitution,
which bars the go(ernment from depri(ing an indi(idual of ,life, liberty, or property- without due
process of law.
/he decision outraged abolitionists and gal(ani9ed their cause. )ere was the spectacle of the
6nited States Supreme $ourt using the Bill of Dights to deny freedom to a human beingN )ere was
the federal go(ernment saying to sla(e owners that their ownership of human beings would be
honored and protected e(erywhere in the nationN #o longer was the sla(ery issue a :uestion of how
the nation could e.pand westward while maintaining a balance in $ongress. !t was now an issue of
property. Iustice /aneys decision had put sla(ery beyond compromise. !f, as his decision implied,
the rights of sla(eholders were to be uni(ersally respected as long as sla(ery e.isted, then,
uni(ersally, sla(ery had to be abolished so that the rights of sla(eowners could be abolished. nd
that, ine(itably, meant war.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he labor'intensi(e culti(ation of cotton made the Southern economy dependent on
sla(ery.
series of compromises sta(ed off ci(il war for three decades, as #orthern opposition to
sla(ery grew stronger and Southern ad(ocacy of it became increasingly strident.
/he >red Scott decision made sla(ery an issue transcending indi(idual statesG therefore,
it made compromise impossible'and ci(il war ine(itable.
,ord for the -ay
$otton gin sounds to us like a peculiar form of boo9e, but late 0Cth'century ears would ha(e
immediately recogni9ed ,gin- as a shortened from of ,engine.- /wo hundred years ago, a gin+or
engine+was any labor'sa(ing de(ice, particularly one intended to help mo(e hea(y ob4ects.
.eal (ife
/he most famous ,conductor- on the 6nderground Dailroad was )arriet /ubman, a
courageous, self'taught, charismatic escaped sla(e, single'minded in her dedication to freeing
others. Born in >orchester $ounty, =aryland, about 0CF0, she escaped to freedom about 0C25 by
following the #orth Star. #ot content with ha(ing achie(ed her own freedom, she repeatedly risked
recapture throughout the 0C%1s by 4ourneying into sla(e territory to lead some E11 other fugiti(es,
including her parents, to freedom.
3ith the outbreak of the $i(il 3ar, /ubman (olunteered her ser(ices as a 6nion army cook
and nurse, then undertook ha9ardous duty as a spy and guide for 6nion forces in =aryland and
@irginia. $apture would surely ha(e meant death.
&ollowing the war, /ubman operated a home in uburn, #ew York, for aged and indigent
frican'mericans. She ran the facility until her death on =arch 01, 050E, when she was buried
with full military honors.
!ain ?0ent
)arriet Beecher Stowe ;0C00'57< was the daughter of a celebrated $ongregationalist minister,
Lyman Beecher, and the wife of biblical scholar $al(in 8llis Stowe. !n 0C2E, she wrote her first
book, /ile =ayflowerG or, Sketches of Scenes and $haracters among the >escendants of the
Pilgrims, which re(ealed her familiarity with #ew 8ngland. )owe(er, li(ing near "entucky for a
time ac:uainted her with the South. fter Stowe and her husband mo(ed to Brunswick, =aine, in
0C%1, the passage of the &ugiti(e Sla(e Law stirred memories of what she had seen of sla(ery.
Stowe began to write a book called 6ncle /oms $abin, or Life mong the Lowly, which was
published serially in the #ational 8ra during 0C%F. /he following year, the work came out in book
form and created a tremendous popular sensation. 3ith its (i(id+and sentimental+scenes
dramati9ing the cruelty of sla(ery, the book shook the apathy out of many #ortherners and enraged
sla(eholding Southerners. So powerful was the effect of the no(el in the years preceding the $i(il
3ar that, when braham Lincoln met =rs. Stowe during the conflict, he reportedly referred to her
as ,the little lady who wrote the book that made this big war.-
:oo3in/ West
(%15(#%1(-'
In this Chapter
Land. the &reat American asset
Mc$ormic%s rea!er and 2eere%s !lo(
Inde!endence for Te0as
2e#elo!ment of the (estern trails and the tele&ra!h
3hite'!ndian warfare continued as a seemingly chronic pastime, and the sla(ery issue was
cracking the countrys foundation faster and more deeply than any number of flimsy compromises
could patch. /he 6nited States during the first half of the 05th century seemed a (iolent place+
especially when you add into the picture two ma4or wars with foreign powersB the 3ar of 0C0F and
the =e.ican 3ar.
Yet, as the old saw goes, e(erythings relati(e. Between 0.C11 and the 0C%1s, 8urope was in
an almost continual state of war, and despite their own problems, mericans, looking across the sea,
counted themsel(es lucky. &or merica had one powerful peace'keeping asset 8urope lackedB
space. Seemingly endless space stretched beyond the ppalachian =ountains and the =ississippi
Di(er, across plains and desert, o(er more mountains, to the Pacific Ocean itself. Surely, merica
had room enough for e(erybody.
The %lo+ and the .ea7er
Of course, land aplenty was one thingG actually li(ing on it and using it could be :uite another
matter. !n the #ortheast, the merican farm of the early 05th century was a family affair, pro(iding
enough food to feed the family, with something left o(er for market. &arm life wasnt easy, but it
was manageable. !n the South, farms often e.panded into (ast plantations, which grew rice, indigo,
tobacco, and cotton. /hese crops were all commercial, and sla(es were the cheap source of labor to
produce them profitably.
/he 3est also offered the prospect of large'scale farming, but most of the western territories
and states barred sla(ery. Plus, the ,emigrants- who settled on the western lands were culturally and
morally disinclined to keep sla(es. big piece of land wasnt worth much if you couldnt work it.
/here was worse. /ypically, prairie soil was hard and clumpy. !t did not yield to the plow, but
clogged it, making culti(ation all but impossible. 3as the nation destined to cling to its east coast,
lea(ing (ast western tracts desolate and emptyO s would happen time and again in merican
history, technology changed e(erything.
&yr"s !c&ormic)
$yrus =c$ormick ;0C15'0CC2< was born and raised on a Dockbridge $ounty, @irginia, farm
where his father, Dobert, ga(e him the run of his well'e:uipped workshop. /here, $yrus began to
redesign a mechanical reaper the elder =c$ormick had been tinkering with. By the time he was FF,
$yrus =c$ormick had come up with a practical prototype of a horse'drawn reaper. !t was e:uipped
with a cutting bar, a reel, di(ider, guards o(er reciprocating kni(es, and a platform on which the
grain was deposited after ha(ing been cut. 8(erything was dri(en and synchroni9ed by a gear
wheel. Perfected and patented in 0CE2, the de(ice was an important step toward making large'scale
farming possible with a minimal labor force.
>ohn -eere
/he reaper sol(ed only half the problem of large'scale farming on the stubborn prairies of the
=idwest and 3est. Iohn >eere ;0C12'0CC7< was a young man who left his nati(e Dutland, @ermont,
for Arand >etour, !llinois, in 0CE? to set up as a blacksmith. 3hile =c$ormick was perfecting his
reaper, >eere hammered out a new kind of plow. =ade of stout steel, the plow was beautifully
shaped, calling to mind the prow of a graceful clipper ship. nd it was sturdy, much stronger than a
con(entional plow. /he combination of shiplike design and stout strength made the plow ideal for
breaking and turning the tough prairie soil.
/he =c$ormick reaper and Iohn >eere plow came in the nick of time to open the 3est to
agriculture. 8ach year, more and more emigrants pushed the frontier farther west.
!artyrdom at the Alamo
s the prairie (oids of the northern =idwest and 3est began to fill in, the Southwest, still the
territory of the Depublic of =e.ico, was being settled by an increasing number of merican
colonists. !n 0CF1, =oses ustin secured a grant from the Spanish go(ernment to establish an
merican colony in /e.as, but fell ill and died in 0CF0 before he could begin the pro4ect of
settlement. On his deathbed, ustin asked his son, Stephen &. ustin, to carry out his plans. =e.ico,
in the meantime, had won independence from Spain in the re(olution of 0.CF0. 6nder terms
established by a special act of the new =e.ican go(ernment in 0.CF2 ;as well as additional
agreements negotiated in 0CF%, 0CF?, and 0CFC<, ustin brought more than 0,F11 merican families
to /e.as. $oloni9ation was so successful that by 0CE7 the merican population of /e.as was
%1,111, while that of the =e.icans was a mere E,%11.
/hroughout the 0CE1s, the merican ma4ority chafed under =e.ican rule+especially =e.ican
laws forbidding sla(ery. @iolent conflicts between settlers and military garrisons became fre:uent.
&eeling that his colony was not ready for a full'scale war of independence, ustin repeatedly
negotiated peace with the tumultuous =e.ican go(ernment. )e drew up a proposed constitution to
make /e.as a =e.ican state, and in 0CEE, tra(eled to =e.ico $ity to seek an audience with ntonio
Lope9 de Santa nna, the countrys new president. &or fi(e months, ustin tried in (ain to see the
presidentG at last, he gained an audience, only to ha(e Santa nna re4ect the statehood demand+
although Santa nna did agree to address a list of /e.as grie(ances. )owe(er, as ustin was riding
back to /e.as, he was arrested, returned to =e.ico $ity, and imprisoned there on a flimsy prete.t
for the ne.t two years.
3hen ustin was finally released in 0CE%, he returned to /e.as embittered and broken in
health. )e urged /e.ans to support a =e.ican re(olt against Santa nna, and this effort triggered
the /e.as De(olution. Santa nna led troops into /e.as during Ianuary 0CE7 and reached San
ntonio in &ebruary. /here, against the ad(ice of independence leader Sam )ouston ;0?5E'0C7E<, a
force of 0C? /e.ans under militia colonel 3illiam B. /ra(is took a defensi(e stand behind the walls
of a decayed Spanish mission formally called San ntonio de @alero but nicknamed ,the lamo-
because it was close to a gro(e of cottonwoods ;alamos in Spanish<.
/he tiny /e.as band, which included such renowned frontier figures as Iim Bowie and >a(y
$rockett, held off %,111 of Santa nnas troops for 01 days. /he band hoped desperately that the
merican nation somehow would rally and rush to its aid. But that didnt happen. On =arch 7, the
=e.ican troops breached the missions wall and slaughtered e(eryone inside.
/his =e.ican ,(ictory- turned out to be a disaster for Santa nna. Sam )ouston united
/e.ans under the battle cry ,Demember the lamoN , and brilliantly led his ragtag army against
Santa nna at the Battle of San Iacinto on pril F0. /he result was decisi(e, and /e.as became an
independent republic.
Trails ,est
>uring the 0CE1s and well into the 0C21s, before the =c$ormick reaper and the >eere plow
had worked their act of transformation, the western plains were known as the Areat >esert, and they
remained largely unsettled. !nstead, settlers first set their sights on the &ar 3est. By the early 0CE1s,
mericans were beginning to settle in $alifornia, many of them ,mountain men-+fur trappers+who
turned from that profession to ranching and mercantile pursuits.
/hese pioneers made their way into the territory by way of the southwestern deserts until 0,
CEE, when Ioe 3alker, a mountain man from /ennessee, marched due west from =issouri. 3alker
took the so'called South Pass through the Areat >i(ide, went east to west across the Areat Basin,
climbed the Sierra #e(ada =ountains, and entered $alifornia. /his path became the $alifornia fork
of what would be called the O(erland /rail. 3alker had opened $alifornia to the rest of the nation.
By 0C21, 00? mountain men were settled in =e.ican $alifornia, bringing the merican population
to about 211.
:0erland Trail
/he mountain men and other e.plorers carried back to the 8ast tales of the wondrous and
potentially bountiful lands that lay toward the sunset. /hrough the decade of the 0CE1s, mericas
westering dreams simmered. t last, on &ebruary 0, 0C20, %C men+settlers li(ing in Iackson $ounty,
=issouri+met at the town of !ndependence to plan the first fully organi9ed emigrant wagon train to
$alifornia. ssembling across the =issouri Di(er, at Sapling Aro(e, the party had grown to 75+
including more than F1 women and children+under the leadership of Iohn Bartleson. /he prominent
$atholic missionary &ather Pierre'Iean deSmet and the mountain man /homas &it9patrick also
4oined the train of 0% wagons and four carts.
/he trek consumed fi(e months, three weeks, and four days. !t was marked by a single death,
a single birth, and a single marriage. /he following year, some F1 wagons carrying well o(er 011
persons made the trip. Other 4ourneys followed each year thereafter until the completion of the
transcontinental railroad in 0C75 made the O(erland /rail and the other trans'3est routes obsolete.
Sur(i(ing the three'to se(en'month 4ourney across an often brutal and always unforgi(ing
landscape took discipline, strength, and luck, Yet most who undertook the trek sur(i(ed+albeit
transformed by the ordealB haggard, e(en reduced to skin and bones. Such hardship was sufficient to
con(ince many emigrants to make an e.pensi(e and often stormy 4ourney by sea+either all the way
around $ape )orn at the tip of South merica or to the !sthmus of Panama. #o such thing as a
Panama $anal e.isted in the 05th century ;the canal would not be completed and opened to traffic
until 0502<. /herefore, tra(elers bound for the 3est $oast had to disembark on the tlantic side,
make a disease'ridden o(erland 4ourney across the steaming 4ungles of the !sthmus, then board a
$alifornia'bound ship on the Pacific side.
:regon $e0er
6ntil gold was disco(ered in $alifornia in 0C2C'25, Oregon was the strongest of the magnets
drawing emigrants westward. !n 0C2E, a 9ealous missionary named =arcus 3hitman led 0F1
wagons with F11 families in what was called the Areat =igration to Oregon. Soon, stories of a lush
agricultural paradise touched off ,Oregon fe(er,- which brought many more settlers into the
#orthwest.
Oregon was a hard ,paradise.- /he elements could be brutal, and disease ranged from
endemic to epidemic. 3hitman worked tirelessly as a missionary and physician to the $ayuse
!ndians in the (icinity of 3alla 3alla ;in present'day 3ashington state<. n o(erbearing man who
insisted that the !ndians accept none other but the $hristian Aod ;and his (ersion of that Aod<,
3hitman fell afoul of the $ayuse during a measles epidemic that killed half their number. Blamed
for the epidemic, he and his pretty blonde wife, #arcissa, were massacred on #o(ember F5, 0C2?.
;,hat Hath Bod ,ro"ght=<
)istorians often refer to the emigrant trails as ,a(enues- of ci(ili9ation+as if they were neatly
constructed highways. !n fact, the trails were often nothing more than a pair of wheel ruts worn by
one wagon after another. Yet, e(en as o. hoo(es and iron'rimmed wheels crunched through the dust
of rudimentary trails, a (ery different, (ery modern means of linking the continent emerged.
!n 0C05, the >anish scientist )ans $. Oersted ;0???'0C%0< disco(ered the principle of
,induction- when he noticed that a wire carrying an electric current deflected a magnetic needle.
fter this disco(ery, a number of scientists and in(entors began e.perimenting with deflecting
needle telegraphs. /wo scientists, 3illiam &. $ooke and $harles 3heatstone, installed a practical
deflecting needle telegraph along a railway line in 8ngland in 0CE?. !n 0CF%, 3illiam Sturgeon
in(ented the electromagnet, and the e.periments of =ichael &araday and Ioseph )enry on
electromagnetic phenomena in 0CE0 e.cited an merican painter, Samuel &. B. =orse, to begin
working on a telegraph recei(er.
=orse de(eloped a de(ice in which an electromagnet, when energi9ed by a pulse of current
from the line+that is, when the remote operator pressed a switch ;,telegraph key-<+attracted a soft
iron armature. /he armature was designed to inscribe, on a piece of mo(ing paper, dot and dash
symbols, depending on the duration of the impulse. =orse de(eloped ,=orse $ode- to translate the
alphabet into combinations of dots and dashes. On =arch 2, 0C22, =orse demonstrated his
magnetic telegraph by sending the message ,3hat hath Aod wroughtO- from Baltimore to
3ashington.
=orses recei(er, as well as his code system, were widely adopted+although the cumbersome
graphic de(ice was soon abandoned. /he difference between the dot and dash signals was :uite
audible, and a well'trained operator could translate them more :uickly and reliably than any
mechanical printing de(ice. 3ithin the span of only ten years, the single line from Baltimore to
3ashington had multiplied into FE,111 miles of line connecting the far'flung corners of the nation.
!n a burst of keystrokes, =orse compressed (ast distance and ga(e the nation a technology that
would help bind 8ast to 3est.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
@ast spaces were always mericas greatest resource as well as hea(iest burdenG a large
nation was difficult to unify and go(ern.
/echnology played a key role in westward e.pansion. /he =c$ormick reaper and >eere
plow made farming the plains practical, and =orses telegraph made the (astness of the
3est less daunting.
,ord for the -ay
/he dictionary will tell you that an emi&rant is one who emigrates+that is, lea(es one place to
settle in another whereas an immigrant immigratesB he or she comes into a place. /he emphasis is
on arri(al rather than departure. Be that as it may, those who made the westward trek were almost
always called emigrants by their contemporaries.
Stats
Before the ad(ent of the reaper, it took F1 hours to har(est an acre of wheat. By the time the
=c$ormick de(ice was fully perfected, about 0C5%, the same task consumed less than an hour.
,ord for the -ay
Tele&ra!h literally means ,distant writing,- or writing o(er distance. =orses earliest
telegraph recei(er actually traced out+wrote+the dots and dashes of =orse $ode.
$estiny
(%1(-#%1-0'
In This Chapter
War (ith Me0ico
The Mormon Tre
The ;old ,ush of 6@CA
Phrases enter and e.it the merican language as if it were a re(ol(ing door. But one phrase,
used in 0C2% by #ew York Post editor Iohn L. OSulli(an to describe mericas passion for the new
lands of the 3est, rang out loudly and in tones that echoed through'out the entire century. ,!t is our
manifest destiny,- OSulli(an wrote, ,to o(erspread and to possess the whole of the continent which
Pro(idence has gi(en us for the de(elopment of the great e.periment of liberty and federated
self'go(ernment entrusted to us.- 6nder the banner of ,manifest destiny,- the merican 3est would
be won+the obstinacy of prairie soil, the harshness of the elements, the li(es and life'ways of the
!ndians, and the rights of =e.ico notwithstanding.
fter /e.as gained its independence, the 6nited States was reluctant to accept the new'born
republics bid for anne.ation. #ot only would the 6nion be adding a sla(e state, but it would surely
ignite war with =e.ico. )owe(er, when &rance and 8ngland made o(ertures of alliance to /e.as,
outgoing President Iohn /yler urged $ongress to adopt an anne.ation resolution. /ylers successor,
Iames ". Polk, admitted /e.as to the 6nion on >ecember F5, 0C2%. !n the meantime, 8ngland and
&rance also seemed to be eyeing $alifornia, held so feebly by =e.ico that it looked to be ripe and
ready to fall into the hands of whome(er was there to catch it.
;!rL %ol)/s ,ar<
Polk was mo(ed to action. )e offered =e.ico P21 million for the $alifornia territory. /he
=e.ican president not only turned down the offer, but he refused e(en to see President Polks
emissary. /hus rudely rebuffed, Polk commissioned the 6.S. consul at =onterey ;$alifornia<,
/homas O. Larkin, to organi9e $alifornias small but powerful merican community into a
separatist mo(ement sympathetic to anne.ation by the 6.S. !n the meantime, Iohn $harles &remont,
an intrepid western e.plorer sur(eying potential transcontinental railroad routes for the 6.S. Bureau
of /opographical 8ngineers, marched onto the stage with the so'called Bear &lag Debellion.
$alifornias independence from =e.ico was proclaimed.
s far as =e.ico was concerned, the independence of $alifornia merely added insult to
in4ury. =e.ico disputed with the 6nited States the boundary of the new state of /e.as. President
Polk dispatched troops to /e.as and, on =ay 0E, 0C27, declared war on =e.ico. But e(en before
the official declaration, =e.ican forces laid siege against &ort /e.as+present'day Browns(ille+on
=ay 0.
Aeneral Hachary /aylor, marching to the relief of the fort, faced 7,111 =e.ican troops with a
mere F,111 mericans, but he ne(ertheless emerged (ictorious in the =ay C Battle of Palo lto.
/he battle set the pattern for the rest of the conflict. 6sually outnumbered, the mericans almost
always outmatched the poorly led =e.ican forces.
!n the meantime, early in Iune, official 6.S. action commenced against the =e.icans in
$alifornia as Stephen 3atts "earny led the ,rmy of the 3est- from &ort Lea(enworth, "ansas, to
$alifornia (ia #ew =e.ico. #ear Santa &e, at steep'walled pache $anyon, #ew =e.icos
Ao(ernor =anuel rmi4o set up an ambush to destroy "earnys column, but the go(ernors
ill'disciplined and ill'e:uipped troops panicked and dispersed. "earny passed through the canyon
unopposed, Santa &e was taken, and on ugust 0%, #ew =e.ico was anne.ed to the 6nited States,
all without firing a shot.
Aeneral /aylor attacked =onterrey ;=e.ico< on September F1, 0C27, taking the city after a
four'day siege. /aylor declined to capitali9e on what he had gained and allowed =e.ican forces to
withdraw. !n the meantime, the remarkably resilient ntonio Lope9 de Santa nna, who had been
li(ing as an e.ile in $uba after a rebellion had ended his dictatorship of =e.ico, made a proposal to
the go(ernment of the 6nited States. )e pledged to help the 6.S. win the war, to secure a Dio
Arande boundary for /e.as, and to secure a $alifornia boundary through San &rancisco Bay. !n
return, Santa nna asked for PE1 million and safe passage to =e.ico. merican officials were
prudent enough not to pay him, but Santa nna was allowed to return to his homeland+whereupon
he began assembling an army to defeat Hachary /aylor.
By Ianuary 0C2?, Santa nna had gathered 0C,111 men, about 0%,111 of whom he hurled
against /aylors 2,C11'man force at Buena @ista. fter two days of bloody battle, /aylor+
incredibly+forced Santa nnas withdrawal on &ebruary FE. >espite this signal (ictory, President
Polk was distressed by /aylors repeated reluctance to capitali9e on his (ictories and also worried
lest he make a military celebrity out of a potential political ri(al. So Polk replaced /aylor with
Aeneral 3infield Scott, hero of the 3ar of 0C0F. On =arch 5, Scott launched an in(asion of
@eracru9, beginning with the first amphibious assault in 6.S. military history. )e laid siege against
the fortress at @eracru9 for 0C days, forcing Santa nna to withdraw to the steep $erro Aordo
canyon with C,111 of his best troops.
Scott declined the frontal attack the =e.icans e.pected. !nstead, he sent part of his force to
cut paths up either side of $erro Aordo and attacked in a pincers mo(ement, sending Santa nnas
troops into headlong retreat all the way to =e.ico $ity. Scott took the kind of gamble /aylor would
not ha(e taken and boldly se(ered his rapidly pursuing army from its slower'mo(ing supply lines.
On September 0E, $hapultepec Palace, the seemingly impregnable fortress guarding =e.ico $ity,
fell to Scott. ;/he Palace had been defended by a force that included teenage cadets from the
=e.ican =ilitary $ollege. /hese cadets are celebrated in =e.ican history as ,Los #inos,- the
children.< On September 0?, Santa nna surrendered.
/he =e.ican 3ar ended with the /reaty of Auadalupe )idalgo, which was ratified by the
Senate on =arch 01, 0C2C. =e.ico ceded to the 6nited States #ew =e.ico ;which also included
parts of the present states of 6tah, #e(ada, ri9ona, and $olorado< and $alifornia. /he =e.icans
also renounced claims to /e.as abo(e the Dio Arande.
Bod and Bold
/he =e.ican 3ar was contro(ersial. $iti9ens in the #ortheast, especially in #ew 8ngland,
saw the war as an unfair+somehow un'merican+war of aggression, and they protested it.
Southerners and 3esterners, howe(er, thrilled to the cause, (olunteering to fight in such numbers
that recruiting offices were o(erwhelmed and had to turn eager men away. Dight, wrong, or
somewhere in between, the war (astly e.panded the territory of the 6nited States.
A Tre)
/he force of war was not the only engine that dro(e ,manifest destiny.- /he 3est likewise
lured seekers of Aod and those who lusted after gold. !n =arch 0CE1, a young Ioseph Smith, Ir.
published something he called /he Book of =ormon. One month later, he started a religion based
on the book, which relates how, in 0CF1, the 0%'year'old Smith was (isited by Aod the &ather and
Iesus $hrist near his familys farm in upstate #ew York. /hree years after this, young Smith was
(isited by an angel named =oroni, who instructed him to dig in a certain place on a nearby hill.
/here Smith unearthed a book consisting of beaten gold plates engra(ed with the words of =oronis
father, =ormon. /he book told of a struggle between two tribes, one good, the other e(il, which
took place in the #ew 3orld long before the arri(al of $olumbus. =oroni emerged as the sole
sur(i(or of the tribe of the good. 3hoe(er dug up /he Book of =ormon would be charged with
restoring to the world the true $hurch of $hrist.
/he church Smith founded in pril 0CE1 consisted of si. members. By 0C22, 0%,111 members
of the $hurch of Iesus $hrist of Latter >ay Saints+popularly called =ormons+were settled in
#au(oo, !llinois, the separatist community they had built. Persecuted where(er they went, the
=ormons always li(ed apart. Particularly distasteful to ,gentiles- ;as =ormons called those outside
of the faith< was the =ormon practice of polygamy ;multiple wi(es<.
Opposition to the =ormons often grew (iolent. On Iune F?, 0C22, a ,gentile- mob murdered
Ioseph Smith and his brother. Smiths second'in'command, the dynamic Brigham Young, reali9ed
that the =ormons would ha(e to mo(e somewhere so remote that no one would e(er bother them
again. O(er the ne.t two years, under his direction, a great migration was organi9ed. /he
destination, which Young had read about in an account by Iohn $. &remont was near the Areat Salt
Lake in the present'day state of 6tah.
Young planned and e.ecuted the =ormon /rek with the precision and genius of a great
general in time of war. )undreds of wagons were built, and a staging area, called $amp of !srael,
was set up in !owa. 8migrant parties were deployed in groups of a few hundred at a time and sent
0,211 miles across some of the most inhospitable land on the face of the planet. >uring the 0C21s
and 0C%1s, Saints+as =ormons called themsel(es+poured into the Salt Lake region. Young o(ersaw
the planning and construction of a magnificent town, replete with public s:uares, broad boule(ards,
and well'constructed houses, all centered around a great /emple S:uare. !n addition, Young and his
followers introduced into the arid Salt Lake @alley irrigation on a scale unprecedented in merican
agriculture. By 0C7%, F?? irrigation canals watered 0%2,111 s:uare miles of what had been desert.
All That Blitters
Iohann ugustus Sutter had bad luck with money. Born in "andern, Aermany, in 0C1E, he
went bankrupt there and, to escape his many creditors, fled to the =e.ican Southwest, where he
tried his fortune in the Santa &e trade. /wice more Sutter went bust, before finally settling in
=e.ican $alifornia in 0CEC, where he managed to build a (ast ranch in the regions central (alley.
Presumably, Ianuary F2, 0C2C, started like any other day on the ranch. Iames 3ilson
=arshall, an employee of Sutters, went out to inspect the race of a new mill on the property. )e
was attracted by something shiny in the sediment collected at the bottom of the mill race. !t was
gold.
3ithin a month and a half of the disco(ery, all of Sutters employees had deserted him, in
search of gold. 3ithout a staff, Sutters ranch faltered. 3orse, his claims to the land around the mill
were ultimately 4udged in(alid. 3hile e(eryone around Sutter ;it seemed< grew instantly rich, Sutter
himself was, yet again, financially ruined and would die, bitter and bankrupt, in 0CC1.
!t was not =arshall or Sutter, but a =ormon entrepreneur who did the most to stir up the great
Aold Dush of 0C25. Sam Brannon was one of a (ery few =ormon men brash enough to challenge
the authority of Brigham Young. !n defiance of Young, Brannon had set up his own =ormon
community in the (icinity of San &rancisco+then called Yerba Buena ;good herb<. Brannon saw in
the disco(ery of gold a chance to profit from ser(ing the needs of hopeful prospectors and other
settlers. &resh from a trip to Salt Lake $ity, where Young had e.communicated him from the
church, Brannon took a :uinine bottle, filled it with gold dust, and ran out into the streets of his
town. ,AoldN- he yelled. ,AoldN Aold from the merican Di(erN- &or good measure, he co(ered the
gold story in /he $alifornia Star, a newspaper he owned. 3ithin two weeks, the population of Yerba
Buena plummeted from a few thousand to a few do9en, as men dropped their tools and left their
4obs to prospect on the south fork of the merican Di(er.
&rom the 3est $oast, word of gold spread east. /he scene played out in San &rancisco was
repeated in city after city. 8mployment was unceremoniously terminated, wi(es and children were
left behind, and seekers set out on the long trek to $alifornia. /he 4ourney was characteristically
filled with hardship and heartbreak, whether the tra(eler chose the tedious o(erland route, the
treacherous sea passage around stormy $ape )orn, or the boat to Panama ;and a trek across the
disease'ridden !sthmus to meet another ship for the (oyage to the $alifornia coast<. &or some, the
trip was worthwhileG great fortunes were made. =ost prospectors, howe(er, found only hard li(es,
mean spirits, and barely enough gold to pay for meals, shelter, and clothing. =any didnt e(en find
that much.
/he fact was that most men made the mistake of looking for their fortune on the ground,
while the real money was made by those, like Brannon, who sold groceries, hardware, real estate,
li:uor, and other necessities to the 25ers. $ollis )untington and =ark )opkins made a fortune in
miners supplies. $harles $rocker used the profits from his dry goods operation to start a bank.
Leland Stanford parlayed his mercantile pursuits into a political career culminating in the
go(ernorship of $alifornia and the founding of the uni(ersity that bears his name. /ogether+as the
,Big &our-+)untington, )opkins, $rocker, and Stanford pro(ided the ma4or financing for the
$entral Pacific Dailroad+the western leg of the great transcontinental railroad completed in 0C75.
/he $alifornia Aold Dush lasted through the e(e of the $i(il 3ar. /he rush populated much
of $alifornia, and then, as gold was disco(ered farther inland in #e(ada, $olorado, and the
>akotas, yet more of the frontier 3est was settled. But as the bonds of union grew stronger between
8ast and 3est, those uniting #orth and South steadily dissol(ed. Still basking in the reflected glory
of western gold, the merican nation was about to enter its darkest hours.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
3hile contro(ersial, the war with =e.ico greatly e.panded the western territory of the
6nited States.
!n addition to agriculture, the promise of religious freedom and the promise of gold lured
many thousands out west in the years between the =e.ican 3ar and the $i(il 3ar.
!ain ?0ent
/he #orman /rek was accomplished with great efficiency and (ery little loss of life. /he
church established a Perpetual 8migrating &und to lend money to those lacking the means to
finance their own way west. By 0C%%, the church reali9ed that outfitting fully e:uipped wagon
trains would soon break the fund. Brigham Young hit on a solution. )e directed =ormon carpenters
in !owa to build handcarts as cheap substitutes for the horse'drawn prairie schooners. /he emigrants
would walk to Salt Lake $ity.
/he small, bo.like carts looked like miniature co(ered wagons. /hey were e:uipped with
only two o(ersi9e wheels, designed to roll easily o(er rough terrain. ppro.imately %11 handcart
,Saints- left !owa $ity on Iune 5 and 00, 0C%7. lthough the trek took longer than anticipated ;the
emigrants did not arri(e in Salt Lake $ity until late in September<, the emigrants arri(ed safely, and
Young was encouraged.
>eparture of the ne.t two ,)andcart Brigades- was delayed until Iuly and ugust because of
a shortage of carts. &aced with a scarcity of seasoned lumber, the carpenters had to use green wood,
which shrunk in the hot, and air of the plains. &illed to o(erflowing, the carts broke down or simply
fell apart, supplies ran short, and, worse still, the delayed departure from !owa put the emigrants in
3yoming during the first snows. Of the 0,111 emigrants in the second )andcart Brigade, FF% died.
,ord for the -ay
People who participated in the great $alifornia Aold Dush of 0C25 earned the name %CAer or
5orty? niner . /he 0C25 rush was not the countrys first, howe(erG nor would it be the last. 3estern
Aeorgia was the scene of the first rush would occur elsewhere in $alifornia and throughout the 3est
during much of the 05th century. !n 0C57, the "londike drew thousands of prospectors, and two
years later, more came to laska in search of the yellow ore.
&tran/e Fla/ o7er &umter
(%150#%1-<'
In This Chapter
Lincoln%s rise
-ohn Bro(n%s raid on :ar!ers 5erry
The fall of 5ort *umter and the early battles
Bnion military failures
Antietam and the Emanci!ation Proclamation
braham Lincoln was born on &ebruary 0F, 0C15, in a log cabin in )ardin ;now Larue<
$ounty, "entucky. !n 0C07, the family mo(ed to !ndiana and, finally, to !llinois in 0CE1. Largely
self'taught, Lincoln tried (arious occupations and ser(ed as a militiaman in the Black )awk 3ar
;0CEF<. lthough he had little appetite for military life, Lincoln took ,much satisfaction- in ha(ing
been elected captain of his militia company. /hat position opened new hori9ons for the young
backwoodsman. Lincoln ran for the !llinois state legislature, losing his first bid but subse:uently
gaining election to four consecuti(e terms ;0CEF'20<. fter setting up a successful law practice in
Springfield, the state capital, he ser(ed a term ;0C2?'25< in the 6.S. )ouse of Depresentati(es but
then returned to his law practice.
t this point, by his own admission, Lincoln ,was losing interest in politics.- /hen came the
"ansas'#ebraska ct in 0C%2. !ts doctrine of popular so(ereignty potentially opened new territories
to sla(ery, and Lincoln saw the pro(isions of the act as immoral. lthough he belie(ed that the
$onstitution protected sla(ery in states where it already e.isted, he also thought that the &ounding
&athers had put sla(ery on the way to e.tinction by legislating against its spread to new territories.
Lincoln ran unsuccessfully for the 6.S. Senate in 0C%%, then, the following year, left the 3hig party
to 4oin the newly formed Depublicans.
!n 0C%C, Lincoln ran for the Senate against the !llinois incumbent, Stephen . >ouglas.
Lincoln accepted his partys nomination ;Iune 07, 0C%C< with a powerful speech suggesting that
>ouglas, $hief Iustice Doger B. /aney, and >emocratic presidents &ranklin Pierce and Iames
Buchanan had actually conspired to nationali9e sla(ery. >eclaring that compromise was doomed to
fail and that the nation would become either all sla(e or all free, he paraphrased the BibleB , house
di(ided against itself cannot stand.- &or the fate of the country, it was as if he spoke prophecy.
>ohn Bro+n/s Body
Lincoln, a highly principled moderate on the issue of sla(ery, soon found himself transformed
from an obscure !llinois politician to the standard bearer of his party. )e challenged >ouglas to a
series of debates that captured the attention of the national press. lthough Lincoln failed to win a
seat in the Senate, he emerged as an elo:uent, morally upright, yet thoroughly balanced
embodiment of pre(ailing sentiment in the #orth. Dadical Southerners warned that the election of
any Depublican, e(en Lincoln, would mean ci(il war.
3hile Lincoln and other politicians chose the stump and the rostrum as forums suited to
decide the fate of the nation, others took more radical action. Iohn Brown was born on =ay 5, 0C11,
in /orrington, $onnecticut, but he grew to undistinguished adulthood in Ohio, drifting from 4ob to
4ob, always dogged by bad luck and bad business decisions. By the 0C%1s, howe(er, Browns life
began to take direction, as he became profoundly in(ol(ed in the sla(ery :uestion.
Brown and his fi(e sons settled in ,Bleeding "ansas,- where they became embroiled in the
(iolence between pro'sla(ery and anti'sla(ery forces for control of the territorial go(ernment.
Brown assumed command of the local &ree'Soil militia, and after pro'sla(ery forces sacked the
&ree'Soil town of Lawrence, Brown, four of his sons, and two other followers retaliated by hacking
to death, with sabers, fi(e unarmed settlers along the Pottawatomie Di(er during the night of =ay
F2, 0C%7.
lthough he was not apprehended, Brown claimed full responsibility for the act and became
increasingly obsessed with the idea of emancipating the sla(es by inciting a massi(e sla(e re(olt.
/he charismatic Brown persuaded a group of #orthern abolitionists to back his scheme financially.
)e chose )arpers &erry, @irginia ;present'day 3est @irginia<, as his target, planning to capture the
federal small'arms arsenal there. /hen Brown planned to establish a base of operations in the
mountains, from which he would direct the sla(e rebellion as well as offer refuge to fugiti(es. On
October 07, 0C%5, with F0 men, Brown sei9ed the town and broke into the arsenal. Local militia
responded, and within a day, federal troops under the command of Dobert 8. Lee arri(ed, attacked,
and killed 01 of Browns band. /he wounded Brown was taken prisoner.
Yet the battle was hardly o(er. rrested and tried for treason, Brown conducted himself with
impressi(e dignity and courage. !t was, in fact, his finest hour, and he succeeded in arousing
#orthern sympathy, eliciting statements of support from the likes of 3illiam Lloyd Aarrison and
Dalph 3aldo 8merson. Browns e.ecution by hanging, on >ecember F, 0C%5, ele(ated him to the
status of martyr. /o many, the raid on )arpers &erry seemed a harbinger of the great contest to
come.
Blea) Transition
/he brand'new Depublican Party, with Lincoln as its presidential candidate, united remnants
of the essentially defunct &ree'Soil Party and the Liberty party, as well as the old 3higs and other
anti'sla(ery moderates and radicals. Stephen . >ouglas, who had ,defeated Lincoln in the race for
the Senate, sought the >emocratic nomination in 0C71. But ha(ing denounced the pro'sla(ery
constitution adopted by "ansas, >ouglas had alienated the pro'>emocratic South. lthough
>ouglas was finally nominated, he was the candidate of a splintered partyG a breakaway Southern
>emocratic party emerged, with outgoing (ice president Iohn $. Breckinridge as its candidate. Yet
another splinter group, the $onstitutional 6nion party, fielded a candidate, further di(iding the party
and propelling Lincoln to (ictory with 0C1 electoral (otes against 0FE for his combined opponents.
#ews of the (ictory of a ,black Depublican- ;as radical Southerners called Lincoln< pushed
the South to secession. &irst to lea(e the 6nion was South $arolina, on >ecember F1, 0C71G
=ississippi followed on Ianuary 5, 0C7 0, &lorida on Ianuary 01, labama on Ianuary 00, Aeorgia
on Ianuary 05, Louisiana on Ianuary F7, and /e.as on &ebruary 0. &our days later, delegates from
these states met in =ontgomery, labama, where they wrote a constitution for the $onfederate
States of merica and named =ississippis Iefferson >a(is pro(isional president. s the 6nion
crumbled about him, lame duck President Iames Buchanan tempori9ed, unwilling to take action.
Prior to his inauguration, President'elect Lincoln disco(ered that Iefferson >a(is was not
spoiling for war but offered to negotiate peaceful relations with the 6nited States. nd Senator Iohn
I. $rittenden ;0?C?'0C7E< of "entucky proposed, as a last'ditch alternati(e to bloodshed, the
$rittenden $ompromise+constitutional amendments to protect sla(ery while absolutely limiting its
spread. Lincoln, determined to a(oid committing himself to any stance before actually taking office,
ne(ertheless let others attribute positions to him. /he fact was that Lincolns prime ob4ecti(e was to
preser(e the 6nion, and he was actually willing to consider protecting sla(ery where it e.isted, e(en
by constitutional amendment. Lincoln also thought the &ugiti(e Sla(e ct should be enforced. Yet,
by remaining silent during the period between his election and inauguration, lie con(eyed the
impression that he fully shared the radical Depublican opposition to compromise.
A7ril 13, 1DF1, 4'E0 AL!L
3ith Lincoln in office and all hope of compromise e.tinguished, the $onfederate president
and $onfederate $ongress authori9ed an army and na(y and set about taking control of federal ci(il
and military installations in the South. &ort Sumter, which guarded $harleston harbor, was
especially important. !f the $onfederacy could not control the key international port on the coast of
South $arolina, it could not effecti(ely claim so(ereignty. /hroughout =arch 0C70, the $onfederate
go(ernment attempted to negotiate the peaceful e(acuation of the 6nion garrison at &ort Sumter,
but Lincoln remained adamant that the 6nited States would not gi(e up the fort. Yet, not wanting to
pro(oke the Southerners, Lincoln delayed sending reinforcements.
&aced with South $arolina ,fire'eaters- ;ardent secessionists< who threatened to sei9e the fort
on their own, Iefferson >a(is decided that he had to take action. )e assigned the mission of
capturing the fort to Brigadier Aeneral Pierre Austa(e /outant Beauregard, who laid siege to the
fort, hoping to star(e out post commandant =a4or Dobert nderson and his men. !n the meantime,
Lincoln and the rest of the federal go(ernment seemed to be sleepwalking. 3ith great deliberation
and delay, a ship was loaded with reinforcements and supply. But it was too late now. 4ust before he
was prepared to open fire, Beauregard offered nderson, his former 3est Point instructor, generous
surrender termsB ,ll proper facilities will be afforded for the remo(al of yourself and command,
together with company arms and property, and all pri(ate property, to any post in the 6nited States
which you may select. /he flag which you ha(e upheld so long and with so much fortitude, under
the most trying circumstances, may be saluted by you on taking it down.- nderson refused, and the
first shot of the $i(il 3ar was fired at 2BE1 a.m. on pril 0F, 0. C70. 8dmund Duffin ;0?52'0C7%<, a
7?'year'old ,fire'eater,- claimed credit for ha(ing pulled the lanyard on that initial (olley'although
the truth is that $aptain Aeorge S. Iames fired a signal gun first. /he ensuing bombardment lasted
E2 hours before nderson surrendered. !ncredibly, this first engagement of the war resulted in no
casualties. !t would be the last bloodless battle of the war.
$rom B"ll ."n to Antietam
>uring the spring of 0C70, @irginia, #orth $arolina, /ennessee, and rkansas 4oined the
se(en original $onfederate States. Yet e(en that number put the odds at 00 (ersus FE #orthern
states. /he #orth had a far more e.tensi(e industrial base than the South and more than twice as
many miles of railroad. s far as the production of foodstuffs was concerned, #orthern agriculture
was also better organi9ed. lthough the #orth was 4ust reco(ering from an economic depression,
the entire South could scrape together no more than PF? million in specie ;gold and sil(er<. /he
#orth not only commanded far more wealth, but it also had diplomatic relations with foreign
powers and, therefore, could secure e.tensi(e credit.
Yet the South did ha(e more of the armys best officers, who, at the outbreak of hostilities,
had resigned their commissions in the 6.S. rmy and 4oined the army of the $onfederate States.
$onfederate leaders knew that their only chance was to score swift military (ictories that would sap
the #orths will to fight.
/he first ma4or engagement of the war, after the fall of &ort Sumter, pro(ed 4ust how effecti(e
the $onfederate officers and men were. 3hen it began, the battle the South would call &irst
=anassas and the #orth would call &irst Bull Dun was a picnic. On Iuly F0, 0C70, 3ashingtons
fashionable folk rode out to nearby $entre(ille, @irginia, in carriages filled with baskets of food and
bottles of wine. /hrough spy glasses, they (iewed the action three miles distant. /he 6nion troops
seemed similarly carefreeG as they marched to battle, they fre:uently broke ranks to pick
blackberries. Demarkably la., too, was military security. #ewspapers published the 6nion armys
plan of action, and what information the papers didnt supply, rebel sympathi9ers, such as the
seducti(e Dose O#eal Areenhow, (olunteered to spy for the cause. /hus Aeneral Beauregard was
prepared for the. 6nion ad(ance and had erected defenses near a railroad crossing called =anassas
Iunction. /here, across Bull Dun $reek, his F1,111 rebels ;later augmented by reinforcements<
faced the E?,111 Yankees under the command of the thoroughly mediocre Aeneral !r(in =c>owell.
/he battle began well for the #orth, as =c>owell managed to push the rebels out of their
positions. But then the Southern forces rallied when they beheld a @irginia brigade led by Aeneral
/homas I. Iackson. Like a ,stone wall- the brigade held its ground, and thereafter, /homas Iackson
was best known by the name his soldiers ga(e himB Stonewall. /he entire $onfederate force now
rallied and, ultimately, broke through the 6nion lines. Suddenly, panicked #orthern troops retreated
all the way to 3ashington. /he &irst Battle of Bull. Dun stunned the capital+which trembled in
anticipation of a $onfederate in(asion that ne(er came+and it stunned 6nion loyalists all across the
nation. /he picnickers ran for their li(es, !t would be a long, hard war.
Se0en -ays
Iustifiably dismayed by =c>owells performance at Bull Dun, President Lincoln called
Aeneral Aeorge B. =c$lellan to command the main 6nion force. Iefferson >a(is combined
Beauregards troops with those of Aeneral Ioseph 8. Iohnston, who was gi(en senior command of
the $onfederate forces in @irginia. #ow the ma4or action centered in @irginia as =c$lellan set
about building a large army with which to in(ade Dichmond, which became the $onfederate capital
in =ay 0C70.
>espite the triumph at &irst Bull Dun, the outlook seemed grim for the $onfederates.
Dichmond could not withstand a massi(e assault. Yet =c$lellan, a popular commander who
succeeded in transforming the 6nion army from an undisciplined rabble into a cohesi(e body of
credible soldiers, suffered from a )amlet'like tendency to ponder and delay. 8(entually
e.asperated, Lincoln would peg him with homely accuracyB =c$lellan has a ,bad case of the
slows,- the president pronounced.
=c$lellan repeatedly delayed his assault on Dichmond, finally losing the initiati(e, so that lie
had to settle into an arduous campaign on the @irginia peninsula. !n that campaigns principal series
of battles, called the Se(en >ays ;Iune F7'Iuly F, 0C7F<, more men were killed or wounded than in
all the $i(il 3ar battles fought elsewhere during the first half of 0.C7F, including another encounter
that became a byword for slaughter, Shiloh ;pril 7'?,0C7F<. Shiloh pitted Aeneral 6lysses S.
Arants 2F,111'man 6nion against a 21,111'man $onfederate force under Aeneral lbert S.
Iohnston. Arant lost 0E,111 men, and the $onfederates lost more than 01,111 in a battle that
resulted in strategic stalemate on the wars western front.
Back in @irginia, the Se(en >ays saw the placement of Dobert 8. Lee at the head of the
Souths ma4or army, which he renamed the rmy of #orthern @irginia. Lee led his forces in a
brilliant offensi(e against the always'cautious =c$lellan, launching daring attacks at
=echanics(ille, Aaines =ill, Sa(ages Station, &raysers &arm, and =al(ern )ill. !n fact, Lee lost
twice as many men as his ad(ersary, but he won a profound psychological (ictory. =c$lellan
backed down the peninsula all the way to the Iames Di(er.
Bac) to B"ll ."n
ppalled and heartbroken by =c$lellans repeated failure to sei9e the initiati(e, Lincoln
desperately cast about for a general to replace him. On Iuly 00, Lincoln appointed )enry 3.
)alleck. !t was not a good choice. )alleck dispatched a regrouped army into @irginia under Iohn
Pope, but Lee met him with more than half the rmy of #orthern @irginia. t $edar =ountain on
ugust 5, ,Stonewall- Iackson dro(e Pope back toward =anassas 4unction, then Lee sent the
,Stonewall Brigade- to flank Pope and outmarch him to =anassas. fter destroying the 6nion
supply depot, Iackson took a position near the old Bull Di4n battlefield. Pope lumbered into position
to attack Iackson on ugust F5, 4ust as Lee sent a wing of his army, under Iames Longstreet, against
Popes left on ugust E1.
/he action was de(astating. Pope reeled back across the Potomac. t this point, the
,in(ading- 6nion army had been effecti(ely swept out of @irginia, and the $onfederates went on
the offensi(e. &or the #orth, it was the low point of the war.
%erry0ille and Antietam
Lee was a keen student of #apoleon Bonapartes strategy and tactics, the key to which was
the principle of always acting from boldness. /hus Lee boldly concei(ed a double offensi(eB in the
3est, an in(asion of "entuckyG in the 8ast, an in(asion of =aryland. #either of these so'called
,border states- had seceded, yet both were sla(e states, and capturing them would significantly
e.pand the $onfederacy. =oreo(er, if Louis(ille, "entucky, fell to the $onfederates, !ndiana and
Ohio would be open to in(asion, and control of the Areat Lakes might pass to the rebels. &or the
6nion, the war could be lost.
But things didnt happen this way. $onfederate general Bra.ton Bragg delayed, lost the
initiati(e, and was defeated at Perry(ille, "entucky, on October C, 0C7F. !n =aryland, Lees
in(asion went well+until a copy of his orders detailing troop placement fell into the hands of
Aeorge =c$lellan ;restored to command of the rmy of the Potomac after )allecks disastrous
performance at Second Bull Dun<. /he 6nion general was able to mass ?1,111 troops in front of
Lee at Sharpsburg, =aryland, along ntietam $reek. On September 0?, in the bloodiest day of
fighting up to that time, =c$lellan dro(e Lee back to @irginia. !ndeed, only the belated, last'minute
arri(al of a di(ision under .P. )ill sa(ed Lees forces from total annihilation.
?manci7ation %roclaimed5!ore or (ess
ntietam was not the turning point of the war, but it was ne(ertheless a momentous battle. !t
pro(ided the platform from which braham Lincoln issued the so'called ,preliminary-
8mancipation Proclamation.
/he fact is that Lincoln was no enthusiastic ad(ocate of emancipation. /o be sure, he
personally hated sla(ery, but as president, he was sworn to uphold the $onstitution, which clearly
protected sla(ery in the sla(e states. =ore immediately, Lincoln feared that uni(ersally declaring
the sla(es free would propel the four sla(eholding border states into the $onfederate fold. &or many
#ortherners, the moral basis of the $i(il 3ar was the issue of emancipation. But Lincoln mo(ed
cautiously.
!n ugust 0C70, Lincoln pre(ailed on $ongress to declare sla(es in the rebellious states
,contraband- property. s such, sla(es could be sei9ed by the federal go(ernment, which could then
refuse to return them. !n =arch 0C7F, $ongress passed a law forbidding army officers from
returning fugiti(e sla(es. !n Iuly 0C7F, $ongress passed legislation freeing sla(es confiscated from
owners ,engaged in rebellion.- !n addition, a militia act authori9ed the president to use freed sla(es
in the army. 3ith these acts, Lincolns go(ernment edged closer to emancipation.
Secretary of State 3illiam ). Seward warned that a proclamation of emancipation would ring
hollow down the depressingly long corridor of 6nion defeats. !t was not until ntietam, a 6nion
(ictory+albeit a costly one+that Lincoln felt confident in issuing the preliminary proclamation on
September FE, 0C7F. /his document did not free the sla(es, but rather, warned sla(e owners li(ing
in states ,still in rebellion on Ianuary 0, 0C7E- that their sla(es would be declared ,fore(er free.-
3hen that deadline came and passed, Lincoln issued the ,final- 8mancipation Proclamation'which
set free only those sla(es in areas of the $onfederacy that were not under the control of the 6nion
army ;areas under 6nion control were no longer, technically, in rebellion<G sla(es in the border
states were not liberated.
/imid, e(en disappointing as the 8mancipation Proclamation may seem from our perspecti(e,
it ser(ed to gal(ani9e the #orth by e.plicitly and officially ele(ating the war to a higher moral
planeB sla(ery was now the central issue of the great $i(il 3ar.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he $onfederacy attempted to negotiate independence from the 6nion before
commencing hostilities by firing on &ort Sumter in $harleston harbor.
Plagued by cautious or inept commanders, the 6nion rmy performed poorly in the first
months of the war.
/he 8mancipation Proclamation was a fairly timid document, which reflected Lincolns
first priorityB to preser(e the 6nion, not necessarily to free the sla(es.
Stats
/he popular (ote was much closer than the electoral (ote was much closer than the electoral
(ote. Lincoln recei(ed only 0,C77,2%F (otes against F,C0%,70? (otes for his combined opponents.
Stats
/he population of the of the South in 0C70 was about 5 million people, including E million
sla(es ;who were not military assets<. /he #orth had FF million people.
.eal (ife
Dose O#eal Areenhow was born in Port /obacco, =aryland, in 0C0?, and mo(ed to
3ashington, >.$., where, from early womanhood, she cast a powerful spell on men. She married a
State >epartment official, through whom she met a circle of highly influential 3ashingtonians,
including Iames Buchanan. 3idowed in 0C%2, Areenhow became particularly intimate with the
bachelor president. lthough this relationship was probably platonic, Areenhow had many others
that were anything but. mong her ,gentleman callers- was a host of military and go(ernment
officials, perhaps including a 6.S. Senator.
Areenhow was a highly intelligent woman who had nursed Iohn $. $alhoun through his final
illness when he was a resident at her aunts fashionable $apitol )ill boardinghouse. She imbibed
$alhouns states rights theories and became a passionate partisan of the South. 3hen the $i(il 3ar
broke out, Areenhow was recruited by $onfederate spy master /homas Iordan to obtain 6nion
military secrets. 6sing her many charms, she procured information that pro(ed highly (aluable to
the $onfederacy at &irst Bull Dun.
rrested on ugust FE, 0C70, by lan I. Pinkerton, the man who (irtually in(ented the
profession of pri(ate detecti(e, Areenhow was later paroled to the South, and on ugust %, 0C7E,
sailed to 8urope on a mission to re(i(e &rench and British support for the $onfederate cause. /here
she met #apoleon !!! and *ueen @ictoria, and she published a best'selling memoir.
Dose O#eal Areenhow drowned in 0C72 when the blockade'runner on which she was
returning from abroad ran aground off 3ilmington, #orth $arolina.
.eal (ife
#o military figure in merican history is more uni(ersally admired than Dobert 8. Lee, who
not only ser(ed the $onfederate cause as a brilliant commander but, in defeat, became an enduring
e.ample of courage and dignity.
Lee was born on Ianuary 05, 0C1?, in 3estmoreland $ounty, @irginia, the son of )enry
,Light )orse )arry- Lee, a fine ca(alry officer during the merican De(olution. ppointed to 3est
Point in 0CF%, Dobert 8. Lee graduated at the top of his class in 0CF5 and, two years later, married
=ary nn Dandolph $ustis, great'granddaughter of =artha 3ashington by her first marriage. Lee
ser(ed as an engineering officer under Aeneral 3infield Scott during the =e.ican 3ar ;0C27'2C<
and, from 0C%F'0C%%, was superintendent of 3est Point. !n 0C%5, Lee led the force that suppressed
Iohn Browns raid on )arpers &erry.
Dobert 8. Lee was anything but a Southern ,fire'eater.- )e deplored the e.trimism+on both
sides+that led to the $i(il 3ar. But Lee felt intense loyalty to @irginia, and when war came, he
declined an offer to command the 6nion army, resigned his commission, and offered his ser(ices to
@irginia.
Lee repeatedly took the offensi(e against the #orth'and repeatedly attained (ictory against
superior forces, achie(ing his greatest triumph at e.tremes ;=ay 0C7E<. But as the South ran short
of men and money, the tide turned in fa(or of the #orth. &alling back into @irginia, Lee continued
to wage war brilliantly. &inally trapped at ppomatto. $ourt )ouse, he surrendered the rmy of
#orthern @irginia on pril 5, 0C7%, in what is considered the symbolic end of the $i(il 3ar.
fter the war, Lee became president of 3ashington $ollege ;now 3ashington and Lee
6ni(ersity< in Le.ington, @irginia. )e died on October 0F, 0C?1, a uni(ersally admired figure.
Stats
lthough ntietam was a 6nion (ictory, =c$lellan lost more troops than LeeB 0F,111 troops
(ersus 01,111.
!loody 2oad to Appomattox and beyond
(%1-5#%1)-'
In This Chapter
;ettysbur& and )icsbur&. turnin& !oint of the (ar
Lincoln%s ultimate commander. B<*< ;rant
Total (ar. *herman%s March to the *ea
The assassination of Lincoln
,econstruction and bitterness in the *outh
Andre( -ohnson%s im!eachmentD election of ,utherford B< :ayes
#o face in merican history is more familiar, better lo(ed, or more terrible than that of
braham Lincoln. &ortunately for us, famed $i(il 3ar photographer =athew Brady was there to
photograph it. !n the 07th presidents face, we see his characterB the hard life of the backwoods, an
infinite gentleness, an infinite sorrow. Lincolns burden is unimaginableG he had a mission to sa(e
the 6nion, e(en if doing so cost more than half a million li(es.
/hrough the long, terrible summer of 0C7F, the president despaired. Lincoln was no military
man, but he had a sound and simple grasp of strategy, and he saw that Aenerals >on $arlos Buell
and Aeorge B. =c$lellan failed to press their gains toward decisi(e (ictories. &rustrated, Lincoln
remo(ed Buell from command of the rmy of the Ohio and replaced him with 3illiam S.
Dosecrans in late October 0C7F. /he ne.t month, be put mbrose 8. Burnside in =c$lellans place
as commander of the rmy of the Potomac. Dosecrans scored a (ery costly (ictory at =urfreesboro,
/ennessee ;>ecember E0, 0C7F'Ianuary E, 0C7E<, forcing Bra.ton Bragg out of /ennessee, but
Burnside suffered a terrible defeat at &redericksburg, @irginia. )e tried to regain the initiati(e for
the 6nion forces by renewing a dri(e on Dichmond, but faltered at the Dappahannock Di(er and
was checked by Lees army. On >ecember 0E, Burnside hurled a series of assaults against the
$onfederate trenches. )e not only failed to penetrate the $onfederate lines but lost more than
0F,111 men in the process.
month after &redericksburg, Lincoln replaced Burnside with ,&ighting Ioe- )ooker, who
led the rmy of the Potomac at $hancellors(ille ;=ay 0'E, 0C7E< in the wilderness of northern
@irginia, again aiming to take Dichmond. )ooker was defeated+brilliantly+by Stonewall Iackson
;who, howe(er, lost his life in the battle, accidentally shot by one of his own troops<. Lincoln
replaced )ooker with Aeorge Aordon =eade on Iune F5, 0C7E+4ust two days before 6nion and
$onfederate forces would clash at an obscure Pennsyl(ania hamlet called Aettysburg.
$o"r Score and Se0en
n.ious to mo(e the war into 6nion territory, Lee in(aded Pennsyl(ania with an army of
about ?%,111. )e did not aim to do battle with the forces of the #orth in the (icinity of Aettysburg,
a (illage distinguished only in that it was positioned at important crossroads, but the fact is that
Lieutenant Aeneral .P. )ills corps of $onfederates needed shoes. Short of manufacturing
capability, the South always had a difficult time keeping its soldiers shod. On Iune E1, while
marching toward Aettysburg in search of shoes, )ill was engaged by ca(alry under 6nion Brigadier
Aeneral Iohn Buford. /he battle began in earnest on the ne.t day, Iuly 0.
/he encounter did not go well for the 6nion. )ills troops killed =a4or Aeneral Iohn &.
Deynolds, commander of the 6nion ! $orps, almost as soon as he came onto the field. >espite
shock and confusion, his troops held their ground until reinforcements arri(ed. But in the afternoon,
)ill and Lieutenant Aeneral D.S. 8well 4oined forces in an attack that routed the &ederals through
the town of Aettysburg. /he forces regrouped and rallied on $emetery Didge, where they were
4oined by fresh troops from the south and east. /he $onfederates arrayed their forces in an
encircling position, encompassing Seminary Didge, parallel to $emetery Didge.
/hus the field was set for the second day. Dobert 8. Lee attacked on Iuly F but was unable to
achie(e a double en(elopment of the 6nion forces+though he did inflict hea(y casualties. On Iuly
E, still holding the initiati(e, Lee committed what was for him a rare tactical error. Belie(ing that a
(ictory here and now, at Aettysburg, in #orthern territory, might turn the war decisi(ely in fa(or of
the $onfederacy, he ordered a direct attack+across open country+on the 6nions center.
&ifteen thousand $onfederate troops ad(anced against the 6nion position on $emetery Didge.
8.ploiting the ad(antages of high ground, the 6nion pounded the ad(ancing rebels with hea(y
artillery and musket fire. =a4or Aeneral Aeorge Picketts di(ision pressed the attack up to the
Didge. /he di(ision was decimatedB two brigadiers fell, the third was se(erely wounded, and all 0%
of Picketts regimental commanders were killed or wounded. Briefly, 0 SO men from the di(ision,
led by Brigadier Aeneral Lewis rmistead ;who perished in the effort<, raised the $onfederate
banner abo(e $emetery Didge+only to be cut down or captured. !n the end, ,Picketts $harge,-
perhaps the single most famous military action in merican history, resulted in the death or
wounding of 01,111 of the 0%,111 men in Picketts di(ision.
3atching the sur(i(ors return from the failed assault that third awful day, Lee said to a
subordinateB ,it is all my fault.- )oping, in effect, to win the war at Aettysburg, Lee had suffered a
terrible defeat. lthough the losses on both sides were staggering, they were hardest on the
$onfederates. One (ery simple fact was at the base of this (ery comple. warB /he #orth, with more
men as well as more hardware than the South, could lose more of both and still go on fighting. Lee
was right. /he Battle of Aettysburg was a turning point'but it did not turn the war in his fa(or. &rom
here to the end, despite more 6nion defeats to come, it became increasingly clear that the #orth
would ultimately pre(ail.
Vic)sb"rg and &hattanooga
#orthern attention focused most sharply on Aettysburg as the battle that foiled the
$onfederate in(asion of the #orth. )owe(er, while that battle was being fought, 6nion forces under
Aeneral 6lysses S. Arant were bringing to a conclusion a long and frustrating campaign against
@icksburg, =ississippi, the $onfederacys seemingly impregnable stronghold on the =ississippi
Di(er. /he pri9e here was not 4ust a fortress, but control of the great ri(er. Once the South lost the
=ississippi, the $onfederacy was split in two, the western states unable to communicate with the
8ast or to supply reinforcements to it. Arant had campaigned+in (ain+against @icksburg during the
fall and winter of 0C7F'7E, finally taking it on Iuly 2, 0C7E.
Arant ne.t turned his attention to $hattanooga, which occupied a critical position in a bend of
the great /ennessee Di(er. 6nion forces under 3illiam S. Dosecrans had ousted Bra.ton Bragg
from $hattanooga in early September 0C7E, but, reinforced, Bragg returned to engage Dosecrans at
the Battle of $hickamauga on September 05'F1. Bragg fielded 77,110< men against Dosecranss
%C,111. By the second day of this bloody struggle along $hickamauga $reek in northwestern
Aeorgia, the $onfederates had dri(en much of the 6nion army from the field in disarray.
$omplete disaster was a(erted by Aeneral Aeorge ). /homas, in command of the 6nion left
flank. =oreo(er, Bragg failed to press his ad(antage, laying incomplete siege around $hattanooga
while also detaching troops to attack "no.(ille. By failing to act with greater focus, Bragg allowed
Arant sufficient time to arri(e, on October FE, and reinforce the rmy of the $umberland ;now
under /homass command<. Si.ty thousand 6nion troops now faced Braggs reduced forces+about
21,111 men+in two battles set in the rugged terrain o(erlooking $hattanooga. /he Battle of Lookout
=ountain ;#o(ember F2< was called the ,Battle bo(e the $louds,- because it was fought at an
ele(ation of 0,011 feet abo(e the /ennessee Di(er+and abo(e a dense line of fog. /he Battle of
=issionary Didge followed ;#o(ember F%<. !n these two engagements, /homas and Arant
decisi(ely defeated Bragg, with the result that /ennessee and the /ennessee Di(er fell into 6nion
hands.
Bac) to .ichmond
/o many mericans, Aeorge =eade was the hero of Aettysburg+the great turning'point battle
of the war. )owe(er, President Lincoln obser(ed that =eade, like so many of his other generals,
failed to capitali9e on (ictory. !n contrast, 6lysses S. Arant had demonstrated a willingness to fight
and then fight some more. /hus, with the war entering its fourth year, Lincoln finally found his
general. !n =arch 0C72, the president named Arant general in chief of all the 6nion armies. Arants
strategy was simpleB e.ploit the #orths superiority in industrial strength and in population. /his
meant that Arant and his subordinate commanders could not afford to be fearful of sacrificing men
and material. Arant was so single'minded in pursuing this strategy that some men within his own
ranks cursed him as ,/he Butcher.-
Arant put the 6nions fiercest warrior, 3illiam /ecumseh Sherman, in command of the
so'called western armies ;which actually fought in the middle South<. =eade retained command of
the rmy of the Potomac+albeit under Arants watchful eye. 6sing these two principal forces, he
relentlessly kept pressure on the Souths rmy of /ennessee and the rmy of #orthern @irginia.
/he 3ilderness $ampaign ;=ay'Iune 0C72< was the first test of the strategy of attrition. Arant
directed =eade, leading a force of 011,111, to attack ?1,111 men of Lees rmy of #orthern
@irginia in the tangled woodlands 4ust %1 miles northwest of Dichmond. /he Battle of the
3ilderness ;=ay %'7< cost some 0C,111 6nion li(es. 6ndaunted, ,/he Butcher- then ordered
=eade southeast to Spotsyl(ania $ourt )ouse, where more than 02,111 6nion soldiers were killed
between =ay C and 0C. Still Arant pushed, attacking Lees right at $old )arbor, 4ust north of
Dichmond. /hirteen thousand 6nion troops fell between Iune E and Iune 0F.
&ollowing $old )arbor, Arant marched south of the Iames Di(er and began the Petersburg
$ampaign, laying siege to this important rail center 4ust south of Dichmond. /he siege consumed
nearly a year, from Iune 0C72 to pril 0C7%, and it succeeded in hemming in Lee, who was put on
the defensi(e, trying to sta(e off the assault on Dichmond.
!n order to restore maneu(erability to his army, Lee attempted to draw off some of Arants
strength by detaching Iubal 8arly, with Stonewall Iacksons old corps, in an assault against
3ashington in mid'Iune. lthough the capital was briefly bombarded, 6nion Aeneral Philip
Sheridan pursued 8arly into the Shenandoah @alley and defeated him at $edar $reek on October
05.
Iust three weeks later, Lincoln was elected to a second term by a comfortable margin. $learly,
the #orth was prepared to continue the fight, and the defenders of Petersburg, star(ing, sick, and
e.hausted, at last broke in =arch 0C7%. On pril F, Lee e(acuated Dichmond. Iefferson >a(is and
the entire $onfederate go(ernment fled the Southern capital.
The !arch to the Sea
3hile Arant concentrated on taking Dichmond, 3illiam /ecumseh Sherman, after lea(ing,
$hattanooga in early =ay 0C72, in(aded Aeorgia with 011,111 men. Sherman was opposed by
Ioseph P. Iohnstons army of 71,111, which repeatedly fell back during the onslaught+although
Iohnston scored a (ictory at "ennesaw =ountain on Iune F?. By early Iuly, Iohnston had assumed
a position defending the key rail center of tlanta. )owe(er, President Iefferson >a(is, enraged by
Iohnstons many retreats, brashly replaced him with Aeneral Iohn B. )ood. heroic but utterly
reckless commander, )ood attacked Sherman and lost. By September, )ood abandoned tlanta,
and the #orthern armys occupation of this ma4or city greatly boosted 6nion morale.
fter the fall of tlanta, )ood played a desperate gambit by in(ading /ennessee, hoping that
Sherman would pursue him. But Sherman had his own strategy. Later generations would call it
,total war-+war waged against not only an enemy army, but against ,enemy- ci(ilians. !nstead of
pursuing )ood himself, Sherman detached Aeneral Aeorge ). /homas to do that. 3ith the main
force of his army, Sherman then marched from tlanta to the tlantic coast. /he ,=arch to the Sea-
burned a broad, bitter swath of destruction all the way to Sa(annah.
!n the meantime, Aeneral )ood did win a battle at &ranklin, /ennessee, on #o(ember E1, but
Aeneral /homas triumphed at #ash(ille on >ecember 0%'07, 0C72, sending the ragged remnants of
)oods army back toward Aeorgia. $onfederate Aeneral Ioseph P. Iohnston, now in command of
the greatly reduced rmy of /ennessee, engaged Sherman se(eral times as the 6nion army stormed
through the $arolinas in the spring of 0C7%. On pril 0E, 0C7%, Sherman occupied Daleigh, #orth
$arolina, and on pril F7 at >urham Station., Iohnston formally surrendered his army.
The &o"ntry &o"rtho"se
lthough sporadic fighting would continue west of the =ississippi until the end of =ay, the
principal land campaign of the $i(il 3ar ended at >urham Station on pril F7. )owe(er, an earlier
e(ent is traditionally considered the symbolic end of the $i(il 3ar. &ollowing the collapse of
Petersburg and the e(acuation of Dichmond, Dobert 8. Lees rmy of #orthern @irginia desperately
foraged for food and arri(ed at ppomatto. $ourt )ouse, about F% miles east of Lynchburg,
@irginia. Lees forces, which now stood at perhaps 5,111 effecti(e troops, were surrounded by the
rmy of the Potomac under Aeneral Aeorge =eade.
fter hea(y skirmishing on the morning of pril 5, Lee concluded that his was a lost cause.
)e met 6lysses S. Arant, who pressed him to surrender all the $onfederate armies, which were
nominally under his command. Lee refused to do that, but his surrender of the rmy of #orthern
@irginia, o(er which he had direct command, signaled the ine(itable end of the war.
,ith !alice To+ard Some
$onfident of ultimate (ictory, President Lincoln deli(ered a gentle, healing message in his
second inaugural address on =arch 2, 0C7%, calling for a consummation of the war with ,malice
toward none- and ,charity for all- in an effort to ,bind up the nations wounds.- 3eary, careworn
beyond imagining, Lincoln ne(ertheless looked forward to the end of the war. On the e(ening of
Aood &riday, pril 02, 0C7%, he and his wife, =ary /odd, sought a few hours di(ersion in a
popular comedy called Our merican $ousin. /he play was being presented at &ords /heatre, a
short distance from the 3hite )ouse.
An ?0ening at $ord/s Theatre
Iohn 3ilkes Booth was a popular young scion of mericas foremost theatrical family. 3hile
he had no part in Our merican $ousin, Booth was desperate to play a role in the drama of the great
$i(il 3ar, which was now rushing to conclusion. Back in 0C72, the =aryland'born racist had
concocted a plot to kidnap Lincoln and ransom him in e.change for $onfederate prisoners of war.
/hat plan came to nothing, and now, with surrender in the air, there was no point in simply
kidnapping Lincoln. Booth wanted raw (engeance. )e conspired with a small band of followers,
Aeorge . t9erodt, >a(id )erold, and a former $onfederate soldier called Lewis Paine ;real name
Louis /hornton Powell<. /hey plotted to murder Lincoln and also kill @ice President ndrew
Iohnson and Secretary of State 3illiam ). Seward.
On pril 02, t9erodt backed out of his assignment to kill Iohnson. !n the meantime, )erold
held Paines horse while Paine broke into Sewards residence. )e stabbed and clubbed Seward, an
aged man who was recuperating from in4uries suffered in a carriage accident. !t was a bloody sceneB
Seward, his son ugustus, and his daughter &anny were all in4ured, as were a State >epartment
messenger and a male nurse. Yet none of them died.
Booth was more efficient. Booth simply walked into the theater, entered the presidents bo.,
raised his derringer, and pointed it between braham Lincolns left ear and spine. fie s:uee9ed off a
single shot. Booth leaped from the bo. onto the stage, shouting ,Sic semper tyrannisN-+/hus e(er to
tyrants. But Booths right spur had caught on the /reasury Degiment banner festooning the bo., and
he landed, full force, on his left foot, which broke 4ust abo(e the instep. Booth limped across the
stage and made a clean getaway into =aryland and then @irginia. )e was not found until pril F7,
when he was cornered in a barn near &redericksburg. 6nion soldiers set fire to the barn, then, seeing
the actors form silhouetted by the flames, one of the soldiers ;a sergeant named Boston $orbett
claimed credit< fired a shot that fatally wounded Booth.
.econstr"ction Ab"ses
/he mortally wounded president had been carried to a house across the street from the theater.
/here Lincoln died at ?BFF the ne.t morning. 3ith him died any hope of ,malice toward none- and
,charity for all.- Booth murdered Lincoln to a(enge the South. !n fact, the South became the most
thoroughly brutali9ed (ictim of the assassination.
s the war was winding down, President Lincoln had formulated plans to set up loyal
go(ernments in the Southern states as :uickly as possible. #ew go(ernments were, in fact, formed
in Louisiana, /ennessee, and rkansas, but $ongress refused to recogni9e them. Dadical
Depublicans, wishing to delay the restoration in part to keep >emocrats out of 3ashington, passed
the 3ade'>a(is Deconstruction Bill. /his bill would ha(e delayed the process of readmission to the
6nion pending the signature of loyalty oaths. Lincoln (etoed the measure.
fter Lincoln was assassinated, his (ice president, ndrew Iohnson, modified the
3ade'>a(is plan by issuing amnesty to anyone who took an oath to be loyal to the 6nion in the
future. Iohnson re:uired that the states ratify the 0Eth mendment ;which freed the sla(es<, abolish
sla(ery in their own state constitutions, repudiate debts incurred while in rebellion, and declare
secession null and (oid. By the end of 0C7%, all of the secessionist states, e.cept for /e.as, had
complied.
$ongress, howe(er, was not satisfied with Iohnsons program, which, $ongress feared,
restored power to the (ery indi(iduals who had brought rebellion. =oreo(er, the readmitted states
persisted in keeping former sla(es in subser(ience. /o correct this problem, $ongress passed in
0C77 the &reedmans Bureau ct and the $i(il Dights ct, both intended to ensure
frican'merican e:uality before the law. 3hen Iohnson (etoed these acts, Depublicans responded
by refusing to recogni9e the legitimacy of the Southern states and o(errode the (eto.
Depublicans also introduced the 02th mendment, declaring frican'mericans to be citi9ens
and prohibiting states from discriminating against any class of citi9en. 3hen the Southern state
go(ernments created under Iohnsons plan refused to ratify the 02th mendment, $ongress passed a
series of Deconstruction cts in 0C7?, effecti(ely placing the South under military occupation.
frican'mericans were :uickly enfranchised, and $ongress forced acceptance of the 02th
mendment by refusing to recogni9e new state go(ernments until those go(ernments had ratified it.
Decogni9ed $onfederate leaders were specifically barred from participating in the creation of the
new go(ernments.
Articles of #m7eachment
!n defiance of $ongress, Iohnson deliberately interfered with the enforcement of the
reconstruction laws. 3hen, at last, in 0C7C, Iohnson dismissed Secretary of 3ar 8dwin =. Stanton
in a bid to gain complete control of the army, )ouse Depublicans charged a (iolation of the /enure
of Office ct. Passed in 0C7?, this act barred a president from remo(ing, without the Senates
appro(al, any officeholder appointed with the Senates consent. /he )ouse impeached Iohnson, but
after a trial spanning =arch through =ay 0C7C, the Senate ac:uitted him by a single (ote.
His $ra"d"lency
3ith ndrew Iohnson neutrali9ed, the radical Depublicans (isited a harsh reconstruction
program on the South. frican'mericans were gi(en e:ual rights, state'supported free public
school systems were established, labor laws were made fairer to employees, and ta. laws were more
generally e:uitableG howe(er, radical reconstruction also e.acted a hea(y ta. burden and led to
widespread, ruinous corruption. !n many places, uneducated former sla(es were thrust into
high'le(el go(ernment positions for which they were inade:uately prepared. !n response, whites set
up shadow go(ernments and established the "u "lu. "lan and other (igilante'type groups.
Dadical reconstruction was born of mi.ed moti(es+a desire to bring e:uality to
frican'mericans and to establish go(ernments loyal to the 6nion, but also to keep >emocrats out
of $ongress and punish the South. /hese efforts created much bitterness, crippled the Southern
economy for generations, and ultimately deepened the gulf of understanding separating the races.
>uring the early 0C?1s, white resistance to reconstruction often turned (iolent. !n this
tumultuous atmosphere, the presidential election of 0C?7 resulted in a ma4ority of popular (otes
going to >emocrat Samuel I. /ilden. )owe(er, the Depublicans re(ersed the electoral (ote tally in
the three Southern states they still controlled under Deconstruction legislation. /he Depublicans
effecti(ely stole the election from /ilden and ga(e it to Depublican Dutherford B. )ayes. fter
months of wrangling, both sides agreed to send the (otes to a special commission. !t ruled )ayes
the winner+though only after he secretly agreed to stop using federal troops to enforce
Deconstruction. !n effect, this agreement ended Deconstruction, in its positi(e as well as negati(e
aspects. >ubbed ,Your &raudulency,- )ayes ser(ed a single term as best he could but remained one
of the nations least popular presidents.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
@ictory in the $i(il 3ar was the result of numbersB /he #orth had more men, money, and
manufacturing capacity than the South.
Lincolns assassination depri(ed the South+as well as the #orth+Of a wise and
compassionate leader. 3ithout Lincoln, the process of reconstruction was bitter, di(isi(e,
and deeply damaging to the nation.
Stats
Of CC,FC5 6nion troops engaged at Aettysburg, E,0%% died oft the field, 02,%F5 were wounded
;many of these subse:uently died<, and %,E7% were listed as ,missing.- $onfederate figures are less
reliable. Of appro.imately ?%,111 troops engaged, E,51E were killed outright, 0C,?E% were wounded
;a large percentage mortally<, and %,2F% were missing.
Voice from the %ast
On #o(ember 05, 0C7E, President braham Lincoln tra(eled to Aettysburg to dedicate a
national cemetery on the battlefield. Some did not find his brief speech ade:uate to the solemn
occasion. Others were mo(ed by its straightforward elo:uence as a definition of what was at stake
in the $i(il 3ar. /oday the speech is uni(ersally regarded as one the greatest public utterances in
historyB
,&ourscore and se(en years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation,
concei(ed in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created e:ual. #ow
we are engaged in a great ci(il war, testing whether that nation or any nation so
concei(ed and so dedicated can long endure. 3e are met on a great battlefield of that war.
3e ha(e come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting'place for those who
here ga(e their li(es that that nation might li(e. !t is altogether fitting and proper that we
should do this. But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we
cannot hallow this ground. /he bra(e men, li(ing and dead who struggled here ha(e
consecrated it far abo(e our poor power to add or detract. /he world will little note nor
long remember what we say here, but it can ne(er forget what they did here. !t is for us
the li(ing rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here
ha(e thus far so nobly ad(anced. !t us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining
before us+that from these is rather for us honored dead we take increased de(otion to that
cause for which they ga(e the last full measure of de(otion+that we here highly resol(e
that these dead shall not ha(e died in (ain, that this nation under Aod shall ha(e a new
birth of freedom, and that go(ernment of the people, by the people, for the people shall
not perish from the earth.-
,ord for the -ay
(ar of attrition is waged by a numerically stronger force against one that is numerically
weaker. /he assumption is that, by the application of constant stress, the weaker force will crumble,
while the stronger force, despite losses, will endure. /his theory was the foundation of Arants
strategy.
Voice from the %ast
Shortly before he died, Arant described in his Personal =emoirs the scene in the =cLean
house, at ppomatto., where Lee surrendered to himB
,3hat Aeneral Lees feelings were ! do not know. s he was a man of much dignity, with
an impassible face K his feelingsK were entirely concealed from my obser(ationG but
my own feelings K were sad and depressed. ! felt like anything rather than re4oicing at
the downfall of a foe who had fought so long and (aliantly and had suffered so muchK
Aeneral Lee was dressed in a full uniform which was entirely new, and was wearing a
sword of considerable (alueK!n my rough tra(eling suit K ! must ha(e contrasted (ery
strangely with a man so handsomely dressed, si. feet high and of faultless formK
3e soon fell into a con(ersation about old army times K Our con(ersation grew so
pleasant that ! almost forgot the ob4ect of our meeting.-
&ea to &hinin/ &ea
(%1-<#%1)1'
In This Chapter
The homesteaders and sodbusters
E0!ansion of o#erland mail and frei&ht o!erations
The transcontinental railroad
rmies, money, and the will to continue the fight won the $i(il 3ar and restored the 6nion.
/here was something else as well. $all it the ,merican >ream.-
/o some modern ears, perhaps this phrase rings hollow. But in the mid'05th century, the
merican >ream had a foundation as solid as it was (ast. 8(en amid the bitter carnage of a war that
tore them apart, mericans looked west. /here, it seemed, was refuge from the war. /here was a
place for new beginnings. /here was the future. nd what is the future, if it is not a dreamO
Homesteaders
t least as early as the 0CE1s, (arious groups clamored for free distribution of the (ast public
lands of the 3est. !n 0C2C, the &ree'Soil party was organi9ed to oppose the e.tension of sla(ery into
the territories newly ac:uired as a result of the =e.ican 3ar. /he party failed to carry a single state
in the presidential election that year, but it did gi(e a unified (oice. /he partys idea of regulating
federal distribution of public lands was one means of stopping the spread of sla(ery into the
territories.
3hen the Depublican Party was founded in 0C%2, most of the ,&ree'Soilers- abandoned their
dead'end party and 4oined the new one, which adopted distribution of federal lands as a plank of its
0C71 platform. /his issue fanned the flames of Southern secessionG the sla(e states were always
opposed to any policy that would bring more free states into the 6nion. But when the $i(il 3ar
broke out, Southern opposition became a moot point.
On =ay F1, 0C7F, President Lincoln signed into law the )omestead ct, which granted 071
acres of public land in the 3est as a homestead to ,any person who is the head of a family, or who
has arri(ed at the age of F0. years, and is a citi9en of the 6nited States, or who shall ha(e filed his
declaration of intention to become such.-
/his was no free gift. lthough the homesteader had only to pay a modest filing fee, he did
ha(e to li(e on the land for fi(e years and make certain impro(ements'the most important of which
was the construction of a dwelling. fter these conditions were satisfied, the homesteader recei(ed
clear title to the land. lternati(ely, a homesteader could ,preempt- the land after only si. months
residence by purchasing it at the rate of P0.F% per acre. !f the settler could scrape together P%1+a
(ery substantial sum in the 0C71s and beyond the means of many homesteaders+he could augment
his original grant with an additional 21 acres, up to a ma.imum of 071.
/he )omestead ct was a bold e.periment in public policy and was shaped by years of hard
e.perience with the distribution of unsettled land. /raditionally, such territories had drawn
unscrupulous speculators, who figured out ways to come into control of (ast acreages and make
:uick fortunes. /he new law sought to a(oid such abuses and aspired to a high degree of
democracy. &or the most part, it succeeded, although there were plenty of sharpers eager to burrow
through legal loopholes. /he greatest culprits in fraud were big railroads and big mining companies
seeking large tracts of land at the public e.pense.
>espite the abuses, the )omestead ct opened the 3est to hundreds of thousands. /he new
settlers were different from the first wa(es of westerners. /he solitary trapper and mountain man,
the bachelor soldier, the gri99led prospector now made way for the farmer and the family, and with
the family came stable, permanent communities.
The Sod $rontier
/imber was a scarce commodity on the treeless plains, but sod was abundant. /he (ery soil
that posed such a formidable obstacle to farming'at least until the manufacture of Iohn >eeres
,Arand >etour Plow-+was a durable, dense, and ;:uite literally< dirt'cheap building material.
/he work of the sod frontier was back breaking. 8(en with the >eere plow, ,busting- the sod
into (iable crop rows was no easy task. &or the many homesteaders who had the misfortune to stake
claims at a distance from creeks and streams, there was the added burden of digging a well. &ew
sodbusters could afford to hire, a drilling rig, so this work, like most of the work on the prairie farm,
had to be done by hand. 3ith nothing more than pick and spade, homesteaders dug to depths up to
E11 feet, where they were e.posed to the dangers of ca(e'in as well as asphy.iation from
subterranean gases such as methane and carbon mono.ide. #ot only that, but breaking your back
and risking your life did not guarantee youd find water. !f, by the time you hit bedrock or shale,
you came up dry, you had to start digging somewhere else.
3ater in a well goes nowhere unless you take it there. s the prairie earth yielded an
abundance of natural building material, so the winds that fiercely scoured the prairie afforded a
natural source of energy. !n 0C%2, a $onnecticut tool'shop tinkerer named >a(id )alladay in(ented
a windmill with a (ane that allowed it to pi(ot into the windG moreo(er, the centrifugal force of the
turning blades ad4usted the pitch of the mill blades so that the gusty, often (iolent winds would not
tear them apart. crankshaft transformed the rotary motion of the mill into the up'and'down action
needed to operate a pump. 6sing wind power, hundreds of gallons of water could be mo(ed each
day to irrigate crops and :uench the thirst of li(estock.
/he sodbusters turned stubborn soil and fierce winds into assets. /hey also found strength in
another, less tangible, but no less harsh, reality of prairie life. Limitless spaces and dri(ing winds
were a trial for the spirit. /he emotional demands of the wide'open spaces ser(ed to reinforce the
solidarity of the family as a bulwark against loneliness, despair, and danger. Beyond the family,
these uncompromising conditions helped bond neighbor with distant neighbor, gradually forging
communities where there had been none before. #eighbors were a new phenomenon in the 3estG
for the trapper, the prospector, and the soldier had no need for community.
."ts and .ails
/ransportation and westward mo(ement ha(e always been a chicken'and'egg proposition in
this country. &armers and others clamored for better and cheaper transportation, while freight
carriers did what they could to promote a le(el of settlement that would make ser(ice to the
outlying regions profitable. /he earliest western transportation was ri(erborne, with shallow'draft
flatboats abounding on the =issouri and its tributaries. /hen, spurred by the disco(ery of gold in
$alifornia, stagecoach and freight entrepreneurs took the plunge, in(esting in. coaches, li(estock,
and road impro(ements.
By the 0C%1s, dams 8.press $ompany and 3ells, &argo S $ompany were engaged in
cutthroat competition for $alifornia freighting. /he success of $alifornia o(erland operations
prompted others to establish routes elsewhere in the 3est, often with go(ernment subsidy in the
form of postal contracts. By 0C%2, 3illiam ). Dussell and 3illiam B. 3addell merged with their
principal competitor, le.ander =a4ors, to create a freighting empire that endured until the $i(il
3ar.
Dussell and 3addell were financial men, and =a4ors was the practical manager. =a4ors, more
than any other single indi(idual, de(eloped western freighting to a peak of efficiency. )is
companys wagons were designed and built to his e.acting specifications, using carefully seasoned
wood to make wagon bo.es that flared outward to pre(ent as much as %,111 pounds of cargo from
shifting. /he wagons resembled ships, their forward ends cur(ed like prows, their aft ends s:uared
off to facilitate loading and unloading. =a4ors had a genius for organi9ing men and material. )e
di(ided his forces into outflts of F7 wagons under the absolute command of a wagon master and an
assistant. 8ach wagon was pulled by a team of 0F o.en dri(en by a bullwhacker at an a(erage rate
of 0% miles a day. 8ach outfit also included a herder, who dro(e 21 to %1 o.en for use as
replacements, and a night herder, who tended the animals at night. 8ach days routine was strictly
regulated, including an absolute re:uirement to ,obser(e the Sabbath.-
/he other giants of freighting in the 3est included Aeorge $horpenning, Iohn Butterfield,
Iohn =. )ockaday, and Ben )olladay ;who was so successful that he was dubbed the ,#apoleon of
the Plains-<. Yet, if the opportunity for profit was great, the o(erhead+in li(estock, personnel, and
maintenance of routes+was staggering. =oreo(er, stage and freight lines were preyed upon by
robbers ;popularly called road agents<, including the likes of )enry Plummer, Black Bart, the Iames
Aang, and many others who entered into western legend and lore. Sooner or later, most o(erland
entrepreneurs went belly up. /hose who sur(i(ed were either wiped out by the ad(ancing railroads
or learned to coordinate their ser(ice with the new rail lines, ser(ing the widely dispersed stations as
relati(ely short feeder routes.
#ron .oad
fter the success of the 8rie $anal, completed in 0CF% and linking #ew York $ity with the
Areat Lakes, other eastern seaport cities rushed to build systems of canals. Baltimore was an
e.ception and chose to in(est not in a canal, but in a brand new technologyB the railroad. Begun in
0CFC, the Baltimore and Ohio Dailroad reached the Ohio Di(er, principal artery to the 3est, by
0C%F. t about this time, railroads were also being built in the =idwest. /he $hicago and Dock
!sland ;/he Dock !sland Line< became the first rail route to the =ississippi Di(er in 0C%2. By 0C%7,
the route bridged the ri(er and penetrated the fertile farmlands of !owa. Other midwestern roads
followed.
Practically from the start of all this rail acti(ity, in 0CEF, a >r. )artwell $ar(er published
articles in the #ew York $ourier S 8n:uirer proposing a transcontinental railroad to be built on
eight million acres of go(ernment land from Lake =ichigan to Oregon ;then the only coastal
territory to which the 6nited States had any claim<. $ar(ers scheme came to nothing, and 01 years
later, sa 3hitney, a #ew Yorker engaged in the $hina trade, proposed to $ongress that the 6nited
States sell him nearly C1 million acres, from Lake =ichigan to the $olumbia Di(er, at 07 cents per
acre. 3hitney planned to sell parcels of the land to settlers and farmers, using the proceeds to push
a railroad farther and farther 3est in pay'as'you'go fashion.
3hitney butted up against =issouri Senator /homas )art Benton, who wanted a
transcontinental railroad with an eastern terminus at St. Louis rather than $hicago, as 3hitney
proposed. Benton got 3hitneys plan permanently tabled and, in 0C2C, persuaded $ongress to fund
a railroad sur(ey led by his son'in'law, Iohn $. &remont. /he recklessly conducted sur(ey resulted
in the deaths of ten of &remonts party, fro9en or star(ed in a Docky =ountain bli99ard, and
ultimately pro(ed inconclusi(e.
3hile arguments o(er routes raged, the means of financing a transcontinental railroad were
being hammered out. Dailroad lobbyists proposed a system of go(ernment land grants alternating
checkerboard fashion north and south of the proposed right'of'way. /he railroads would sell their
land to finance construction, and the presence of the railroad would greatly increase the (alue not
only of the purchasers land, but of the alternate sections retained by the go(ernment. series of
such grants was immediately apportioned to a number of western rail lines.
!n 0C%E, $ongress authori9ed Secretary of 3ar Iefferson >a(is to conduct detailed sur(eys of
potential transcontinental rail routes. /he result of the hasty sur(eys was, again, inconclusi(e
;though they added significantly to general knowledge of the 3est<. !t soon became apparent that
>a(is+the =ississippian who would become president of the $onfederacy with the outbreak of ci(il
war+stacked the deck in fa(or of a southerly route.
/he wrangling might ha(e gone on fore(er had it not been for one remarkable man. /heodore
>ehone Iudah ;0CF7'7E<, son of an 8piscopal clergyman in Bridgeport, $onnecticut, was a ci(il
engineer with a genius for building railroads. !n 0C%2, $olonel $harles 3ilson, president of
$alifornias Sacramento @alley Dailroad, commissioned Iudah to sur(ey a right'of'way from
Sacramento to the gold'mining town of &olsom. Iudah reported to 3ilson that this stretch of track
could ser(e as something far more significant than a link to &olsom. /he track was ideally suited to
be the Pacific end of a transcontinental railroad. 3ilson and other backers were e.cited, but then the
gold petered out at &olsom, and the rail line went no farther.
Iudah did not stop. )e lobbied 3ashington, e(en as he continued searching for a (iable pass
across the Sierra =ountains. frontier pharmacist, >aniel ,>oc- Strong, pointed out a likely route,
and right then and there, he and Iudah :uickly concluded an agreement to incorporate a Pacific
railroad association. ll that was lacking now was money. Lots of money. Iudah ;lid not stop. )e
found se(en backers, including four whose fortunes were destined to be made by the railroadB $ollis
P. )untington and =ark )opkins, partners in a hardware storeG Leland Stanford, wholesale grocerG
and $harles $rocker, dry goods merchant. Deturning to 3ashington, >.$., Iudah successfully
lobbied for passage of the Pacific Dailway ct of 0C7F, authori9ing the $entral Pacific and the
6nion Pacific railroads to begin construction of a transcontinental railroad. /he $entral Pacific
would build from the 3est $oast eastward, and the 6nion Pacific would build westward from
Omaha, #ebraska.
3ith the #orth and South torn apart by war, President Lincoln and $ongress were an.ious to
bind the nation together 8ast and 3est. /he Dailway ct granted huge tracts of land to the railroad,
along with massi(e construction loans, and, at the behest of braham Lincoln, multimillionaire
congressman Oakes mes and his brother Oli(er created a corporation to build the railroad and
another corporation to finance construction. /he latter was named $redit =obilier, after the
company that had successfully financed the &rench railway system 01 years earlier. /he mes
brothers made in(estors an offer they couldnt refuseB $redit =obilier, run by the directors
;principal in(estors< of the 6nion Pacific, was paid by the 6nion Pacific to build the 6nion Pacific.
/he directors made a profit on the railroad as well as on the cost of building it. /he scheme was an
open door to fraud, and construction bills were routinely padded.
!n the end, scandal and greed could take nothing away from the heroism and wonder of what
it meant actually to build a transcontinental railroad+especially in an age when earth was mo(ed
and iron rails laid not by machines, but by human muscle.
6nder the leadership of Aren(ille =ellon >odge and another e.'army general, Iohn Stephen
$asement, the 6nion Pacific began laying prodigious lengths of track+F77 miles in 0C77 alone. /he
tracks were set into place mostly by unskilled !rish immigrants, who recei(ed, in addition to their
pay, room and board. On the $entral Pacific, the bulk of the work force was $hinese, who were
paid about the same rate but had to furnish their own tent accommodations and their own food.
Laying and spiking %11'pound rail sections was difficult enough, but these men+some F%,111
in all+faced other perils as well. /hey encountered harsh weather on the prairies and in the
mountains, including summer floods, winter bli99ards, and the e(er'present danger of a(alancheG
attack from Siou. and $heyenne, as the rails penetrated !ndian hunting grounds in western
#ebraska and southeastern 3yomingG and unceasing pressure from bosses, who had little lo(e for
!rish immigrants and e(en less for $hinese ,coolies.- /askmasters dro(e the laborers relentlessly,
heedless of life and limb, for the $entral Pacific and 6nion Pacific, though they would be 4oined,
were actually in fierce competition. /he (olume of their go(ernment land grants were directly
proportional to the amount of track laid. !n fact, in the absence of an officially predetermined
meeting point for the con(erging tracks, sur(ey parties laid out some F11 miles of o(erlapping,
parallel, entirely redundant right'of'way. fter roustabout parties passed each other'blasting away at
hard rocks and almost at one another'6.S. Secretary of the !nterior Or(ille ). Browning inter(ened
and named Promontory Summit, %7 miles west of Ogden, 6tah, as the meeting point. ;=any
histories of the 3est confuse Promontory Summit with nearby Promontory Point.<
Bolden S7i)e at %romontory
/he ceremonial union of the two lines at Promontory Summit was set for =ay C, 0C75.
Leland Stanford of the $entral Pacific almost failed to arri(e because of a train wreck. /homas $.
>urant of the 6nion Pacific was kidnapped en route by tie cutters his company had not paid for
months. >urant telegraphed for money and was released, delaying the ceremony by two days.
On =ay 01, 0C75, workers and e.ecuti(es alike were prepared to sa(or their finest moment.
/he e(ent did not go :uite as planned. $hinese laborers, acutely aware of how $aucasians felt about
them, were lowering the last rail into place when a photographer hollered, ,ShootN- /he laborers
dropped the :uarter'ton rail and ran.
Leland Stanford himself stepped up to 4oin the last eastbound and westbound rails. )e poised
himself to dri(e home a commemorati(e Aolden Spike, wired to the telegraph, so that each blow
would be transmitted across the nation. Stanford raised the hea(y sledge, brought it on down+and
clean missed. Laborers assisted him, and the deed was done. &rom sea to shining sea, the 6nited
States was bound by bands of iron.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he )omestead ct of 0C7F filled in the space between the =ississippi and the Pacific
and brought to the 3est an unprecedented degree of family'based, community'based
settlement.
/echnology, in the form of the transcontinental railroad, did more than politics to bind
8ast and 3est into a single nation.
Stats
By the end of the 05th century, some 711,111 farmers had recei(ed clear title under the
)omestead ct to appro.imately C1 million acres of formerly public land.
,ord for the -ay
Plain homesteaders who built sod houses were called sodbusters . /he houses themsel(es
were often referred to as soddies .
Stats
!n 0C%% alone, Dussell, =a4ors S 3addell carried F.% million pounds of freight across the
plains in %11 wagons organi9ed into F1 separate trains. Se(enteen hundred men were employed as
wagon masters, dri(ers, stock tenders, and so on, while ?,%11 o.en furnished the pull.
!ain ?0ent
!n 0C%?, Dussell, =a4ors S 3addell secured a big go(ernment contract to supply the army in
what threatened to become a war against rebellious =ormons in 6tah. /he firm paid top dollar to
buy additional wagons and hire additional crews, but the operation became the target of =ormon
guerrilla attacks, a de(astating winter, and ultimately, federal default on contracts. &acing financial
collapse, 3illiam ). Dussell saw his companys sal(ation in making a rapid transition from slow
freighting to e.press mail ser(ice.
/o make a dramatic demonstration of the speed and efficiency of his company, Dussell
in(ented what he called the Pony 8.press. )e promised to deli(er mail from St. Ioseph, =issouri,
to Sacramento, $alifornia+a distance 4ust 22 miles shy of an e(en F,111+in 01 days.
/he unit would ha(e no passengers and no coaches. !nstead, the 8.press would achie(e speed
by a relay of ponies and riders stretched across the continent.
Dussell had purchased %11 semiwild outlaw horses and had C1 riders continuously en route,
21 westbound, 21 east, who had answered his ads calling for ,daring young men, preferably
orphans.-
&inancially, the Pony 8.press was a failure, charging a staggering P% per half ounce ;soon
lowered to PF< of mail that actually cost the company an e(en more staggering P07 to deli(er.
3ithin 05 months, the Pony 8.press was out of business, rendered obsolete by the completion of
transcontinental telegraph lines. But in 7%1,111 miles of tra(el, the company lost only one
consignment+and managed to capture the nations imagination.
,ord for the -ay
Laborers included roustabouts , who graded roadbedG brid&e moneys , who hastily cobbled
together trestles o(er riders and streamsG and &andydancers , who actually laid and spiked the rails.
=6he ,nly Good Indian>?
(%1-<#%10%'
In This Chapter
Indian roles in the $i#il War
The *antee *iou0 B!risin&
The #ictory of ,ed $loud
5utile cam!ai&ns, the War for the Blac :ills, and $uster%s Last *tand
2efeat of the "ez Perce and ;eronimo
Massacre at Wounded 4nee
/he 3est was a land of many dreams, but what we seem to remember most (i(idly are the
nightmares. On the (ast stage of prairie and mountain, the last act of a four'century tragedy was
played out. /he curtain had been raised by the crew of $hristopher $olumbus, who clashed with the
people they called !ndians on an island they called )ispaniola. &rom then on, warfare between
#ati(e mericans and 8uropean mericans was chronic and continual. 3hen whites and !ndians
did not start wars between themsel(es, !ndians became embroiled in wars between whitesB the
&rench and !ndian 3ar, the De(olutionary 3ar, the 3ar of 0C0F, and finally, the $i(il 3ar.
Dead any standard history of the $i(il 3ar, and you will learn that this epic struggle was
mainly an eastern conflict. !n the 3est, battles were smaller and less fre:uent, yet often, they were
uglier.
Bl"e, Bray5and .ed
6nion loyalists in the 3est feared that the $onfederates would ac:uire !ndian allies. /he
$onfederacy recruited some members of some eastern tribes, and both the #orth and South
recruited troops from among tribes that had been ,remo(ed- to !ndian /erritoryB the $herokees,
$hickasaws, $hoctaws, $reeks, and Seminoles. But the more significant impact !ndians had on the
$i(il 3ar was to draw off some 6nion troops who otherwise would ha(e been used against
$onfederates. =ost important, the demands of the war meant that fewer troops occupied western
posts, which pro(ided !ndians ample opportunity to raid settlers with relati(e impunity.
A !an &alled &ochise
On the e(e of the $i(il 3ar, $ochise ;0C0F'?2< emerged as leader of the paches. &eared
throughout the Southwest by whites as well as other !ndian tribes ;pache is a )opi word for
enemy<, the paches had been fierce warriors and raiders for centuries. )owe(er, $ochise was
actually inclined to like the merican whites who settled in ri9ona, and he e(en secured a contract
with the Butterfield O(erland =ail to supply fuel wood to the station at pache Pass.
!n 0C70, $ochise was falsely accused of raiding a local rancher ;a thoroughly disreputable
drunk named Iohn 3ard<, rustling his cattle, and abducting his son. Second Lieutenant Aeorge #.
Bascom asked $ochise for a parley on &ebruary 2, 0C70G $ochise came (oluntarily, only to be taken
capti(e with fi(e others. /he chief managed to escape by slitting a tent with his knife, and, enraged,
he raided the Butterfield station, killing one employee and taking another prisoner. $ochise then
ambushed a small wagon train and sei9ed eight =e.icans and two mericans, )e burned the
=e.icans ali(e but offered to e.change the mericans for the pache prisoners Bascom still held.
3hen Bascom refused, $ochise murdered his remaining capti(es, and Bascom retaliated by
summarily e.ecuting his hostages.
/his scenario was the way of white'!ndian war in the 3estB a crescendo of eye for eye,
usually escalating into a full'scale war. !n this case, war with the paches would consume the ne.t
:uarter century.
So"th+estern Terror
/he entire Southwest was racked by (iolence. /he outbreak of the $i(il 3ar stripped the 6.S.
rmys western outposts of E0E officers+one'third of the entire officer corps+who resigned their
commissions to fight on the side of the $onfederacy. $onfederate Lieutenant $olonel Iohn Dobert
Baylor e.ploited the 6nions weakened position to take possession of ri9ona /erritory for the
$onfederacy. Baylor was able to roll o(er the greatly diminished 6nion presence, but he didnt
count on the hostility of the $hiricahua and =imbreno paches, who terrori9ed the region. Baylor
hastily formed the ri9ona Dangers in ugust 0C70 and ordered them to ,e.terminate all hostile
!ndians.-
!n the meantime, hoping to retain #ew =e.ico, 6nion Aeneral 8dward D.S. $anby negotiated
a treaty with the #a(a4o, pledging to distribute rations to the !ndians. t &ort &auntleroy, designated
site of the distribution, a friendly series of horse races was run between #a(a4os and a regiment of
#ew =e.ico (olunteers. /he featured e(ent was a race between an army lieutenant and $hief
=anuelito ;ca. 0C0C'52<. )ea(y wagers were laid, and from the beginning, it was apparent that
=anuelito+an e.pert horseman+was not in control of his mount. fter he came in a poor second,
=anuelito protested that his bridle had been slashed, and he demanded a rematch. /he soldiers
refused, a fight broke out, and the troops began firing indiscriminately. ,/he #a(ahos, s:uaws, and
children ran in all directions and were shot and bayoneted,- according to a white ci(ilian eyewitness
who testified before $ongress. &orty !ndians were killed, and the #a(a4o retaliated. /hrough ugust
and September, the already legendary "it $arson, leading the &irst #ew =e.ico @olunteer $a(alry,
relentlessly counterattacked.
/he result, by the end of 0C7E, was total defeat of the #a(a4o, who were e.iled to a desolate
reser(ation called the Bos:ue Dedondo. 8(entually, C,111 #a(a4o 4ammed the reser(ation, under
conditions so intolerable that, after the $i(il 3ar, in an all'too'rare act of humanity, a 6.S. peace
commission granted #a(a4o pleas to be returned to their homelands.
The Breat Santee Sio"@ !assacre
3hile the Southwest erupted, storm clouds also gathered far to the north. 6nlike the #a(a4o,
the Santee Siou. of =innesota seemed willing to accept ,concentration- on a reser(ation. But as
increasing numbers of Aerman and Scandina(ian immigrants mo(ed into the region, the Santee
found themsel(es confined to a narrow strip of land along the =innesota Di(er. 3orse, pro(isions
and annuity money guaranteed them by treaty were routinely withheld. !n Iune 0C7F, Little $row
led the Santee to the Yellow =edicine !ndian gency to demand release of pro(isions and funds.
3hen these items were not forthcoming by ugust, warriors broke into the agency warehouse but
were temporarily repelled.
>esperate and hungry, the Santee appealed to a local trader, ndrew I. =yrick, on ugust %'7.
)is heartless reply+-let them eat grass-+enraged the warriors, and on ugust 0C, they ambushed
=yrick in his store, killed him, and stuffed his mouth with grass. &rom this point on, raiding
became general in and around the town of #ew 6lm. By the end of ugust, F,111 =innesotans
were refugees, and the Siou. had killed between E%1 and C11 others. Ao(ernor le.ander Damsey
telegraphed braham Lincoln, re:uesting an e.tension of a federal deadline for fulfilling his states
military draft :uota. /he president repliedB ,ttend to the !ndians. !f the draft cannot proceed of
course it will not proceed. #ecessity knows no law.-
/hrough the balance of ugust and most of September, fighting in =innesota was brutal. On
September F7, F,111 Santee hostiles surrendered to Aeneral )enry )opkins Sibley, and the
deadliest !ndian uprising in the history of the 3est was at an end. !n #o(ember, a military tribunal
sentenced E1E warriors to hang. >oubting the 4ustice of these proceedings, President Lincoln
personally re(iewed the con(ictions and reprie(ed all but E5. !n the end, EC were hanged ;another
!ndian recei(ed a last'minute reprie(e<, but administrati(e error resulted in the hanging of two
!ndians who were not on Lincolns list. s for $hief Little $row, he fled the final battle, was
refused refuge in $anada, and was ambushed and killed in =innesota on Iuly E, 0C7E, while
picking raspberries with his 07'year'old son.
,ar for the Boeman .ail
/hroughout the $i(il 3ar, warfare with the paches continued. 3ars also broke out with the
Shoshoni, Bannock, 6tes, and #orthern Paiutes+also called the Snakes+in parts of 3yoming,
#e(ada, 6tah, and !daho. 3ars erupted with the #a(a4o in the Southwest and with the combined
forces of the $heyenne and rapaho tribes in $olorado. ll of these wars ended badly for the
!ndians, although, as one official obser(ed, ,/en good soldiers are re:uired to wage successful war
against one !ndian.-
One of the few conflicts from which the !ndians emerged (ictorious broke out 4ust after the
end of the $i(il 3ar. =ilitary authorities had anticipated that the collapse of the $onfederacy would
free up many troops for ser(ice in the 3est. 3hat actually happened is that the 6nion army rushed
to demobili9e, and the army of the 3est shrunk rather than e.panded. modest force under $olonel
)enry B. $arrington was sent to protect the Bo9eman /rail, a ma4or route of western migration
through 3yoming and =ontana. /he trail was being menaced by Oglala Siou. led by Ded $loud,
who was determined to resist white in(asion of his peoples land. $arrington was not popular with
his officers, who felt that he de(oted too much time to building forts and not enough to fighting
!ndians.
One subordinate, $aptain 3illiam I. &etterman, boasted that with C1 men, he could ride
through the entire Siou. nation. On >ecember F0, 0C77, &etterman was gi(en his chance to make
good on the boast. Sent with a detachment of C1, his mission was to relie(e a wood'hauling wagon
train that was being harassed by !ndians. &etterman found himself Lip against 0,%11 to F,111
warriors led by $ra9y )orse, and his command was wiped out in what came to be called the
&etterman =assacre.
peace commission concluded a treaty with Ded $loud on pril F5, 0C7C, promising ;among
other things< to abandon the Bo9eman /rail+which ;the commissioners well knew< was about to be
rendered obsolete by the transcontinental railroad.
The &am7aigns of Hancoc) and Sheridan
Aeneral 3illiam /ecumseh Sherman, in charge of western operations, found the peace with
Ded $loud humiliating. Sherman ad(ised army Aeneral'in'$hief Arant that ,we must act with
(indicti(e earnestness against the Siou., e(en to their e.termination, men, women, and children.-
But the mood in 3ashington drifted toward conciliation, and Sherman continued to prosecute
,puniti(e campaigns- in the 3est with little support and, ultimately, to little purpose.
&rom pril through Iuly 0C7?, one of Shermans best commanders, 3infield Scott )ancock,
fruitlessly pursued the $heyenne and Siou. through "ansas. /he following year, Shermans most
able lieutenant, Aeneral Philip Sheridan, conducted a brutal winter campaign against the Siou. and
$heyenne. /his campaign pro(ed almost as punishing to the pursuers as to the pursued, all of whom
suffered in snows and bitter cold.
/he colorful colonel of the ?th $a(alry, Aeorge rmstrong $uster, laid claim to the biggest
(ictory of ,Sheridans $ampaign,- when he attacked a peaceful $heyenne camp on the 3ashita
Di(er. mong the 01E !ndians he and his men killed were 5E women, old men, and children. $hief
Black "ettle, actually a leading ad(ocate of peace, was slain along with his wife.
,ar for the Blac) Hills
/he futility and tragedy of )ancocks and Sheridans campaigns were the hallmarks of the
so'called !ndian 3ars. 3eeks and months of fruitless pursuit characteristically culminated in
wanton spasms of (iolence in which innocent (ictims perished alongside ,hostiles.- !n 0C?E, the
brief but intense =odoc 3ar broke out in $alifornia because a tiny tribe stubbornly refused to lea(e
an utterly worthless (olcanic wasteland. !n 0C?2, the Ded Di(er 3ar was launched to punish the
$omanches and $heyennes for attacking a group of white hunters at dobe 3alls, /e.as. /hen, in
0C?2, an e.pedition led by Aeorge . $uster disco(ered gold in the Black )ills, the land most
sacred to the Siou.. 3hen go(ernment attempts to persuade the !ndians to sell or lease the land
failed, they were ordered to (acate. /hey refused, and war erupted.
/he army ne(er had an easy time fighting the !ndian 3ars, but now they found themsel(es up
against an enemy e:uipped with formidable riding and warrior skills, moti(ated by religious fer(or
in defense of a sacred land, and led by the charismatic /atanka !yotake, better known as Sitting
Bull. On Iune 0?, Sitting Bull led a pounding attack against Aeneral Aeorge $rooks column at the
Dosebud $reek in southern =ontana. /his e(ent made Aeorge rmstrong $uster more determined
to pursue and destroy the ,hostiles.-
-efeat of &"ster
On the morning of Iune FF, 0C?7, to the strains of its regimental tune, ,Aarry Owen,- the ?th
$a(alry passed in re(iew before Aenerals lfred /erry and Iohn Aibbon. /hey were embarking on
what the commanders concei(ed as a final pincers campaign against the Siou.. s $olonel $uster
rode off to 4oin his men, Aibbon called after himB ,#ow, $uster, dont be greedy, but wait for us.-
$uster answered, ,#o, ! will not.-
&rustrated by long, fruitless pursuits, $uster was determined to fight it out whene(er and
where(er he could. /hat is why, on Iune F%, when his scouts disco(ered a Siou. camp and warriors
near the Little Bighorn Di(er, $uster decided not to wait until the ne.t day, when he was supposed
to rende9(ous with the others. )e decided to attack now. &irst, $uster sent $aptain &rederick
Benteen with 0F% men south, to make sure the Siou. had not mo(ed to the upper (alley of the Little
Bighorn. /hen he sent another 00F men under =a4or =arcus . Deno in pursuit of a small body of
warriors he had sighted. 3ith his remaining troops, $uster planned to charge the Siou. (illage. But
it was soon apparent that Deno and his men were being o(erwhelmed, and $uster dispatched his
bugler to recall. Benteen. $uster then charged, only to be engulfed himself by massi(e numbers of
Siou. warriors, who killed the colonel and F%1 ca(alrymen. Deno, 4oined by Benteen+E7C officers
and men total+held off a relentless siege for the ne.t two days.
;# ,ill $ight 8o !ore $ore0er<
/he Battle of the Little Bighorn was the last ma4or !ndian (ictory of the !ndian 3ars. !n
subse:uent engagements, the Siou. were defeated by the armys two most successful !ndian
fighters, Danald =acken9ie and #elson . =iles. !t was =iles who finally defeated the #e9 Perce
at the fi(e'day Battle of Bear Paw =ountain ;September E1'October %, 0C??< in =ontana, bringing
to an end an epic pursuit that had begun in Iune.
Led by $hief Ioseph the Younger, a faction of the #e9 Perce refused to lea(e their homeland
in the 3allowa @alley of Oregon. /roops under the command of Aeneral Oli(er O. )oward and
$olonel =iles pursued and battled some C11 !ndians o(er 0,?11 miles of the most inhospitable
terrain on the continent. 3hen it was o(er, Ioseph and his people had earned the respect of their
pursuers. Both )oward and =iles 4oined in Iosephs petition to the 3hite )ouse to return to the
3allowa @alley. /he petition was ne(ertheless denied+for the (alley was rich in minerals+and
Ioseph li(ed out the remainder of his long life with his people on a reser(ation near $ol(ille,
3ashington.
The Beronimo &am7aign
/he pursuit of the #e9 Perce in(ol(ed a concerted military operation focused on a small band
of fugiti(es. >own in the =e.ican border region, an entire army task force was de(oted to the
pursuit of a single !ndian. )is pache name was Aoyathlay ;one who yawns<, but he was better
known by the name the =e.icans ga(e himB Aeronimo ;0CF5'0515<. !n 0C%1, =e.ican settlers
ambushed and killed Aeronimos first wife and his children, after which Aeronimo de(oted much of
his life to ruthlessly raiding the borderlands along with his brother'in'law, Iuh, a $hiricahua chief.
!n 0C?%, 6.S. authorities branded Aeronimo a troublemaker, who opposed military plans to
,concentrate- all the paches at the desolate San $arlos reser(ation in eastern ri9ona. Aeronimo
fled with a band of followers into =e.ico but was soon arrested and returned to the reser(ation. #ot
to be contained, Aeronimo used the reser(ation as a base from which he staged raids throughout the
remainder of the decade.
!n 0CC0, authorities killed another ,troublemaker,- #akaidoklini, re(ered by the paches as a
prophet. )is death incited Aeronimo to abandon the reser(ation altogether for a secret stronghold in
the Sierra =adre =ountains, from which he terrori9ed the border region.
!n =ay 0CCF, pache scouts working for the army disco(ered Aeronimos sanctuary and
persuaded him and his followers to return to the reser(ation. )e fled again on =ay 0?, 0CC%, with
E% warriors and 015 women and children. !n Ianuary 0CC7, a small army unit, together with pache
scouts, penetrated deep into =e.ico, where they found Aeronimo, who surrendered to Aeneral
Aeorge $rook. Aeronimo escaped one more time but ultimately surrendered to #elson =iles on
September 2, 0CC7. Aeronimo and some 2%1 other paches were sent to &lorida for confinement in
&orts =arion and Pickens. !n 0C52, the paches were remo(ed to &ort Sill, !ndian /erritory
;present'day Oklahoma<, and Aeronimo became a rancher.
,o"nded *nee
!n 0CC7, when Aeronimo surrendered to Aeneral =iles, F2E,111 #ati(e mericans were
confined to 0C? reser(ations. 3ith Aeronimos last resistance e.tinguished, the !ndian 3ars were
practically at an end. Yet, if the body of defiance was dead, its spirit lingered. 3o(oka was the son
of a Paiute shaman, but he had spent part of his youth with a white ranch family, who lea(ened his
Paiute religious heritage with the teachings of their own $hristianity. By the 0CC1s, 3o(oka began
to preach to the reser(ation !ndians, foretelling a new world in which only !ndians dwelled,
generations of slain bra(es would come back to life, and the buffalo ;nearly hunted to e.tinction
during the first two'thirds of the 05th'century< would again be plentiful. /o hasten this deli(erance,
3o(oka counseled, all !ndians must dance the Ahost >ance and follow the paths of peace.
mong a people who had lost all hope, the Ahost >ance religion spread rapidly. Soon, many
western reser(ations were ali(e with what white o(erseers regarded as fren9ied dancing. Leaders
among the /eton Siou. at Pine Didge, South >akota, called for armed rebellion against the whites.
Deser(ation agent >aniel &. Doyer frantically telegraphed 3ashington, >.$., in #o(ember 0C51B
,!ndians are dancing in the snow and are wild and cra9y. 3e need protection and we need it now.-
But the arri(al of troops under #elson . =iles seemed only to enflame the !ndians. s a
precaution, !ndian reser(ation police were sent on >ecember 0%, 0C51, to arrest Sitting Bull,
domiciled at Standing Dock Deser(ation. scuffle broke out, and the most re(ered chief of the
Plains tribes was slain.
!n the meantime, another chief, Big &oot of the =inicon4ou Siou., was making his way to
Pine Didge. =iles assumed that his purpose was to bring to a boil the simmering rebellion, and he
dispatched the ?th $a(alry to intercept Big &oot and his followers. /he troops caught up with the
!ndians on >ecember FC, 0C51, at a place called 3ounded "nee $reek, on the Pine Didge
Deser(ation.
Big &oot did not, in fact, ha(e hostile intentions. On the contrary, although he was desperately
ill with pneumonia, Big &oot was tra(eling to Pine Didge to try to persuade the rebellion leaders to
surrender. #either =iles nor $olonel Iames 3. &orsyth, commander of the ?th, knew Big &oots
intention, and &orsyth :uietly surrounded Big &oots camp, deploying four )otchkiss guns ;deadly
rapid'fire howit9ers< on the surrounding hills. On the F5th, the soldiers entered the camp and began
to confiscate the !ndians weapons. hand'to'hand fight de(eloped, shots were fired+it is unclear
whether these came from the !ndians or the soldiers+and then the )otchkiss guns opened up, firing
almost a round a second at men, women, and children.
#obody knows 4ust how many died at 3ounded "nee. /he bodies of Big &oot and 0%E other
=inicon4ous were found, but it is likely that the E11 or E%1 camped beside the creek ultimately lost
their li(es, fter a brief fight with the ?th $a(alry on >ecember E1, the !ndians withdrew. /wo
weeks later, on Ianuary 0%, 0C50, the Siou. formally surrendered to 6.S. rmy officials. !t was a
miserable end to 211 years of racial warfare on the merican continent.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
&ew !ndians participated directly in the $i(il 3ar, but some did take ad(antage of a
reduced military presence in the 3est to raid and plunder.
/he !ndian 3ars in the 3est, spanning the $i(il 3ar years to 0C50, consisted mainly of
long, e.hausting pursuits and relati(ely few battles. /he strategy was to fight a ,total
war- against women, children, and old men as well as warriors, in order to force the
!ndians onto reser(ations.
.eal (ife
$hristopher )ouston $arson, better known as "it $arson, was born near Dichmond,
"entucky, on >ecember F2, 0C15, and grew up in =issouri. )e 4oined a Santa &e trading cara(an
when he was 07 and, from 0CF? to 0C2F, li(ed in the Docky =ountains as a fur trapper and
mountain man. !n 0C2F, $arson ser(ed Iohn $. &remont as a guide in Oregon and $alifornia and,
during the =e.ican 3ar, carried dispatches for him. fter the war, $arson settled in /aos, #ew
=e.ico, where he ser(ed from 0C%E to 0C70 as !ndian agent to the 6tes, earning a reputation as one
of (ery few genuinely competent, honest, and compassionate officials.
3ith the outbreak of the $i(il 3ar, $arson became colonel of the &irst #ew =e.ico
@olunteer $a(alry, where he distinguished himself in repelling the $onfederate in(asion of #ew
=e.ico and in combat against the pache and #a(a4o. lthough he became+in the popular phrase+
a legend in his own time, especially for his role as an !ndian fighter, $arson was deeply mo(ed by
the plight of the !ndians, with whom he had a strong fellow feeling. $arson died on =ay FE, 0C7C,
at &ort Lyon, $olorado.
Voice from the %ast
&ortunately, genocidal phrases rarely enter folklore, but e(erybody knows the e.pression ,/he
only good !ndian is a dead !ndian.- !t originated with Aeneral Philip Sheridan, when a $omanche
named /osawi came to him to sign a treaty after $usters ,(ictory- at 3ashita. ,/osawi, good
!ndian,- said /osawi. Sheridan repliedB The only &ood Indians I e#er sa( (ere dead< /he phrase
was subse:uently transformed through repetition.
.eal (ife
Sitting Bull ;/atanka !yotake, 0CE0'51< made an early reputation as a warrior and was re(ered
for his great bra(ery, strength, generosity, and wisdom. )is fame and influence spread far beyond
his own a Siou. tribe. 3ith chiefs $ra9y )orse and Aall, Sitting Bull led resistance against the
white in(asion of the sacred Black )ills after gold was disco(ered there in 0C?2. &ollowing the
annihilation of $uster at the Little Bighorn in 0C?7, Sitting Bull and his closest followers fled to
$anada. 6pon his return to the 6nited States in 0CC0, Sitting Bull was imprisoned for two years and
then sent to Standing Dock Deser(ation. !n 0CCE, he tra(eled as a performer with Buffalo Bill
$odys 3ild 3est Show. Buffalo Bill was perhaps the only white man Sitting Bull e(er trusted.
!n 0C51, Sitting Bull was identified with the antiwhite religious mo(ement known as the
Ahost >ance. )e was killed during a scuffle when reser(ation police ;who were !ndians< attempted
to arrest him on >ecember 0%, 0C51.
Voice from the %ast
Ioseph surrendered to #elson . =iles with words that ha(e come to symboli9e the poignant
dignity with which #ati(e mericans ultimately bowed to the ine(itableB
,! am tired of fighting. Our chiefs are killed. Looking Alass Qa war chiefR is dead.
/oohoolhool9ote is dead. /he old men are all dead. !t is the young men who say yes or
no. )e who led on the young men QIosephs brother, OllikutR is dead. !t is cold and we
ha(e no blankets. /he little children are free9ing to death. =y people, some of them,
ha(e run away to the hills, and ha(e no blankets, no foodG no one knows where they are+
perhaps free9ing to death. ! want to ha(e time to look for my children and see how many
of them ! can find. =aybe ! shall find them among the dead. )ear me, my chiefsN ! am
tiredG my heart is sick and sad. &rom where the sun now stands ! will fight no more
fore(er.-
From 4anic to .mpire
(%1-0#%001'
In This Chapter
Western a&riculture and the day of the co(boy
The trium!h of ca!italism and the rise of !hilanthro!y
Technolo&ical re#olution
/he phrase 3ild 3est has become so worn with use that its hard to say the second word
without adding the first to it. /he spirit that marked the 3est per(aded national life during the years
following the $i(il 3ar. !f the 3est had its cowboys and its outlaws, so did the world of big
business and power politics in such cities as #ew York and 3ashington. &ortunes were made and
lost, it seemed, o(ernight. wealth of new in(entions suddenly materiali9ed, accelerating merican
life to a pace many found increasingly fren9ied. nd if tycoons and in(entors were pulling the
strings, working men and women were often the ones being 4erked around.
?m7ire of &o+s
!t the 3est e:ualed space, the e:uation came out differently for different people. /o the
homesteader, space meant a place to li(e. /o the cattleman, space meant grass and water to fuel the
beef herds that made his fortune.
Before the =e.ican 3ar, e(en /e.as ranches were relati(ely modest in si9e, but the war
brought a tremendous demand for beef to feed the 6.S. rmy. fter the cattle industry geared up for
this need, it ne(er pulled back. /e.ans started to dri(e cattle beyond the confines of the ranch,
pushing herds northward to fatten on the grass of public lands before being shipped east. /his
period was the start of the range cattle industry, which the $i(il 3ar threatened to bring to an
untimely end. 6nion blockades kept /e.ans from shipping their bee(es to market, and the cattle
were left to run wild on the /e.as plains, the ranchers and ranch hands ha(ing gone off to fight the
war. 3hen the sons of /e.as returned after ppomatto., the only (isible assets left to many of them
were some fi(e million free'ranging animals. 8.'$onfederate soldier boys now set up as cowboys,
rounding up and branding as many cattle as they could, then ,trailing- the herds to gra9ing lands,
marketplaces, and railheads.
American &o+boy
/he range cattle industry didnt 4ust make beefG it also created the single most belo(ed,
celebrated, talked about, and sung about worker in merican history. !f generations of little boys
and girls across the tlantic grow up on tales of knights in shining armor, merican children ha(e
long been raised on tales, songs, and images of the noble riders of the range. $owboys embody a
(ery powerful+(ery merican+myth of freedom and self'sufficiency. But from the cold, hard
perspecti(e of economic reality, cowboys were the poorest of the poor. >irty, dangerous, lonely, and
poorly paid, cowboy was a 4ob for desperate menB down'and'out e.'$onfederates who had lost all
they ownedG liberated black sla(es who, suddenly masterless, found themsel(es at loose endsG
!ndians, struggling at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladderG and =e.icans, sharing that bottom
rung.
On the ranch, the cowboys principal 4ob was to ride o(er an assigned stretch of range and
tend the cattle, doing whate(er needed to be done. /he most demanding labor was the trail dri(e, in
which cowboys mo(ed a herd of cattle+perhaps as small as %11 head or as large as 0%,111+to
northern ranges for maturing or to market at railhead cattle towns like bilene, 8llsworth, and
>odge $ity, "ansasG Pueblo and >en(er, $oloradoG and $heyenne, 3yoming. >istances were often
in e.cess of 0,111 miles o(er four principal cattle trails. )a9ards of the trails were almost as
numerous as the herds themsel(esB storms, floods, drought, stampede, rustlers, hostile !ndians. Pay
was about P011 for three or four months work.
(a+ and -isorder
!t was not unusual for a cowboy to blow his whole P011 stake during a few nights in the cattle
town that lay at the end of the trail. /he towns ser(ed as points of transfer from the trail to the rails.
)ere beef brokers shook hands on deals, and the cattle were loaded into rail cars bound for the cities
of the 8ast. &or the cowboy, a stay in town meant a bath, a sha(e, a woman ;E11 prostitutes plied
their trade in the small town of 3ichita<, and plenty to drink ;in many towns, saloons outnumbered
other buildings two to one<. Such towns were also home to professional gamblers who were ready,
willing, and able to part a cowboy from his cash. Like the mining camps of $alifornia in the the
cattle towns of the latter part of the century were rowdy, (iolent places. Aunfights became
commonplace+though, alas, neither so fre:uent nor so (iolent as they are on the streets of many
merican cities today.
>esse, Billy, and the .est
rising from the welter of casually (iolent men in the 3est were more than a handful of
determined and deliberate criminals. few ha(e entered into merican legend. Iesse Iames was
born in $lay $ounty, =issouri, on September %, 0C2?, and, with his older brother &rank ;born
0.C2E<, was caught up in the brutality of the $i(il 3ar in =issouri. /he brothers 4oined the fierce
$onfederate guerrilla band of 3illiam *uantrill and his lieutenant, ,Bloody Bill- nderson. !n the
guise of carrying out military operations, these guerrillas were no better than (icious gangsters, and
their units became the schools of a generation of accomplished criminals. $ole Younger and rch
$lement, who would become principal members of the Iames Aang after the war, were also
*uantrill'nderson alumni.
/he gang robbed its first bank in &ebruary 0C77 and continued to prey upon banks,
stagecoaches, and trains until 0C?7. t that time, determined citi9ens ambushed and decimated the
gang during a robbery attempt in #orthfield, =innesota. /he Iames brothers escaped and formed a
new gang, which included one Dobert &ord. On pril E, 0CCF, eager to claim a bundle of reward
money, &ord shot and killed Iesse, who was li(ing in St. Ioseph, =issouri, under the alias of
/homas )oward. &ords deed was greeted as anything but a public ser(ice. lthough they were
clearly cold'blooded armed robbers, the ,Iames boys- had ac:uired a popular reputation as
latter'day Dobin )oods. People now sang of the ,dirty little coward who shot =r. )oward and laid
poor Iesse in his gra(e.- &rank Iames later surrendered, was twice tried and twice ac:uitted by
friendly 4uriesG he died of natural causes in 050%.
$ontemporary legend, dime no(els, and later, mo(ies and tele(ision transformed another
outlaw into a latter'day Dobin )ood. Billy the "id was born )enry =c$arty in 0C%5 ;either in
=arion $ounty, !ndiana, or possibly #ew York $ity<. Daised in "ansas, the "id was orphaned early
and embarked on a life of petty crime that escalated to murder when, aged 0?, he killed a man in a
saloon brawl. year later, in 0C?C, the "id became embroiled in the so'called Lincoln $ounty 3ar,
a #ew =e.ico range war between one set of cattlemen and another. >uring the conflict, on pril 0,
0C?C, he ambushed and murdered the Lincoln $ounty sheriff and his deputy. s a fugiti(e, Billy the
"id supported himself with robbery, all the while pursued by the new sheriff, Pat Aarrett, to whom
he finally surrendered in >ecember 0CC1. &our months later, the "id escaped the noose by killing
his two 4ailors and taking flight. 3hen the "id stopped at &ort Sumner, #ew =e.ico ;some say it
was to see his sweetheart<, Aarrett again caught up with him and, this time, gunned him down.
&ornering the !ar)et
Iesse Iames, Billy the "id, and a host of lesser figures were un:uestionably criminals. But
who were their (ictimsO s many mericans saw it at the time, Iesse, Billy, and the rest did notB
(ictimi9e innocent citi9ens but attacked big banks, big railroads, big money+the (ery forces that
were daily robbing the ,common man.- !f you wanted to talk about (ictims, well, the real (ictims
were those who werent lucky enough to ha(e been born a Aould or a Dockefeller. !n the popular
logic of the day, capitalists such as these were the robber barons, whereas the western outlaws were
the Dobin )oods.
nd what about go(ernmentO !n the popular (iew, lawmakers and police were counted on to
go with the money, making and enforcing laws to ser(e the Aoulds, the Dockefellers, and their kind.
People who li(ed during the years following the $i(il 3ar took to calling their era the Ailded ge+
glittering with showy wealth but corrupt to the core. /he railroads boomed, transporting the raw
ores of the 3est to the industrial machines of the 8ast. 3ith hundreds of thousands of discharged
(eterans flooding the 4ob market, labor was dirt cheap, and the go(ernment was+well+pliant.
ndrew Iohnson, ha(ing narrowly escaped remo(al from office, was succeeded in the 3hite )ouse
by 6lysses Simpson Arant in 0C75. Arant had pro(en to be one of the nations greatest generals, but
in two terms as president, he presided o(er the most thoroughly corrupt administration in merican
history. )e was personally abo(e reproach, but, nai(ely, he surrounded himself with scoundrels who
administrated, legislated, and operated hand in hand with the interests of big business+and ;in the
infamous phrase of railroad magnate 3illiam ). @anderbilt< ,/he public be damnedN-
Bo"ld and Bold
Iay Aould was born in Do.bury, #ew York, on =ay F?, 0CE7, the son of a poor farmer. By
F0, Aould had sa(ed up P%,111, which he in(ested in the leather business and railroad stocks.
3ithin a decade, Aould was a director of the 8rie Dailroad and, by means of illegal stock and
bribery, clawed his way to a controlling interest in a number of railroads. 3ith fellow tycoon Iames
&isk ;0CE2'?F<, Aould hatched a scheme to corner the 6.S. gold market. )e persuaded President
Arant to suspend go(ernment gold sales, thereby dri(ing up the price of gold+which Aould and &isk
held in great :uantity. Dousing momentarily from nai(e stupor, Arant reali9ed what was going on
and ordered the /reasury to release P2 million of its own gold to checkmate Aould. /he result was
Black &riday, September F2, 0C75, which precipitated a ma4or financial panic followed by se(ere
economic depression as the inflated price of gold tumbled.
=any of the nations railroads, already reeling from cutthroat competition, now tottered on the
(erge of bankruptcy. Iohn Pierpont =organ ;0CE?'050E<, who had multiplied his familys already
mighty fortune by loaning money to &rance during the &ranco'Prussian 3ar of 0.C?0, now rushed in
to pick up the pieces. By 0511, =organ had ac:uired half the rail trackage in the nation. =ost of the
rest of the railroads were owned by =organs friends, and together, they fi.ed freight prices at
e.orbitant le(els. /here was little shippers could do but pay.
.oc)efeller and :il
/he years immediately following the $i(il 3ar ran on rails and were fueled by gold. People
who controlled either or both interests dro(e the nation, regardless of who was in the 3hite )ouse,
the $ongress, or the courts.
/here was gold, and then there was black gold. !n 0C%5, oil was struck in western
Pennsyl(ania. /his e(ent ga(e a thin'lipped, ascetic'looking young Ohioan an idea. Iohn >a(ison
Dockefeller ;0CE5'05E?< decided that oil would become a big business and that his hometown of
$le(eland was ideally situated to refine and distribute it to the nation.
Dockefeller built a refinery there in 0C7F, then put together the Standard Oil /rust, an
amalgam of companies by which he came to control all phases of the oil industry, from e.traction,
through refining, through distribution. Standard Oil was the first of many almighty trusts formed in
(arious industries during the post'$i(il 3ar period.
The Bos7el of ,ealth
/he Ailded ge was an epoch of naked greed. /hose few capitalists who bothered to defend
their moti(es turned to the science of the day. !n 0C%5, the great British naturalist $harles >arwin
;0C15'CF< published On the Origin of Species by =eans of #atural Selection. /his book set forth
the theory of e(olution, arguing that in nature, only the fittest+the strongest, the most cunning, the
ablest+creatures ultimately sur(i(e to reproduce their kind. $apitalists translated nature into
economics, arguing that the state should not interfere in economic life because people at the top of
the socioeconomic heap were there because they were the fittest, ha(ing sur(i(ed the battles of the
marketplace. /his concept was Social >arwinism.
Yet the era was not entirely heedless or heartless. ndrew $arnegie ;0CE%'0505< came to the
6nited States with his impo(erished family from Scotland in 0C2C. s a youth, $arnegie worked in
a cotton factory, then in a telegraph office, and finally for the Pennsyl(ania Dailroad, rising :uickly
through the e.ecuti(e ranks until he became head of the western di(ision in 0C%5. $arnegie
resigned from the railroad in 0C7% to form the "eystone Bridge $ompany, the first in a series of
iron and steel concerns he owned. )e consolidated his holdings in 0C55 as the $arnegie Steel
$ompany, then sold it to I.P. =organs 6nited States Steel $ompany in 0510 for P25F
million'roughly the e:ui(alent of fi(e billion of todays dollars. ;nd income ta. didnt e.ist in
0510N<
$arnegie was as ruthless as any of his fellow robber barons, wielding his steel company like a
club, knocking out all competition and ;for a time< knocking out the merican industrial union
mo(ement as well. But in 0CC5, $arnegie deli(ered a speech titled ,/he Aospel of 3ealth,- in
which he reeled out the Social >arwinist line that wealth was essential for ci(ili9ation and that the
natural law of competition dictated that only a few would achie(e wealth. Yet $arnegie added a
uni:ue twist. /he rich, he proclaimed, had a responsibility to use their money for the clear benefit of
society.
&rom 0510 until his death, $arnegie dedicated himself to philanthropy, donating more than
PE%1 million to a wide spectrum of causes. )e founded more than F,%11 public libraries throughout
the 6nited StatesG he established the $arnegie !nstitute of Pittsburgh, the $arnegie !nstitution at
3ashington, the $arnegie &oundation for the d(ancement of /eaching, the $arnegie 8ndowment
for !nternational Peace, and the $arnegie $orporation of #ew York. /he truly remarkable thing is
that many other robber barons took the Aospel of 3ealth to heart. Dail magnate Leland Stanford
founded and endowed Stanford 6ni(ersity. Dockefeller endowed the 6ni(ersity of $hicago, created
the Dockefeller !nstitute of =edical Desearch, established the Dockefeller &oundation, and bought
(ast tracts of land that became national parks. =any other wealthy indi(iduals did similar deeds and
continue to do so today.
An Age of #n0ention
!f, blooming among the uncut weeds of wild greed, the Aospel of 3ealth seemed miraculous,
so did the incredible series of in(entions that burst forth during what otherwise might ha(e been a
dull, hard ge of the =achine. mericans of the post'$i(il 3ar era were e.traordinarily industrious
and in(enti(e.
;!rL ,atson, &ome HereH<
le.ander Araham Bell was born in 0C2? in Scotland and grew up in 8ngland. )is
grandfather and father earned famed as teachers of the deaf, and le.ander likewise followed this
career, continuing in it after the family immigrated to $anada in 0C?1. !n 0C?F, le.ander Araham
Bell became a professor of (ocal physiology at Boston 6ni(ersity. )is profound interest in the
nature of speech and sound was combined with a knack for things mechanical, and he began
working on a de(ice to record sound wa(es graphically in order to show his deaf students what they
could not hear. Simultaneously, Bell was also trying to de(elop what he called the harmonic
telegraph, a de(ice capable of transmitting multiple telegraph messages simultaneously o(er a
single line.
bout 0C?2, the two in(entions suddenly merged in his mind. Bell wrote in his notebook that
if he could ,make a current of electricity (ary in intensity precisely as the air (aries in density
during the production of sound,- he could ,transmit speech telegraphically.-
/he insight was staggeringB $on(ert one form of intelligible energy ;sound< into another
;modulated electric current<. 3ith his tireless assistant, /homas 3atson, Bell worked on the de(ice
for the ne.t two frustrating years. One day, in 0C?7, while 3atson maintained what he thought
would be another fruitless (igil by the recei(er unit in the ne.t room, Bell made ad4ustments to the
transmitter. !n the process, Bell upset a container of battery acid, which spilled on his lap. Burned
by the acid, he inad(ertently made the worlds first phone call+a call for helpB ,=r. 3atson, come
here, ! want you.- /he telephone caught on :uickly, and the Bell /elephone $ompany, founded by
le.anders father'in'law, Aardner A. )ubbard, became a utility of (ast proportions and
incalculable importance.
(et There Be (ight
Bell was a teacher of the deaf who taught the world to hear o(er unlimited distances. /homas
l(a 8dison, almost totally deaf because of a childhood accident, helped the world to, see. Born in
=ilan, Ohio, in 0C2?, 8dison had little education and less money when he started selling candy and
newspapers on trains of the Arand /runk Dailroad. 3hat 8dison did ha(e was a passion for
tinkering and a fascination with an in(isible force called electricity. )is first commercially
successful in(ention was an electric stock ticker, which deli(ered stock :uotations almost
instantaneously and which I.P. =organ eagerly snatched up. 8dison plowed his profits into creating
a state'of'the'art laboratoryTworkshop first in #ewark, then in =enlo Park, #ew Iersey. By the end
of his long creati(e life, 8dison had some E,111 patents to his name, co(ering more than 0,111
separate in(entions.
8disons greatest single in(ention was undoubtedly the incandescent electric lamp, which he
publicly demonstrated on >ecember E0, 0C?5, after many tortured months of trial and error. By
0CC0, 8dison had built the worlds first central generating plant, on Pearl Street in lower =anhattan.
3ithin a (ery short time, electricity became a fi.ture not only of merican life, but of life
throughout the world. /he incandescent lamp spawned many industries dedicated to producing an
array of electrical de(ices. !t is hardly necessary to point out how much our ci(ili9ation now
depends on what 8dison began, but it is significant that, after he died on October 0C, 05E0, plans to
dim the lights of the nation for a full minute as a memorial gesture had to be scrapped. 8lectric
lighting was 4ust too important.
.ecorded So"nd, .ecorded (ight
lthough the incandescent lamp was 8disons single greatest in(ention, it was not his
fa(orite. /wo years before he demonstrated his lamp, he designed a de(ice intended to raise some
:uick cash for his still'fledgling laboratory. 8dison drew a crude sketch of the de(ice he wanted
built and then turned it o(er to an assistant, Iohn "ruesi, to build. /he man dutifully followed his
employers instructions, without any idea of what the de(ice was supposed to do. groo(ed metal
cylinder was turned by a hand crankG a sheet of tinfoil was stretched o(er the cylinderG the point of a
stylus rested against the tinfoil, and the other end of the stylus was affi.ed to a fle.ible diaphragm.
"ruesi presented the finished model to 8dison, who took it, turned the crank, and spoke into the
diaphragm. /he stylus, mo(ing with the (ibration of his (oice, embossed the tinfoil. /hen 8dison
stopped cranking and speaking, reapplied the stylus to the cylinder, and turned the crank. &rom the
diaphragm, the machine recited ,=ary )ad a Little Lamb.- /homas 8dison had in(ented the
phonograph.
fter recording sound and producing light, the 3i9ard of =enlo Park ;as the press soon
dubbed the in(entor< recorded light. 8dison became interested in motion photography after he
attended a lecture by 8adweard =uybridge ;0CE1'0512< on his e.periments with recording motion
on film using multiple cameras. !n 0CCF, a &rench scientist, 8.I. =arey, in(ented a means of
shooting multiple images with a single camera, and 8dison patented his own motion picture camera
in 0CC?. 8dison then worked with 3illiam "ennedy Laurie >ickson to create a practical means of
recording the images, using fle.ible celluloid film, created by Aeorge 8astman ;0C%2'05EF<.
;8astmans "odak bo. camera would bring photography to the masses in 0CCC.< By the 0C51s,
>ickson had shot many 0%'second mo(ies using 8astmans film in 8disons "inetograph camera.
Bridge and S)yscra7er, *itty Ha+) and -etroit
/he end of the $i(il 3ar brought many monuments+statues, arches, and tombs+but more
significant than these were the monuments to merican ci(ili9ation itself. !n 0C%?, a Aerman
immigrant named Iohn ugustus Doebling ;0C17'75<, a master bridge builder who had constructed
suspension bridges o(er the =onongahela Di(er and at #iagara &alls, proposed a spectacular span
o(er the 8ast Di(er to unite =anhattan and Brooklyn. Doebling completed his plans in 0C75 but
suffered a se(ere leg in4ury at the construction site and died of tetanus. )is son, 3ashington
ugustus Doebling ;0CE?'05F7<, took o(er the epic task+which (ery nearly killed him as wellG he
spent too much time in an underwater caisson, super(ising construction of the bridge towers. s a
result, Doebling de(eloped a permanently crippling, e.cruciatingly painful case of the bends caused
by nitrogen bubbles in the blood. /he bridge, finally completed in 0CCE, was and remains a
magnificent combination of timeless architecture and cutting'edge 05th'century technology.
!f the Doeblings masterpiece brought to its grandest e.pression the union of 05th'century art
and science, the merican skyscraper looked forward to the ne.t century. 3illiam LeBaron Iennys
)ome !nsurance $ompany Building in $hicago ;0CCE'C%< is generally considered the first
skyscraper, but it was Louis Sulli(an ;0C%7'05F2<, one of the nations greatest architects, who
became the most important master of the new building form. 3ith his partner >ankmar dler,
Sulli(an based his practice in $hicago, a city he helped to raise, phoeni.'like, from the disastrous
fire of 0C?0. /hanks to Sulli(an and those who followed him, merican cities became (ertical,
aspiring dramatically hea(enward, bristling with the spires of new cathedrals founded not on
religious faith, but on the wealth and raw energy of the age.
/he (ery name skyscraper seemed to proclaim that nothing could contain the spirit of a nation
that, like $hicago, had been reborn from the ashes. !n 051E, the sons of =ilton 3right, bishop of
the 6nited Brethren in $hrist $hurch in >ayton, Ohio, transported to a beach at "itty )awk, #orth
$arolina, a spindly, gossamer machine that resembled an o(ersi9ed bo. kite. 3hile his brother
3ilbur ;0C7?'050F< obser(ed, Or(ille 3right ;0C?0'052C< made historys first piloted, powered,
sustained, and controlled flight in a hea(ier'than'air craft on >ecember 0?. Or(ille flew a distance
of 0F1 feet o(er a span of 0F seconds. 3ithin two years, the 3right brothers achie(ed a flight of EC
minutes o(er F2 miles and, by 0515, were manufacturing and selling their airplanes.
Of course, in 0515, flight was still out of the reach of most ,ordinary- people. But the year
before, a farm boy from >earborn, =ichigan, ga(e the masses wings of a different sort. /rue, )enry
&ord ;0C7E'052?< did not actually lift purchasers of his =odel / off the ground, but he did gi(e
them unprecedented physical freedom.
&ord did not in(ent the automobile+a gasoline'fueled automobile first appeared in Aermany,
and commercial production began in &rance about 0C51+but he did make it practical and affordable.
!n 051C, he designed the simple, sturdy =odel / and began to de(elop assembly line techni:ues to
build it. /he price of the car plummeted, and demand increasedG with increased demand, &ord
further perfected his assembly line, turning out more and more cars at lower and lower prices.
/he =odel /, a landmark achie(ement in mass production, transformed the way mericans
li(ed. /he car created a mobile society and it created a skyrocketing demand for mass'produced
consumer goods of all kinds. /he =odel / also changed the merican landscape, (eining it with a
network of roads. 3here the nation had been sharply di(ided into city and farm, suburbs now
sprouted. 8(en more than the transcontinental railroad had done in 0C75, the automobile unified the
6nited States, connecting city to city, (illage to (illage. Yet, for all this, there was a cost well
beyond the PE71 price tag of a 0507 =odel /. !t often seemed as if the automobile was an in(ader
rather than a liberator. 3orse, merican labor lost a certain degree of humanity, compelled now to
take its pace from the relentless rhythms of the assembly line. /he gulf between management and
labor, always wide, broadened into a bitter chasm, and if the moneyed classes welcomed the
technological re(olution, they now had reason to fear a political one.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he kind of raw energy that animated the ,3ild 3est- seemed to dri(e the rest of the
country as well during the latter half of the 05th century.
fter the $i(il 3ar, big business grew largely unchecked, e(en at the e.pense of the
public welfare, creating a roller'coaster boom'and'bust economy.
Big business generated in(estment in inno(ation, and the post'$i(il 3ar period was an
era of great in(entions.
,ord for the -ay
/he cowboys ancestors are the #a+ueros ;from the Spanish (aca, ,cow-<, originally !ndians
attached to the old Spanish missions and employed by them to handle their beef herds. /he
cowboys roped steers with a loop of braided rawhide rope known as la reata +a lariat. /hey wore
chaparreras, leather trousers designed to protect their legs from brush and chaparralG later, merican
cowboys wore chaps. /he word #a+uero found its merican counterpart in a synonym for cowboy.
Stats
&or all their notoriety, neither Iesse Iames nor Billy the "id holds any 3ild 3est record for
gunfighting. !n terms of number of men slain, Billy the "id comes in at 01th place ;2 murders<,
behind Iim =iller ;0F<, 3es )ardin ;00<, Bill Longley ;00<, )ar(ey Logan ;5<, 3ild Bill )ickok
;?<, Iohn Selman ;7<, >allas Stoudenmire ;%<, $ullen Baker ;%<, and "ing &isher ;%<. Iesse Iames
doesnt e(en come close to the top 01. !n nine gunfights, only one killing is confirmed, though
Iames may ha(e assisted in the slaying of three more.
!ain ?0ent
Strangely enough, the usually canny 8dison saw little future motion pictures. )e e(en decided
against pro4ecting the films for audiences, because he didnt think there would be much demand.
!nstead, 8dison de(eloped an electrically dri(en peephole (iewing machine'the "inetoscope+which
displayed mo(ing images to one (iewer at a time for the price of a nickel. #ot until 051E did the
8dison $ompany began to e.ploit pro4ected motion pictures. !n this year, 8dwin S. Porter, an
8dison employee, directed ,/he Areat /rain Dobbery,- generally considered the first mo(ie+the
filming of a genuine story, complete with beginning, middle, and end. !f the origins of the merican
film industry can be traced to any single e(ent, it is the creation of ,/he Areat /rain Dobbery.-
Stats
!n 051C, &ord manufactured 01,71? cars retailing for PC%1 each. !n 0507, he turned out
?E1,120 =odel / cars at PE71 each.
,ctopus and @un/le
(%1))#%00-'
In This Chapter
Immi&ration and o!!osition to immi&ration
/lahoma land rush
Labor or&anization to fi&ht o!!ression
$orru!tion and reform
,)istory,- said the 8nglish writer /homas $arlyle, ,is the biographies of great men.- &or a
long time, most historians thought of their craft in this way. /hus the tale of the last :uarter of the
05th century might be told e.clusi(ely through the li(es of $arnegie, Aould, Dockefeller, &ord, and
the rest. )owe(er, more recent historians ha(e come to reali9e that these biographies relate only
part of the story. )istory is also an account of ordinary people, the working men and women whose
li(es were influenced, e(en shaped, by the actions of politicians, robber barons, and ;to use another
phrase of $arlyle< the ,captains of industry.- 3hile the moneyed elite fought one another for
control of more and more capital, the nations working people were tossed on the brutal seas of an
economic tempest. &ortunes were being made and great in(entions created, but for plain folk, the
waning century presented plenty of hard times.
The Bolden -oor
merica is a nation of immigrants. >uring the 0?th century, colonial entrepreneurs acti(ely
recruited new settlers. =ost of the early immigrants spoke 8nglish, but by the 0Cth century, wa(es
of Aerman immigrants arri(ed as well, causing alarm and resentment among the 8nglish'speakers,
especially those who had been born on these shores. Yet, gradually, the Aerman immigrants and
those of the nglo'merican mainstream came to terms.
/he ne.t great wa(e of immigration began in 0C20, when !reland suffered a great potato
famine, which caused untold hardship and e(en star(ation. =illions left the country, most of them
bound for the 6nited States. /he influ. of !rish'$atholics into what was principally an
nglo'Protestant nation prompted many to worry that ,their- merican culture would crumble. /he
!rish immigrants were sub4ected to abuse and pre4udice, some of it e(en backed by local legislation.
Beginning around 0CC1, the clamoring demands of merican industry began to drown out the
anti'immigrant chorus. !mmigrant labor was cheap labor, and employers looked for unskilled and
semiskilled workers to feed newly emerging assembly lines and do the hea(y lifting re:uired to
build bridges and raise skyscrapers. merican employers called not only on the Aerman states and
!reland, but also on southern and eastern 8urope, encouraging the immigration of !talians, Areeks,
/urks, Dussians, and Sla(s. &or the first time, substantial numbers of Iews came to the 6nited
States, adding a new element to the nations blend of ethnic identities and religious faiths.
3hile the cities of the 8ast and the =idwest tended to assimilate the new immigrants readily,
resistance to immigration remained strong in the 3est and Southwest. #ot that employers in these
regions scrupled against hiring foreignersG they 4ust didnt want the workers to en4oy citi9enship.
sians, pri9ed as hard workers, were barred from attaining 6.S. citi9enship by naturali9ation laws.
!n the Southwest, migrant labor from =e.ico pro(ided a scandalously cheap source of temporary
farm workers. By 0CCF, pre4udice against sians resulted in passage of the first of a series of
$hinese 8.clusion cts, which blocked the importation of $hinese laborers. )owe(er, authorities
winked at the continued influ. of =e.ican migrants, some of whom came lawfully and others not.
By the second decade of the F1th century, most mericans were eager to close the golden
door. !n 050?, would'be immigrants were re:uired to pass a literacy test, and in 05F2, $ongress set
a strict limit on immigration+0%2,111 persons annually. $ongress also established :uotas aimed at
reducing immigration from southern and eastern 8uropean countries.
Ho+ the :ther Half (i0ed
t the end of the 05th century, most large merican cities were deeply di(ided places.
8stablished citi9ens li(ed in (arying degrees of prosperity, decently clothed, fed, and housed, while
many of the newer arri(als languished in o(ercrowded, dilapidated, and ultimately crime'plagued
slums. /he middle'class reaction to this ,other half- of merica was to ignore it+at least until Iacob
ugust Diis ;0C25'0502<, a #ew York 4ournalist, published an eye'opening study in te.t and
photographs of his citys slum life. )ow the Other )alf Li(es ;0C51<, /heodore Doose(elt declared,
came as ,an enlightenment and an inspiration.- /he book heralded reform mo(ements not only in
#ew York, but across the nation.
(and ."sh
!f, to easterners, the 6nited States seemed to be turning into a nation of crowded cities with
teeming slums, the dream of wide'open western spaces had by no means died. t noon on pril FF,
0CC5, go(ernment officials fired signal guns, sending hundreds of homesteaders racing across the
border of !ndian /erritory to stake claims. !t was the greatest mass settlement of the 3est since the
)omestead ct of 0C7F, and the e(ent kindled or rekindled the merican dream not only in those
who rushed to new lands, but in other mericans who e.perienced the e.citement (icariously.
/he kindling of one dream meant that another was e.tinguished. /he go(ernment rescinded
its agreements to protect and preser(e !ndian /erritory for the #ati(e mericans who were forcibly
remo(ed to it by the !ndian Demo(al ct of 0CE1 and subse:uent legislation. /he great land rush
led to statehood for !ndian /erritory, which became Oklahoma on #o(ember 07, 051?, and tribal
lands were drastically reduced in the process.
*nights of (abor
/he !ndians, (ictimi9ed by 6.S. land policy, could do little but appeal ;mostly in (ain< to the
merican conscience, /he laboring man, (ictimi9ed by big business operating in the absence of
go(ernment regulation, began to fight back by organi9ing unions. /he "nights of Labor was
founded in 0C?C as a national union of skilled as well as unskilled workers. /he "nights agitated for
the uni(ersal adoption of the eight'hour day, and targeting the railroads ;the ,octopus,- as no(elist
&rank #orris had called them<, the union struck against se(eral lines in 0C??. /he strike brought rail
traffic to a halt and won certain concessions. )owe(er, in 0CC7, after a general strike failed in
$hicago and the )aymarket Diot ensued, the "nights of Labor also dissol(ed.
The Breat Stri)es
3hile the courts generally eased restrictions on labor strikes during the 05th century,
legislators did not act to protect strikers. s a result, (iolence between employers and unions was
fre:uent. !n 0C5F, workers struck the $arnegie Steel $ompany plant in )omestead, Pennsyl(ania,
after company manager )enry $lay &rick imposed a wage cut. On Iune F5, &rick hired some E11
Pinkerton detecti(es to run the plant, and on Iuly 7, an armed confrontation occurred, resulting in
se(eral deaths. /he state militia was called in to protect nonunion laborers, who worked the mills
from Iuly 0F to #o(ember F1, at which point the strike collapsed.
s a result of the )omestead Strike, the nations union mo(ement suffered a se(ere setback,
which was compounded two years later during the Pullman Strike of 0C52. /his (iolent
confrontation between railroad workers and the Pullman Palace $ar $ompany of !llinois tied up rail
traffic across the 6nited States from =ay to Iuly. 3orkers, who li(ed in the company'owned town
of Pullman ;today a part of $hicagos south side< were protesting wage cuts that had been made
without corresponding reductions in company'le(ied rents and other employee charges. Laborers
belonging to the merican Dailway 6nion protested+and were summarily fired. Dailway union
head 8ugene @. >ebs ;0C%%'05F7< called a boycott of all Pullman cars, an action to which Pullman
lawyers responded by using the newly enacted Sherman anti'trust legislation against the strikers. On
Iuly F, a court in4unction was issued to halt the strike. &ederal troops were dispatched to enforce the
in4unction, and a riot broke out, during which se(eral strikers were killed. /he strike was crushed by
Iuly 01.
A$(
lthough the labor mo(ement would not fully reco(er from these early blows until the 05E1s
an enduring union did emerge in 0CC7. /he merican &ederation of Labor was led by a former cigar
maker named Samuel Aompers ;0C%1'05F2<. 3hat set this union apart from the "nights of Labor
was that it did not attempt to lump together all trades, skilled and unskilled. Decogni9ing that
working people had certain common interests, but also had differing needs, the &L e.isted as a
coordinating group for separate trades. /he union, which agitated for an eight'hour day, workmens
compensation, controls on immigrant labor, and protection from ,technological unemployment-
created by automation, e.ists today as the &L'$!O.
# ,on/t ,or)
lthough reasonably successful, the &L did little to address the needs of unskilled labor. So
in 051%, the !ndustrial 3orkers of the 3orld ;!33< was formed by the 3estern &ederation of
=iners and a number of other labor organi9ations. 8ugene >ebs was an early force in this, the most
radical of merican labor unions, but leadership soon passed to 3illiam ,Big Bill- )aywood
;0C75'05FC<. /he ,3obblies,- as !33 members were disparagingly called, (owed permanent class
warfare against employers and looked forward to nothing less than a re(olution, which would
replace capitalism with an ,industrial democracy.- /he 3obblies many opponents simply swore
that !33 stood for ,! 3ont 3ork.-
T+eed of Tammany
3here unions fell short of looking after the needs, wishes, and demands of the masses,
merican city go(ernments spawned ,bosses- who operated ,political machines.- /he big'city boss
was characteristically a demagogue, who presented himself as a common man looking out for the
interests of the common man. !n reality, bosses were corrupt politicians, enriching themsel(es and
their cronies at the e.pense of their constituents.
/ypical of the big'city bosses was 3illiam =arcy /weed ;0CFE'?C< of #ew York, who
worked his way up through the citys political machine ;known as /ammany )all, after the name of
a powerful >emocratic club<. /weed e(entually came to dominate municipal and then state politics.
!n 0C70, /weed had scarcely a dollar to his nameG by 0C?0, he had amassed a fortune in e.cess of
PF.% million+all built on influence peddling and kickbacks from the sale of city contracts and
franchises. /weed gathered about himself a band of cronies, called the /weed Ding, who
collecti(ely siphoned off anywhere from P21 million to PF11 million in public funds. /weed was
con(icted of fraud in 0C?E, but he fled to Spain. >uring his heyday, he had been ruthlessly
caricatured by the great political cartoonist /homas #ast ;0C21'051F<, and in 0C?7, /weed was
recogni9ed through a #ast cartoon. s a result, /weed was arrested and returned to #ew York,
where he died after ser(ing two years in prison.
6rban .eform
/he flight and subse:uent imprisonment of Boss /weed did not bring down /ammany )allG
/homas $roker and ,)onest Iohn- "elly soon took /weeds place. #or was #ew York uni:ue in
being run by a machine and a boss. >uring the later 05th century, Pittsburgh had its $hris =agee
and Bill &inn, Philadelphia its ,"ing Iim- =c=ahon, Boston its ,$9ar- =artin Lomansey, and St.
Louis its ,$olonel- 8d Butler.
/he ge of the =achine soon ga(e rise to an ge of Deform in response to it. /he Shame of
the $ities, written in 0512 by freelance 4ournalist and passionate reformer Lincoln Steffens, e.posed
the corruption of St. Louis and showed that it was typical of big'city merica. Public outrage flared,
making way for such crusading politicians as /heodore Doose(elt and Dobert =. La &ollette.
&hicago !eat
/alk of corruption and reform was all well and good, but to many, the sub4ect seemed rather
abstract and remote. !t took a no(el, /he Iungle, written in 0517 by a socialist writer named 6pton
Sinclair ;0C?C'057C<, to bring corruption and reform+:uite literally+to the gut le(el. Sinclair
described the plight of one Iurgis Dudkus, a Lithuanian immigrant who worked in a $hicago
meat'packing plant. /hrough the eyes of this downtrodden and e.ploited worker, Sinclair described
in sickening detail the horrors of modern meat packing. /o fatten the bottom line, packers did not
hesitate to use decayed meat, tubercular meat, offal, e(en rat meat in the manufacture of meat
products. $omfortable middle'class mericans may or may not care about the e.ploitation of a
blue'collar Lithuanian immigrant, but the idea of big business poisoning them and their families
was truly nauseating. s a result of the indignation stirred by /he Iungle, $ongress enacted the
landmark Pure &ood and >rug ct a mere si. months after the no(el was published.
!"c)ra)ers and %rogressi0ism
Sinclair was one of a group of writers President /heodore Doose(elt, himself a progressi(e
reformer, dubbed ,muckrakers.- Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens, !da /arbell ;author of a landmark
e.pose of Standard Oil<, and other 4ournalists, caught up in the Progressi(e mo(ement sweeping the
nation, reported on the corruption and e.ploitation that seemed rampant in Ailded ge merica.
/he muckrakers e.posed child labor practices, slum life, racial persecution, prostitution, sweatshop
labor, and the general sins of big business and machine politics.
Bo0ernment Ta)es a Hand
/he muckrakers succeeded in gal(ani9ing popular opinion and moti(ating go(ernment action.
6nder President /heodore Doose(elt, antitrust laws were used to break up certain monopolies or
trusts. fter a long go(ernment assault, Standard Oil, most notorious of the trusts, was broken up
into E2 companies in 0500. 6nder Doose(elt, too, public lands were protected from pri(ate
e.ploitation, and he is considered a pioneer of the en(ironmental mo(ement. >uring the Doose(elt
era, go(ernment also stepped in to establish and enforce standards of purity in food and drugs. /he
go(ernment created safeguards to curb unfair e.ploitation of workers and restricted child labor. On
a local le(el, cities embarked on programs to clean up slum districts and to educate immigrants and
youth.
/hree years after Doose(elt left office, Dobert =. La &ollette, 6.S. Senator from 3isconsin,
led a faction of the most reform'minded Depublicans to form a third party, the Progressi(e Party.
/he new party drafted an enthusiastic Doose(elt as its standard bearer in the 050F presidential
elections. /he Progressi(es sought a middle road between traditional conser(atism on the one hand
and populism on the other, without (eering toward socialist radicalism. /he Progressi(es ad(ocated
programs of moral uplift, such as $hicagos )ull )ouse, founded in 0CC5 by social acti(ist Iane
ddams. )ull )ouse became a model for pro(iding recreational facilities to slum children,
ad(ocating child labor laws, and ,mericani9ing- immigrants. /he Progressi(es also supported
clean go(ernment, womens suffrage, and prohibition. lthough many people, contemporaries and
historians alike, critici9ed Progressi(ism as narrow'minded and ultimately supporti(e of the status
:uo, its spirit changed merican go(ernment, bringing it more intimately and thoroughly into the
e(eryday li(es of e(eryday mericans.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
!n 05th'century merica, the great fortunes were made on the backs of working men and
women, but the labor mo(ement gradually brought a greater degree of democracy to 6.S.
society.
/he greed and corruption rampant after the $i(il 3ar triggered a sweeping reform
mo(ement, Progressi(ism, which encompassed politics, social 4ustice, and general moral
,uplift.-
Voice from the %ast
3ere immigrants welcome in the 6nited StatesO #ot always. 3ere they e.ploited and
discriminated againstO Sometimes. Yet, despite this treatment, merica offered the best hope for
peoples oppressed, star(ed, and made desperate in the nations of their birth. /he poet 8mma
La9arus ;0C25'C?< e.pressed these sentiments in the poem she composed for inscription at the base
of the Statue of Liberty. /he statue was created by the sculptor &rederic ugust Bartholdi and
presented to the 6nited States as a gift from the &rench people. /he coolly ma4estic 0%0'foot'high
female figure ;modeled after the artists mother<, holding aloft a torch and carrying a tablet
inscribed with the date of merican independence, was un(eiled in #ew York )arbor in 0CC7. )ere
are the closing lines of the La9arus sonnetB
Ai(e me your tired, your poor,
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
/he wretched refuse of your teeming shore,
Send these, the homeless, tempest'tost, to me,
! lift my lamp beside the golden doorN
Stats
!n 0C5F, the 6nited States !mmigration Bureau opened a ma4or central facility for handling
the flood of immigration. 8llis !sland, within sight of the Statue of Liberty in #ew York )arbor, was
a place where immigrants could be e.amined for disease, e(aluated as fit or unfit for entry, and
either admitted to the mainland, :uarantined, or deported. >uring the 7F years of its operation, from
0C5F to 052E, 8llis !sland processed immigrants at rates as high as a million people a year.
!ain ?0ent
On =ay E, 0CC7, laborers scuffled with police at the =c$ormick Deaper $ompany in
$hicago after the company had hired nonunion workers during a strike. !n the course of the melee, a
laborer was killed, and the strikers+among them a(owed anarchists+accused the police of brutality.
protest rally was called at the citys )aymarket S:uare the ne.t day, =ay 2. contingent of 0C1
police marched in to disperse the rally, and a bomb e.ploded in their ranks, wounding 77 officers,
se(en fatally. riot broke out, and the police fired into the crowd, killing four persons and
wounding at least F11.
/ra(esty followed tragedy, when eight anarchist leaders were con(icted as accessories to
murder'despite the fact that the actual bomber was ne(er identified. &our of the anarchists were
hanged, one committed suicide, and three were 4ailed. !n an act of great moral heroism that
destroyed his political career, !llinois Ao(ernor Iohn Peter ltgeld ;0C2?'051F< pardoned the three
sur(i(ors in 0C5E.
,ord for the -ay
!olitical machine +a group, usually dominated by a political party, that dictates the political
life of a city. t the ,controls- of the ,machine- is the boss, who or may not be an elected official.
,ord for the -ay
Mucraer was a reference to Pilgrims Progress, a $hristian allegorical no(el by the
0?th'century British writer Iohn Bunyan. One of Bunyans allegorical characters, used a
,muckrake- to clean up the ;moral< filth around him, e(en as he remained obli(ious of the celestial
beauty abo(e.
.eal (ife
/heodore Doose(elt feared that Depublican party bosses had consigned him to a secondary
political role when he was nominated as 3illiam =c"inleys running mate in the 0511 presidential
election. )owe(er, Doose(elt became the nations F7th president on September 02, 0510, after
=c"inley died of a gunshot wound inflicted on September 7 by an anarchist named Leon $9olgos9.
Doose(elt pro(ed so dynamic a leader that he was elected to the office in his own right in 0512,
ser(ing until 0515. Doose(elt had been born into a moneyed old #ew York family on October F?,
0C%C. 3eak and asthmatic as a child, Doose(elt was determined to build up his body and engaged in
a regimen of e.ercise, sport, and outdoor acti(ity he proudly dubbed ,the strenuous life.- )e was,
by turns and sometimes simultaneously, an author, politician, and rancher. ppointed assistant
secretary of the na(y under =c"inley in 0C5?, he ad(ocated preparation for war with Spain o(er its
colonial policies in $uba. 3ith the outbreak of the Spanish'merican 3ar the following year,
Doose(elt helped organi9e a (olunteer ca(alry unit called the Dough Diders, ser(ing in $uba as its
dashing colonel.
)is war record and reform reputation propelled Doose(elt to election as go(ernor of #ew
York in 0C5C. )is crusading soon cramped the style of Depublican party boss /homas $ollier Platt,
who decided to ,kick him upstairs- by arranging for his nomination as =c"inleys (ice'presidential
running mate in 0511.
!f the nation mourned =c"inleys assassination the following year, none did so more than
Depublican conser(ati(es, who had little stomach for Doose(elts ,Progressi(ism.- /he new
president took aim at the big corporate trusts, wielding the Sherman nti'/rust ct of 0C51 as a
club.
3ith election to a second term, Doose(elt became e(en more 9ealous in his Progressi(e
reforms, doing battle against what he called the ,malefactors of wealth.- )e strengthened the
!nterstate $ommerce $ommissions power to regulate railroads, and he supported the =eat
!nspection and the Pure &ood and >rug bills. !n foreign policy, Doose(elt was e:ually (igorous and
;as many saw it< radical. !n 051E, when $olombia re4ected a treaty gi(ing the 6nited States the right
to dig a canal across the isthmus of Panama, ,/D- supported the re(olution that created an
independent Panama. )e then struck a canal treaty with the new nation and super(ised construction
of the Panama $anal.
&or better or worse, Doose(elt was an merican imperialist, who ad(ocated e.tending the
nations sphere of influence+by force, if necessary. ,Speak softly and carry a big stick,- Doose(elt
remarked in a September F, 0510, speech at the =innesota State &air. $ritici9ed by some
contemporaries and historians alike as a war monger, Doose(elt stepped between Dussia and Iapan
in 051% to mediate peace in the Dusso'Iapanese 3ar, an action that earned him the #obel Peace
Pri9e.
fter he left office in 0515, Doose(elt embarked on (arious ad(entures ;including frican big
game hunting<, then helped Dobert =. La &ollette found the Progressi(e Party+popularly called the
Bull =oose Party. s third'party candidate, Doose(elt outpolled Depublican 3illiam )oward /aft
in the 050F elections, but he lost to >emocrat 3oodrow 3ilson. &alling ill in 050C, /D died on
Ianuary 7, 0505.
,ord for the -ay
Po!ulism is a political philosophy that supports the rights and power of the people (ersus the
pri(ileged moneyed elite. !t was the philosophy of the Populist Party that polled more than a million
(otes in the presidential election of 0C5F.
,7er 6here
(%101#%0%1'
In This Chapter
-in&oism, im!erialism, and yello( Eournalism
The *!anish? American War
The Wilson administration and entry into World War I
!n his &arewell ddress of 0?5?, Aeorge 3ashington cautioned his fellow mericans to a(oid
,foreign entanglements-G for a century thereafter, the nation did 4ust that. /he 6nited States,
insulated from the 8uropean and 8astern powers by great oceans, maintained a foreign policy of
strict isolation. /he one chink in this isolationist armor was $entral and South merica. President
Iames =onroe promulgated his =onroe >octrine in 0CFE, essentially declaring the entire 3estern
)emisphere off'limits to 8uropean powers with designs on creating new colonies. !n the course of
the 05th century, the 6nited States became the de facto ma4or power of the hemisphere. >uring the
century, too, while other nations amassed far'flung empires throughout the world, the 6nited States
e.panded e.clusi(ely across its (ast continent.
By the end of the century, the nation e.tended from ,sea to shining sea,- and a significant
number of mericans ;some called them ,patriots,- others ,imperialists,- and still others
,4ingoists-< started thinking that it should e.tend e(en farther. #ot content with the 6nited States as
a force in this hemisphere, these indi(iduals wanted to see it on an e:ual footing with the great
8uropean powers of the world.
&olor #t Yello+
Strange as it may seem, the birth of 6.S. imperialism was related to a newspaper comic. !n
0C5%, Dichard &elton Outcault, a cartoonist for the #ew York 3orld, introduced a singlepanel
comic that featured as its main character a slum child costumed in a garment that was tinted yellow
by a brand'new color process, of which the paper was (ery proud. /he 3orlds publisher, Ioseph
Pulit9er ;0C2?'0500<, was delighted with ,/he Yellow "id of )ogans lley,- the popularity of
which allowed him to close the gap in his circulation race with /he #ew York Iournal, published by
ri(al news magnate 3illiam Dandolph )earst ;0C7E'05%0<. #ot to be outdone, )earst lured
Outcault to the ranks of the Iournal, whereupon Pulit9er hired Aeorge Luks ;who would go on to
become a ma4or merican painter< to continue the original comic as simply ,/he Yellow "id.-
/he battle o(er the comic was but one episode in an ongoing, high'stakes circulation war
between Pulit9er and )earst, both of whom were intent on building great publishing empires. /he
papers continually stro(e with one another to publish sensational news stories that would attract
readers. But it was the yellow ink of the slum kid comics that ga(e this style of newspaper
publishing its name when newspaperman 8r(in 3ardman made reference to the ,yellow press of
#ew York.-
;#/ll $"rnish the ,arH<
Sometimes the :uest for sensational news led the likes of Pulit9er and )earst to publish
muckraker material that e.posed social in4ustice, corruption, and public fraud. !ndeed, for all its
faults, the age of yellow 4ournalism contributed greatly to the cause of reform and introduced onto
the merican scene the tradition of the crusading 4ournalist. But, noble moti(es aside, the
circulation war kept escalating. Both )earst and Pulit9er, hoping to bag the Big Story, dispatched
reporters to co(er a de(eloping situation in $uba, a colony of Spain that was a mere 51 miles off the
&lorida coast. t considerable e.pense, )earst hired the great painter of life in the merican 3est,
&rederic Demington ;0C70'0515<, and dispatched him to $uba. 3hen combat failed to materiali9e,
Demington cabled )earstB ,8(erything :uiet. /here is no trouble. /here will be no war. ! wish to
return.- /he newspaper tycoon cabled in replyB ,Please remain. You furnish the pictures and !ll
furnish the war.-
!t was true that $uban hostilities were slow to brew. /he island had long been rebellious, and
in &ebruary 0C57, Spain sent Aeneral @aleriano 3eyler ;dubbed ,Butcher 3eyler- by )earst< as
go(ernor. )e created outrage not only in $uba, but in the 6nited States, when fie summarily placed
into ,reconcentration camps- $ubans identified as sympathi9ing with or supporting the rebels.
lthough both President =c"inley and his predecessor, Aro(er $le(eland, stoutly resisted
inter(ening in $uba, 6.S, popular sentiment, whipped Lip by atrocity stories published in the papers
of Pulit9er and )earst, at last mo(ed =c"inley to order the battleship =aine into )a(ana )arbor to
protect merican citi9ens and property there.
.emember the !aineG
/he temperature of mericas war fe(er was not raised by sentiment alone. 6nited States
companies had made ma4or in(estments in the island, especially in sugar plantations. #ot only did
re(olution threaten those in(estments, but, to put the situation in more positi(e terms, a pliant
puppet ,independent- go(ernment in $uba ;or better yet, a $uba anne.ed to the 6nited States<
would be (ery good for business. On &ebruary 5, )earst scored a 4ournalistic coup by publishing a
purloined pri(ate letter in which the Spanish minister to the 6nited States insulted President
=c"inley. )a(ing for so long a(oided ,foreign entanglements,- merica was now propelled to the
brink of war.
On &ebruary 0%, 0C5C, the nation held hands and leaped o(er that brink. n e.plosion rocked
)a(ana )arbor, and the 6.S.S. =aine blew up, killing F77 crewmen. /he )earst and Pulit9er
papers (ied with one another to affi. blame on Spain, and cries of ,Demember the =aine K to hell
with SpainN- echoed throughout the nation.
President =c"inley, himself still reluctant, waited until pril to ask $ongress to authori9e an
in(asion of $uba. $ongress not only complied but (oted a resolution recogni9ing $uban
independence from Spain. !n response, Spain declared war on the 6nited States on pril F2.
)owe(er, the first action took place in the Spanish'occupied Philippine !slands, not $uba. 6.S.
dmiral Aeorge >ewey ;0CE?'050?< sailed the siatic S:uadron from )ong "ong to =anila Bay,
where, on =ay 0, he attacked the Spanish fleet, sinking all 01 ships in the bay. /his action was
followed by a landing of 00,111 6.S. troops, who, acting in concert with the guerrilla forces of
&ilipino rebel leader 8milio guinaldo, :uickly defeated the Spanish army in the islands. !n Iuly,
Spanish Auam also fell, and the 6.S. gathered up pre(iously unclaimed 3ake !sland. =ost
importantly, $ongress passed a resolution anne.ing )awaii.
ction on $uba was e:ually swift and decisi(e. On =ay F5, the 6.S. fleet blockaded the
Spanish fleet at Santiago )arbor, and in Iune, 0?,111 6.S. troops landed at >ai:uiri and assaulted
Santiago. /he wars make'or'break land battle, at San Iuan )ill on Iuly 0, included a magnificent
charge by the (olunteer Dough Diders, led by Lieutenant $olonel /heodore Doose(elt. !n the
meantime, dmiral Pas:ual $er(era sailed into the harbor of Santiago de $uba, where he was
blockaded by the 6.S. fleet. On Iuly E, after the 6.S. (ictory at San Iuan )ill, $er(era decided to
run the blockade. 3ithin four hours, his fleet was almost completely destroyed. /he battle claimed
2?2 Spanish sailors and only two 6.S. sailors. On Iuly 0?, F2,111 Spanish troops surrendered, and
=adrid sued for peace nine days later. 6.S. Secretary of State Iohn )ay ;0CEC'051%< summed it all
up by dubbing the ten'week conflict a ,splendid little war.-
Spain withdrew from $uba and ceded to the 6nited States Puerto Dico and AuamG it sold the
Philippines to the 6.S. for PF1 million. /he 6.S. established a territorial go(ernment in Puerto R
Dico but tempori9ed on $uba, first establishing a military go(ernment there and then allowing $uba
to draft its own constitution, albeit with 6.S. super(ision and with pro(isos. /he pro(isos included
the right to establish merican military bases on the island and to inter(ene in $uban affairs ,in
order to preser(e Q$ubanR independence.- 6ntil the re(olution spearheaded by &idel $astro in 05%5,
$uba would e.ist as the often less than willing puppet of the 6nited States.
/heodore Doose(elt, who assumed office after the September %, 0510, assassination of
=c"inley and who was subse:uently elected to a presidential term in his own right, promulgated
the so'called ,Doose(elt $orollary- to the =onroe >octrine. !n effect, this policy made the 6nited
States a kind of international police force in the 3estern )emisphere, /he policy was a ma4or step
toward establishing the nation as a world power.
He *e7t 6s :"t of ,ar
fter taking that step, howe(er, mericans had second thoughts. Doose(elt handpicked his
old friend 3illiam )oward /aft to succeed him as president, and /aft won handily. )owe(er, /aft
soon pro(ed far more conser(ati(e than Doose(elt'although he did continue some of /Ds
Progressi(e reforms, including anti'trust prosecution and, most significantly, support for the
proposed income'ta. amendment to the 6.S. $onstitution. )owe(er, /aft did not pursue Doose(elts
aggressi(e foreign policy, for it was clear that most mericans wanted to return to a comfortable
degree of isolationism. /aft failed to win reelection in 050F, finishing a poor third to >emocrat
3oodrow 3ilson and /D himself ;running as a third'party Progressi(e+- Bull =oose-+candidate<.
>emocrat 3oodrow 3ilson ;0C%7'05F2<, president of Princeton 6ni(ersity and, afterward,
9ealously reform'minded go(ernor of #ew Iersey, was elected 6.S. president on a Progressi(e
platform. >uring his first term, the income ta. was introduced, protectionist tariffs were lowered,
the &ederal Deser(e ct ;050E< reformed currency and banking laws, and antitrust legislation was
strengthened in 0502 by the &ederal /rade $ommission ct and the $layton nti'/rust ct. !n
050%, 3ilson supported legislation that federally regulated working conditions of sailors, and in
0507, he signed the &ederal &arm Loan ct into law, pro(iding low'interest credit to farmers. Labor
reform came with the damson ct, granting an eight'hour day to interstate railroad workers, and
the $hild Labor ct, curtailing childrens working hours.
But 3ilson faced staggering problems in foreign relations. )e unsuccessfully attempted to
negotiate a Pan'merican pact to guarantee the mutual integrity of the 3estern )emisphere. 3ilson
also wrestled with re(olutionary =e.ico, at first seeking to promote self'go(ernment by refusing to
recogni9e the military dictatorship of Aeneral @ictoriano )uerta and instead supporting
constitutionalist @enustiano $arran9a. But in 0507, 3ilson inter(ened against re(olutionary
guerrilla leader Pancho @illa after @illa raided the border town of $olumbus, #ew =e.ico, killing
se(eral merican citi9ens. !n 050% and 0.507, 3ilson also sent troops to rebellion'racked )aiti and
Santo >omingo, where he established 6.S. protectorates.
>espite these problems and conflicts, the ma4ority of mericans were highly relie(ed that,
under 3ilson, the 6nited States remained safely aloof from the cataclysm that had begun in 8urope
on Iune FC, 0502. On that pretty day in early summer, the ustro')ungarian rchduke &ran9
&erdinand and his wife, the Arand >uchess Sophie, paid a state (isit to what was then the remote
and obscure Balkan capital city of Sara4e(o. /he couple was gunned down by a young Serbian
nationalist named Aa(rilo Princeps. ustria)ungary responded by accusing Serbia of ha(ing
plotted the assassination. tangled series of threats, ultimatums, and alliances was suddenly set into
motion+mindlessly+as if some terrible machine had come to life. nd between the great gears of
that mindless machine, the people of 8urope would be mangled.
t first, it looked as if the war would be a short one. /he Aerman armies made a spectacular
dri(e through &rance, sweeping all resistance before them. /hen, in a moment of strategic
uncertainty, the Aerman column turned and, about E1 miles outside Paris, dug in. &or the ne.t four
years, 8urope was doomed to the fruitless horrors of trench warfare. /o the, grinding tattoo of
machine'gun fire, the ceaseless pounding of artillery, and the strangled moans of asphy.iation by
poison gas, the nations of 8urope fought one another to a standstill. &rance, Britain, Dussia, and
lesser allies were on one sideG Aermany, ustria')ungary, and their lesser allies were on the other.
("sitania (ost
President 3ilson adroitly managed to keep the merican nation out of this charnel house..
n.ious to preser(e the rights of merican neutrality, he sternly warned Aermany in &ebruary
050%, that the 6nited States would hold it strictly accountable for the loss of merican li(es in the
sinking of neutral or passenger ships. Iust four months later, on =ay ?, 050%, a Aerman 6'boat
torpedoed the British passenger liner Lusitania, killing 0,F11 people, including 0FC mericans.
=any in the 6nited States+among them /heodore Doose(elt+clamored for immediate entry
into the war. 3ilson demurred, but he issued a strong protest to Aermany, demanding reparations
and the cessation of unrestricted submarine warfare. lthough Aermany protested that the Lusitania
carried munitions ;a truth that was (igorously denied by the British<, officials were an.ious to a(oid
ha(ing to face yet another enemy. Aermany ordered its 6'boats to gi(e passenger ships ample
warning before firing upon them. 3ilsons firmness with Aermany so deeply disturbed isolationist
Secretary of State 3illiam Iennings Bryan that he resigned in protest. But popular sentiment was on
the side of 3ilson, who had retained merican honor without shedding merican blood. )e ran
successfully for a second term, propelled by the slogan ,)e kept us out of war.-
Kimmermann 8ote
lthough the Aermans had backed down on unrestricted submarine warfare, relations
between the 6nited States and Aermany deteriorated steadily after the Lusitania sinking. !n
&ebruary 050?, Aermany announced the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, and on
&ebruary E, the 6.S.S. )ousatonic was torpedoed and sunk without warning. !n response, President
3ilson se(ered diplomatic relations with Aermany. !n the meantime, e(idence of Aerman espionage
in the 6.S. mounted, and on =arch 0, the merican public learned of the ,Himmermann #ote- or
,Himmermann /elegram.- !t was a coded message, sent on Ianuary 05, 050?, from Aerman foreign
secretary lfred Himmermann to his nations ambassador to =e.ico outlining the terms of a
proposed Aerman'=e.ican alliance against the 6nited States. Public sentiment left 3oodrow
3ilson little choice. On pril F, 050?, he asked $ongress for a declaration of war. /he declaration
was issued on pril 7.
H Sate for -emocracy
3ilson told $ongress that merica must go to war in order ,to make the world safe for
democracy.- 3ith this statement, the nations role as guardian of the 3estern )emisphere e.panded
to an assertion of the 6nited States as a true world power.
/he puny 6.S. rmy numbered only about F11,111 men in 050?G by the end of the war, it
would swell to 2 million. President 3ilson led a spectacular mobili9ation, creating a welter of
special war agencies, effecti(ely placing pri(ate industry entirely under federal control. !n =ay
050?, 3ilson pushed through $ongress a Selecti(e Ser(ice bill, by authority of which F.C million
men were drafted. bout half the army+some F million men+ser(ed in the 8& ;llied
8.peditionary &orces< led by the (ery able Aeneral Iohn I. Pershing. #a(al forces sailed under the
command of dmiral 3illiam S. Sims.
Pershing arri(ed in Paris on Iune 02, 050?, at a low point in the fortunes of the llies. 8(ery
ma4or &rench offensi(e had failed, and the demorali9ed &rench army was plagued by mutinies. /he
British had made a ma4or push in &landers, which ended in a costly stalemate. /he Dussians,
fighting on the 8astern &ront, had collapsed and were rushing headlong toward a re(olution that
would end centuries of c9arist rule and introduce communism into the world. /his re(olution would
also result in a ,separate peace- between Dussia and Aermany, freeing up masses of Aerman troops
for ser(ice on the 3estern &ront. lthough the first 8& troops followed Pershing on Iune F7, it
was October F0, 050?, before units were committed to battle and the spring of 050C before masses
of mericans actually made a difference in the fighting.
%atriots and Slac)ers
Pershings first battle was not with the Aermans, but with his &rench and British allies, who
demanded that 6.S. forces be placed under their control. Backed by 3ilson, Pershing resisted this
demand and at last pre(ailed, retaining full authority o(er 6.S. troops.
/here was yet another war to fight. lthough a ma4ority of mericans supported the war
effort, many ob4ected to spilling blood in a ,foreign war.- 3ilson built a powerful propaganda
machine, which produced hundreds of films, posters, pamphlets, and public presentations to portray
the ,Areat 3ar- as a titanic contest between the forces of good and e(il, of ci(ili9ation (ersus the
omni(orous ,)un.- nd where(er propaganda failed, the go(ernment used emergency war powers
to censor the press and to silence critics of the war. Little was done to protect the rights of 6.S.
citi9ens of Aerman ancestry, many of whom were threatened and persecuted.
s to mericas young manhood, the noblest thing one could do was to enlist. nd if waiting
to be drafted was considered less than patriotic, protesting or attempting to e(ade the draft was
downright treasonous. /hose who were suspected of a(oiding ser(ice were branded as ,slackers-
and publicly humiliated.
:0er the To7
Between Iune 7 and Iuly 0, 050C, the ,Yanks- recaptured for the llies @au., Bouresches,
and+after a particularly bitter battle'Belleau 3ood. /he mericans also managed to hold the
critically important llied position at $antigny against a great Aerman offensi(e during Iune 5'0%.
!f e(er the cliche about a ,baptism by fire- was appropriate, it was now. merican troops :uickly
came to know what the soldiers of 8urope had e.perienced for the past four yearsB the results of
humanity gone mad.
!arne
Between Iuly 0C and ugust 7, C%,111 merican troops broke the seemingly endless
stalemate of the long war by decisi(ely defeating the Aermans last ma4or offensi(e at the Second
Battle of the =arne. )ere, at last, was a battle that could be deemed a genuine turning point. /he
(ictory was followed by llied offensi(es'at the Somme, Oise'isne, and Ypres'Lys during ugust.
StL !ihiel
lthough mericans fought in each of the ma4or ugust offensi(es, they acted
independently+and brilliantly+against the St. =ihiel salient during September 0F'07. /his battle
initiated a campaign in(ol(ing a massi(e number of 6.S. troops'some 0.F million of them+who
pounded then cut Aerman supply lines between the =euse Di(er and the rgonne &orest. /he
campaign, which continued until the (ery day of armistice, #o(ember 00, 050C, was highly
successful, but terribly costly. merican units suffered, on a(erage, a casualty rate of 01 percent.
Armistice
!t became apparent to Aermany that merican soldiers were not only willing and able to fight
;a matter of doubt among optimistic Aerman strategists the year before<, but that their numbers
were ine.haustible, as was the merican capacity for military'industrial production. /he Aerman
go(ernment agreed to an armistice+a cessation of hostilitiesto be concluded at the 00th hour of the
00th day of the 00th month of 050C.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he end of the 05th century saw the end of mericas long tradition of isolation from
world affairs.
/he 6nited States emerged from 3orld 3ar 0, the most terrible war the world had seen
up to that time, as the champion of world democracyG although some politicians held out
for a return to the nations old isolationist ways, turning back was not possible.
,ord for the -ay
mericans who, in characteristically loud tones, (oiced support for a warlike, imperialist
foreign policy were called Ein&oes . /he word Ein&o apparently came from ,by 4ingo,- an
e.pression in the refrain of a bellicose 05th'century 8nglish music'hall song. ,By 4ingo- also
entered into merican popular speech as a socially acceptable alternati(e e.pleti(e to ,by Iesus. ,
,ord for the -ay
3ello( Eournalism +sensational, usually nonob4ecti(e, e(en distorted or outright untrue
4ournalistic practices aimed directly at readers emotions and meant to boost newspaper circulation.
!ain ?0ent
/he 07th mendment to the $onstitution was ratified by the re:uired two'thirds of the states
in &ebruary 050E, and the federal go(ernment was henceforth authori9ed to collect income ta.es.
!nitially, rates were set at 0 percent of ta.able income abo(e PE,111 for indi(iduals and P2,111 for
married couples. /he highest rate was ? percent, imposed on those with incomes in e.cess of
P%11,111. /he centurys two world wars would temporarily send income ta. rates sky high'as high
as ?? percent during 3orld 3ar ! and 50 percent during 3orld 3ar !!. !n the middle of the second
war, in 052E, $ongress enacted an automatic payroll withholding system, thereby greatly increasing
ta.payer ,compliance- ;as the !DS politely terms it< and doubling ta. re(enues by 0522.
,ord for the -ay
merican >a(id Bushnell ;ca. 0?2F'0CF2< in(ented a submarine that was used during the
De(olution in 0??7. /hen in 0C72, the $onfederate na(y operated the submarine )unley with
disastrous results+for the crew of the )unley. By the early F1th century, all the ma4or 8uropean
powers built submarines. By far the best were the Aerman (essels, which were called
Bnterseebooten , or B?booten for shortB B?boats .
Voice from the %ast
&rom 3oodrow 3ilsons war message to $ongress, pril F, 050?B
,K/he present Aerman submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against
mankind. !t is a war against all nations. merican ships ha(e been sunk, merican li(es
taken in ways which it has stirred us (ery deeply to learn of, but the ships and people of
other neutral and friendly nations ha(e been sunk and o(erwhelmed in the waters. in the
same way. /here has been no discrimination. /he challenge is to all mankind. 8ach
nation must decide for itself how it will meet it. /he choice we make for oursel(es must
be made with a moderation of poise and a temperateness of 4udgment befitting our
character and our moti(es as a nation.
,K 3e ha(e no selfish ends to ser(e. 3e desire no con:uest, no dominion. 3e seek no
indemnities for oursel(es, no material compensation for the sacrifices we shall freely
make. 3e are but one of the champions of the rights of mankind. 3e shall be satisfied
when those tights ha(e been made as secure as the faith and the freedom of the nations
can make themK.-
,ord for the -ay
!n a military conte.t, a salient is a line of battle, especially a concentrated area of defense.
Stats
total of 7% million men and women ser(ed in the armies and na(ies of combatant nations
during 3orld 3ar 0. Of this number, at least 01 million were killed and F1 million wounded. Of the
F,111,111 6.S. troops who fought, 00F,2EF died, and FE1,1?2 were wounded. /he monetary cost
the war to the 6nited States was the e:ui(alent of PEF,?11,111,111 in dollars.
s deadly as bullets, shells, and poison gas were, an influen9a epidemic produced by the
filthy li(ing conditions of the war pro(ed e(en more terrible. bout half the number of merican
troop deaths were caused by ,flu.- /he epidemic would grow to pandemic proportions after the war,
killing some F0.72 million people world percent of the worlds population. !n the 6nited States, F%
percent of the ill, and %11,111 died.
@aAAed !ooAed and !usted Flat
(%0%1#%0<0'
In This Chapter
Wilson%s 5ourteen Points
,eEection of the Lea&ue of "ations
The Lost ;eneration and the ,oarin& T(enties
Women%s ri&ht to #ote and ad#ancement of African?Americans
Prohibition and the birth of or&anized crime
$rash of the stoc maret
/he 6nited States had entered 3orld 3ar ! late, but in time for the merican 8.peditionary
&orce to suffer a ghastly 01 percent casualty rate+e(en higher if deaths from the influen9a epidemic
are included. President 3ilson was determined that these deaths in a ,foreign war- would not be in
(ain. )e had told the merican people that the ,Areat 3ar- was a ,war to end all war,- and he
meant it. On Ianuary C, 050C, almost a year before the war ended, 3ilson announced to $ongress
,&ourteen Points,- which he called ,the only possible program- for peace. fter a comple. of treaty
obligations had escalated an obscure Balkan conflict into a worldwide conflagration, 3ilsons
dream was that his &ourteen Points would create a single international alliance, making armed
conflict among nations impossible. /he alliance would be called the League of #ations.
A (eag"e of 8ations
s (igorously as 3ilson had worked to mobili9e his nation for war, he now struggled to bring
about a peace meant to spell the end of war. 3ilson personally headed the merican delegation to
the Paris Peace $onference, which was charged with creating a final treaty. >ri(en by his intense
and intensely idealistic (ision of a world league and a world of perpetual peace, 3ilson did not
deign to de(elop strong bipartisan support for his peace plans. &earing Depublican isolationists
would be hostile to the League of #ations, he chose not to appoint a prominent Depublican to the
delegation. 3orse, 3ilson made peace a political issue by appealing to (oters to reelect a
>emocratic $ongress in 050C. !n fact, the 050C contest went to the Depublicans, who won
ma4orities in both houses. /o many, this election seemed a no'confidence (ote against 3ilson and
his crusade for world peace.
!n 8urope, 3ilson was at first greeted with nothing but confidence in his leadership.
)owe(er, it soon became apparent that the other ma4or llied leaders+Aeorges $lemenceau of
&rance, >a(id Lloyd Aeorge of Areat Britain, and @ittorio Orlando of !taly+wanted to conclude a
settlement that simply and se(erely penali9ed Aermany. 3ilson ne(ertheless hammered away at his
&ourteen Points, ultimately seeing them embodied in the /reaty of @ersailles, which, howe(er, also
imposed crippling terms on Aermany. Aratified that he had won inclusion of the League of #ations
as part of the treaty, 3ilson presented the @ersailles document to his fellow mericans as the best
obtainable compromise, )e felt that the League of #ations itself would e(entually rectify some of
the in4ustices presently imposed upon Aermany.
.ed Scare
3hile 3ilson was trying to engineer world harmony, popular merican sentiment was
already retreating toward isolationism. /he Dussian De(olution of 050?, which toppled the long
regime of the c9ars, was not greeted by most mericans as a (ictory o(er autocracy, but was
regarded with terror as an assault on established order. ,Ded Scare- swept western 8urope and the
6nited States.
t the beginning of 0505, 6.S. ttorney Aeneral =itchell Palmer ordered a series of raids on
the head:uarters of radical organi9ations in a do9en cities, indiscriminately rounding up 7,111 6.S.
citi9ens belie(ed to be ,sympathetic to $ommunism.- Palmer and others lumped $ommunist,
radicals, and ,free thinkers- together with out'and'out anarchists, who, in the wake of the Dussian
De(olution, were committing acts of terrorism. narchists mailed bombs to Palmer, Dockefeller,
I.P. =organ, and more than E1 other wealthy, prominent conser(ati(es. !ronically, many of the
bombs failed to reach their destinations+due to insufficient postageN
!n a climate of intense fear, outrage, and confusion, Palmer created the Aeneral !ntelligence
>i(ision, headed by an eager young Iustice >epartment in(estigator named I. 8dgar )oo(er. 3ith
meticulous 9eal, )oo(er ;in those precomputer days< created by hand a massi(e card inde. of
0%1,111 radical leaders, organi9ations, and publications. s all too often happened in merican
history, beginning with the lien and Sedition cts passed at the end of the 0Cth century, legislators
and administrators did not hesitate to take totalitarian measures to defend merican liberty.
?nd of the -ream
&ear of $ommunism was not the only thing that chipped away at 3ilsons dream. lthough
the president tried to con(ince the merican people+and himself+that the /reaty of @ersailles was
the best compromise possible, it was actually one of the most tragic documents in history. lthough
3ilson succeeded in persuading &rance to concede its key demand+that the left bank of the Dhine
be se(ered from Aermany and put under &rench military control+the treaty dictated humiliating,
economically de(astating terms. Aermany was forced to accept full guilt for the war, to cede huge
sections of territory, and to disarm almost completely.
/he llies hoped that, by weakening Aermany, the nation could ne(er again threaten 8uropes
peace. )owe(er, the puniti(e terms of @ersailles so destabili9ed Aermany that the nation became
ripe for the dark promises of dolf )itler, who came into prominence during the 05F1s and 05E1s.
!nstead of pre(enting another war, the /reaty of @ersailles guaranteed one+a war that would pro(e
e(en more de(astating that the 0502+0C conflict.
t home, 3ilsons lapse of political sa((y was taking its toll as )enry $abot Lodge
;0C%1'05F2< led Senate Depublican opposition to the 6.S. commitment to the League of #ations.
Belie(ing the League to be abo(e politics, 3ilson accepted little compromise and decided to bring
popular pressure on the Senate by taking his case directly to the people. )e embarked on a rigorous
5,%11'mile transcontinental whistle'stop speaking tour. On September F%, 0505, e.hausted by war,
by the heartbreaking labors of making peace, and by his battle on behalf of the League of #ations,
3oodrow 3ilson collapsed following a speech in Pueblo, $olorado. )e was rushed back to
3ashington, but his condition deteriorated and, a week later, he suffered a de(astating stroke that
left him partially paraly9ed. 000, desperate, frustrated, and embittered, 3ilson instructed his
followers to accept absolutely no compromise on the League.
merican politics has always thri(ed on compromiseG and now, without it, the Senate re4ected
the /reaty of @ersailles and the League of #ations. 3oodrow 3ilson, his health continuing to
decline, could only watch as the ,war to end all war- came to look more and more like 4ust another
war fought in (ain. 3arren A. )arding ;0C7%'05FE<, the Depublican who succeeded 3ilson in the
3hite )ouse, ran on a pledge of a ,return to normalcy.- )arding told $ongress that ,we seek no
part in directing the destinies of the world K Qthe LeagueR is not for us.-
A Beneration (ost and $o"nd
3oodrow 3ilson was not the only embittered indi(idual in postwar merica. &our years of
8uropean carnage had shown the worst of which humanity was capable. /he war broke the spirit of
some peopleG in others, it created a combination of restlessness, desperation, boredom, and
thrill'seeking that earned the decade its nicknameB the Doaring /wenties. Some mericans, mostly
young intellectuals, found that after the war, they could not settle back into life at home. colony of
e.patriate artists and writers gathered in Paris. =any of these indi(iduals congregated in the
apartment of a remarkable medical school dropout named Aertrude Stein+writer, art collector, and
culti(ator of creati(e talent. One day, she remarked to one of these young people, 8rnest
)emingway, ,You are all a lost generation.- /hat phrase stuck as a description of those indi(iduals
cast adrift after the war, their former ideals shattered. by battle, yet unable to find new (alues to
replace the old.
Stein, $itgerald, Heming+ay M &oL
/he 6nited States, land of liberty and opportunity, had much to be proud of. /he nation touted
its superiority to 8urope, whose masses often suffered under conditions of political ensla(ement and
spiritual and physical want. Yet, in matters of art and culture, merica ne(er :uite outgrew its
,colonial- status. /rue, the 6nited States did produce a number of remarkable world'class writers
during the 05th century+including 3ashington !r(ing, 8dgar llan Poe, Dalph 3aldo 8merson,
)enry >a(id /horeau, #athaniel )awthorne, 3alt 3hitman, )erman =el(ille, 8mily >ickinson,
=ark /wain, and others. nd merica had some e.traordinary (isual artists+such as the
unparalleled group of landscape painters dubbed the )udson Di(er School, who emerged under the
leadership of /homas $ole and &rederick 8dwin $hurch. >espite this prominent talent, the 6nited
States entered the F1th century still bowing to the aesthetic culture of 8urope, as if mericans could
ne(er :uite measure up.
>uring the 05F1s, howe(er, a group of merican writers made an unmistakable impact on the
cultural life of the world. /wo of the most important, 8rnest )emingway ;0C55'0570.< and &. Scott
&it9gerald ;0C57'0521<, were fre:uent guests at Aertrude Steins salon, where they discussed how
they would write ,the great merican no(el.- &rancis Scott "ey &it9gerald ;named for the ancestor
who wrote ,/he Star'Spangled Banner-< burst onto the literary scene with /his Side of Paradise, a
05F1 no(el that ushered in the ,Ia99 ge- with a (i(id portrait of the youth of the Lost Aeneration.
/wo years later came /he Beautiful and >amned and, in 05F%, /he Areat Aatsby. /his story of the
enigmatic Iay Aatsby e.plored the merican dream in poetic, satirical, and ultimately tragic detail.
/he theme was again plumbed a decade later in /ender !s the #ight ;05E2<.
3hile &it9gerald probed the merican psyche by dissecting the desperate deni9ens of the Ia99
ge, )emingway created character after character who turned away from the roar of the Doaring
/wenties to worlds of elemental dangers and basic pleasures. )is stories portrayed dri(en efforts to
reco(er the meaning that, through a combination of war and postwar spiritual e.haustion, had
e(aporated from life. /he work of &it9gerald and )emingway, as well as the no(elist /heodore
>reiser ;0C?0'052%<, the poet )art $rane ;00C55'05EF<, and the playwright 8ugene O#eill
;0CCC'05%E<, at last allowed mericans to see themsel(es as the cultural e:uals of 8uropeans.
/hrough the despair and desperation that lay behind the wild music and loose morality of the 05F1s,
merican art and literature came of age.
,omen Bet the Vote
/he merican woman also came of age in the 05F1s, emerging from sub4ugation to straitlaced
@ictorian ideals of decorum and femininity. 3omen 4oined the work force in increasing numbers,
and they became li(ely participants in the intellectual life of the nation. /he most profound step
toward the liberation of merican women was the ratification of the 05th mendment to the 6.S.
$onstitution, which ga(e women the right to (ote.
A .enaissance in Harlem
/here was growing liberation, too, for another long'oppressed groupB frican'mericans.
Sla(ery had ended with the $i(il 3ar, but blacks hardly en4oyed the same opportunities and
pri(ileges as most other mericans. !n the #orth as well as the South, blacks were discriminated
against in education, employment, housing, and in 4ust about e(ery other phase of life. Segregation
was de facto in the #orth+unofficial, but nonetheless real+and de 4ure in the South+actually
mandated by law. frican'mericans had ser(ed with distinction during 3orld 3ar ! but were put
into segregated units. /he &rench did not discriminate against blacks, and for some
frican'merican soldiers, the o(erseas e.perience was an eye'opener. /hey returned to the States
no longer willing to accept second'class citi9enship.
=any white mericans did not so much discriminate against blacks, as they failed to see
them, as if they were in(isible. 8.cluded from positions of power and influence, frican'mericans
simply did not much matter+as far as mainstream white society was concerned.
/he humble peanut helped to change this attitude. !n 05F0, Aeorge 3ashington $ar(er, who
had been born a =issouri sla(e in 0C72, testified before $ongress on behalf of the #ational
ssociation of Peanut Arowers to e.tol and e.plain the wonders of what had been a minor crop.
gainst all odds, $ar(er had worked his way through college, earning a masters degree in
agriculture in 0C57 and accepting a teaching position at /uskegee !nstitute. /uskegee had been
founded in labama by frican'merican educator Booker /. 3ashington ;00C%7'050%< as a source
of higher education for blacks. t /uskegee, $ar(er concentrated on de(eloping new products from
crops+including the peanut and the sweet potato+that could replace cotton as the staple of southern
farmers. $otton was a money maker, but it :uickly depleted soil, and farmers solely dependent on
cotton soon were ruined. $ar(er transformed peanuts and sweet potatoes into plastic materials,
lubricants, dyes, drugs, inks, wood stains, cosmetics, tapioca, molasses, and most famously, peanut
butter. )is contribution to re(itali9ing the perpetually beleaguered agricultural economy of the
South was significantG but e(en more, $ar(er showed both white and black merica that an
frican'merican could accomplish great things. &or blacks, he was a source of prideG for white
mericans, he was the first culturally (isible black man.
!ndeed, while oppression was still a fact of frican'merican life during the 05F1s, white
intellectuals became intensely interested in the intellectual and artistic creations of blacks.
frican'merican artists and writers were drawn to #ew York $itys )arlem neighborhood, where
they produced works that drew widespread attention and admiration. /his literary and artistic
mo(ement was called the )arlem Denaissance and drew inspiration from the black political leader
3.8.B. >u Bois ;0C7C'057E<. >u Bois edited /he $risis, the maga9ine of the #ational ssociation
for the d(ancement of $olored People ;#$P<, an important organi9ation founded in 0515 by a
group of black as well as white social thinkers. >u Bois argued that blacks could not achie(e social
e:uality by merely emulating whites, but that they had to awaken black racial pride by disco(ering
their own frican cultural heritage. Some significant merican writers associated with the
mo(ement >u Bois was instrumental in launching were poet $ountee $ullen ;051E'27<, no(elist
Dudolph &isher ;0C5?'05E2<, poet'essayist Langston )ughes ;051F'7?<, folklorist Hora #eale
)urston ;0510'71<, poet Iames 3eldon Iohnson ;0C?0'05EC<, and no(elist Iean /oomer
;0C52'057?<.
)arlem became a popular spot for white nightclubbers seeking first'class 4a99 from great
frican'merican musicians like &letcher )enderson ;0C5C'05%F<, Louis rmstrong ;0511'05?0<,
and the young >uke 8llington ;0C55'05?2<. /he neighborhood also de(eloped into a gathering
place for a(ant'garde white intellectuals who did what would ha(e been unthinkable 4ust a decade
beforeB they spoke and mingled with frican'merican writers, artists, and thinkers.
America -ries 67
/he general liberali9ation of morals that accompanied mericas entry into 3orld 3ar !
fueled a temperance mo(ement that culminated in the 0Cth mendment to the $onstitution,
prohibiting the sale, importation, or consumption of alcoholic be(erages anywhere in the 6nited
States. /he @olstead ct, passed after ratification, pro(ided for federal enforcement of Prohibition.
Bangster &"lt"re
Areeted by some as a ,noble e.periment,- Prohibition was for a ma4ority of mericans an
in(itation to (iolate the law. /he 05F1s, therefore, became by definition a lawless decade.
Otherwise law'abiding citi9ens made bathtub gin, brewed homemade beer, fermented wine in their
cellars, and fre:uented ,blind pigs- and ,speakeasies-+co(ert saloons that ser(ed boo9e in coffee
mugs and teacups. Police raids on such establishments were common enough, but mostly, officials
looked the other way+especially if they were paid to do so.
$orruption hardly stopped with the cop on the street. $ity and state go(ernments were
recepti(e to payoffs, and indeed, the presidential administration of 3arren A. )arding ri(aled that
of 6lysses S. Arant for scandals. !n this national atmosphere, mobsterism came to birth and
flourished. 6nderlying the (iolence was the idea of crime as a business, and by the end of the
decade, a :uasi'corporate entity called the Syndicate would be formed to ,organi9e- crime.
&o"ntdo+n to Blac) T"esday
!f morals, mores, and ideas were freewheeling in the 05F1s, so was spending. &or most+
e.cept farmers and unskilled laborers+the decade was prosperous, sometimes wildly so. mericans
speculated on stocks in unprecedented numbers, often o(ere.tending themsel(es by purchasing
securities ,on margin,- putting down as little as 01 cents on the dollar in the hope that the stock
would rise fast and far enough to co(er what amounted to (ery substantial loans.
>oy .ide
/he fact was that so much stock had been bought on margin+backed by dimes rather than
dollars+that much of it amounted to little more than paper. 8(en worse, although production in
well'financed factories soared, the buying power of consumers failed to keel< pace. Soon, industry
was making more than people were buying. s goods piled up and prices fell, industry began laying
off workers. People without 4obs do not buy goods. s more workers were laid off, the marketplace
shrunk smaller and smaller. $ompanies do not make new hires in a shrinking marketplace. nd so
the cycle went.
&rash
>espite this cycle, stock prices continued to spiral upward. But the market showed warning
signs of instability. >uring the autumn of 05F5, stock prices fluctuated wildly, then, on October F2,
the stock market was sei9ed by a selling spree. &i(e days later, on October F5, ,Black /uesday,- the
bottom fell out and stock prices plummeted. 3ith prices falling, brokers ,called- their margin loans,
demanding immediate payment in full on stocks that were now worthless. =any in(estors were
wiped out in an instant. rash of suicides swept the business communityG some in(estors actually
leapt from 3all Street high'rise windows.
President $al(in $oolidge had declared during the booming mid'decade years that ,/he
business of merica is business.- )erbert )oo(er, elected president in 05FC, found himself
ner(ously assuring his stunned and fearful fellow mericans that ,prosperity was 4ust around the
corner.- s it so happened, that corner would not be turned for an entire decade.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he failure of the 6nited States to 4oin the League of #ations doomed that precursor of
the 6nited #ations to ultimate failure.
/he climate of the 05F1s, at once wildly creati(e, liberating, desperate, and reckless, was
in large part the result of the aftereffects of 3orld 3ar 0.
/he stock market crash of 05F5 was the culmination of a cycle of careless, creditbased
in(estment and increased industrial output (ersus a shrinking market for industrial goods.
Voice from the %ast
3oodrow 3ilson addressed $ongress on Ianuary C, 050C, and promulgated his ,&ourteen
Points-B
,!. Open co(enants of peace, openly arri(ed atK
,!!. bsolute freedom of na(igation upon the seasK
,!!!. /he remo(al K of QinternationalR economic barriersK
,!@. de:uate guarantees K that K armaments will be reducedK
,@. Kimpartial ad4ustment of all colonial claimsK
,@!. /he e(acuation of all Dussian territoryK
,@!!. Belgium K must be e(acuated and restoredK
,@!!!. ll &rench territory should be freed and the in(aded portions restoredK
,!J. read4ustment of the frontiers of !taly should be effected along clearly recogni9able
lines of nationalityB
,J. /he peoples of ustria')ungary K should be accorded the freest opportunity of
autonomous de(elopment.
,J!. Dumania, Serbia, and =ontenegro should be e(acuatedK
,J!!. /he /urkish portions of the present Ottoman 8mpire should be assured a secure
so(ereigntyK
,J!!!. n independent Polish state should be erectedK
,J!@. general association QleagueR of nations must be formedK
Stats
Stocks lost an a(erage of 21 points on Black /uesday. !n 05E1, 0,E11 banks failed. By 05EE,
another E,?11 would fail, and 0 of 2 workers would be 4obless.
A *e+ $eal and a *e+ War
(%050#%0(%'
In This Chapter
The :oo#er administration durin& the ;reat 2e!ression
52,%s "e( 2eal
An era of or&anized crime
A!!roach and outbrea of World War II
)erbert $lark )oo(er was born on ugust 01, 0C?2, the son of a 3est Branch, !owa,
blacksmith. )e learned the meaning of hard work practically from the cradle, and at age C, he also
came to know the tragedy of loss. Orphaned, )oo(er was sent to li(e with an uncle in Oregon and
enrolled in the mining engineering program at Stanford 6ni(ersity, graduating in 0C5%. &or some F1
years, )oo(er tra(eled the world, earning a fortune as a mining engineer. /he *uaker ideals
ac:uired from his uncle prompted him to aid in relief efforts during 3orld 3ar 0, and )oo(er
earned a reputation as an effecti(e humanitarian. >uring the period of 6.S. participation in the war,
)oo(er ser(ed as food administrator, charged with promoting agricultural production and food
conser(ation. t the end of the war, President 3ilson sent )oo(er to 8urope to direct the merican
Delief dministration. )oo(er ser(ed as 6.S. secretary of commerce in the cabinets of 3arren A.
)arding and $al(in $oolidge.
3hen $oolidge declined to seek a second term ;pri(ately obser(ing that an economic disaster
was on the way, and he didnt want any part of it<, )oo(er easily won election as the nations Best
president. )e ran on the optimistic platform that, if e(eryone would 4ust put their heads together,
po(erty would be eliminated in merica. /he future looked bright. nd who should know this
better than a man 4ustly hailed as ,the great humanitarian-O
Brother, &an Yo" S7are a -ime=
3hen the 3all Street crash came, )oo(er was slow to react and merely assured the public
that ,prosperity was 4ust around the corner.- s each month brought worse financial news and
lengthened the lines of the 4obless, the homeless, and the desperate, )oo(er proposed a number of
relief programs, but insisted that the state and local go(ernments were responsible for financing
them. !n principle, this arrangement was prudent. 3ho better knew the needs of the people than
their local go(ernmentO !n practice, howe(er, the policy was doomed for a (ery simple reasonB state
and local go(ernments had no money.
=ost significantly, )oo(er steadfastly refused to make federal aid a(ailable directly to
indi(iduals. )e feared that big'go(ernment inter(ention would compromise the liberty, integrity,
and initiati(e of the indi(idual citi9en.
!n the meantime, shanty towns constructed of bo.es and crates bloomed like e(il flowers
across the merican landscape to house the homeless. ,)oo(er(illes- they were called, and the
,great humanitarians- reputation was fore(er tarnished. 6n4ustly+but understandably+blame for the
Areat >epression was laid entirely at the doorstep of the 3hite )ouse.
The Verge of .e0ol"tion
merica had had its share of boom and bust before. But the Areat >epression of the 05E1s
was unparalleled in magnitude, scope, and duration. &ifteen to F% percent of the work force was
4obless. &amilies lost their sa(ings, their homes, and e(en their li(es'to disease and sometimes
star(ation. /he >epression was not confined to the 6nited States. !t gripped the world, especially
those citadels of democracy, the 3estern capitalist nations. 3orst of all, the >epression showed no
signs of letup. s the unrelie(ed years went by, want and misery became a way of life.
>iscontent and despair bred re(olution. /he nations of 8urope seethed'especially Aermany,
already economically crippled by the puniti(e /reaty of @ersailles, now brought to its knees by the
>epression. &irst in !taly, then in Aermany+and to a lesser e.tent, elsewhere in 8urope+two ma4or
ideologies came into (iolent oppositionB &ascism (ersus $ommunism. /o most mericans, both of
these totalitarian ideologies seemed clearly repugnant to democracy.
>emocracy was not putting beans on the table, howe(er. mong intellectuals and e(en some
radical workers, $ommunism seemed to offer a (iable alternati(e to what was apparently the
nations failed capitalism. Slowly but surely, the gunpowder scent of re(olution tainted merican
air.
The ?7och of $-.
Born to wealth in )yde Park, #ew York, in 0CCF, &ranklin >elano Doose(elt ne(er
e.perienced po(erty firsthand. /he product of Aroton School, )ar(ard 6ni(ersity, and $olumbia
6ni(ersity Law School, young Doose(elt became a 3all Street lawyer. )e de(oted some of his time
to free legal work for the poor and by this means came to know and sympathi9e with the plight of
the so'called common man. &>D worked his way to prominence in >utchess $ounty ;#ew York<
politics and was appointed assistant secretary of the #a(y in the 3ilson administration. !n 05F1,
&>D was running mate to Iames =. $o., the democratic presidential hopeful who lost to
Depublican 3arren A. )arding.
/hen came Doose(elts darkest+and finest+hour. !n the summer of 05F0, while resident at his
summer home on $ampobello !sland ;#ew Brunswick, $anada<, Doose(elt was felled by polio.
>esperately ill, he reco(ered, but was left paraly9ed from the waist down. )is mother urged him to
retire to the familys )yde Park estate. )is wife, the remarkable 8leanor Doose(elt+&>Ds distant
cousin and the niece of /heodore Doose(elt+persuaded &>D to return to public life. 3ith great
personal strength and courage, Doose(elt underwent intensi(e physical therapy, learned to stand
using iron leg braces, to walk with the aid of crutches, and e(en to dri(e his own car. )e ran for
go(ernor of #ew York and won, bringing to the state such progressi(e measures as the de(elopment
of public power utilities, ci(il'ser(ice reform, and social'welfare programs.
3hen he decided to run for president, Doose(elt faced opponents who ob4ected that he was
neither intellectually nor ;ob(iouslyN< physically fit for the 3hite )ouse.
&>D pro(ed his opponents dead wrong. )a(ing o(ercome the odds in his personal fight
against polio, Doose(elt set about pro(ing himself capable of o(ercoming the e(en grimmer odds in
the national fight to lift merica out of >epression. &>D flew to $hicago and addressed the 05EF
>emocratic #ational $on(ention, pledging to deli(er to the merican people a ,#ew >eal,- a
federally funded, federally administered program of relief and reco(ery.
Bo0ernment .edefined
3hen he accepted the 05EF >emocratic presidential nomination, &ranklin >. Doose(elt
declaredB ,! pledge you, ! pledge myself, to a new deal for the merican people.- &ollowing
Doose(elts inauguration, the phrase ,#ew >eal- caught on in a way that transformed the federal
go(ernment. 3ithin the first three months of the new administration+dubbed with #apoleonic
grandeur by the press the ,)undred >ay-+&>D introduced to $ongress his relief legislation. /he
legislation promised to stimulate industrial reco(ery, assist indi(idual (ictims of the >epression
;something )oo(er and all pre(ious presidents had refused to do<, guarantee minimum li(ing
standards, and help a(ert future crises.
=ost of the actual legislation of the )undred >ays was aimed at pro(iding immediate relief.
/he &ederal >eposit !nsurance $orporation ;&>!$< was established to protect depositors from
losing their sa(ings in the e(ent of bank failure. /he measure did much to restore confidence in the
nations faltering banking system. /he &ederal Deser(e Board, which regulates the nations money
supply, was strengthened. /he )ome Owners Loan $orporation was established to supply funds to
help beleaguered home owners a(oid foreclosure. &ederal Securities ct reformed the regulation
of stock offering and trading+an effort to a(ert the kind of wild speculation that helped bring about
the crash of 05F5.
#e.t, the $i(ilian $onser(ation $orps+the $$$+put thousands of men to work on pro4ects in
national forests, parks, and public landsG the #ational Deco(ery ct ;#D<, most sweeping and
contro(ersial of the early #ew >eal legislation, established the Public 3orks dministration ;P3<
and imposed upon industry a strict code of fair practice.
/he act set minimum wages and ma.imum working hours and ga(e employees the right to
collecti(e bargaining. Pri(ate industry fought &>D tooth and nail on the #D, but such was the
depth of the >epression crisis and the personal charisma of Doose(elt that the administration
pre(ailed.
!n sharp contrast to the worlds communist regimes, the Doose(elt administration showed
e:ual concern for the industrial worker and the agricultural worker. &armers were in a desperate
plight during the >epression, and in =ay 05EE, &>D pre(ailed on $ongress to create the
gricultural d4ustment dministration, a program of production limits and federal subsidies.
Perhaps the single most (isible manifestation of the #ew >eal program of agricultural reform was
the establishment of the /ennessee @alley uthority ;/@<, which built roads, great dams, and
hydroelectric plants in se(en of the nations poorest states.
=ore programs followed the )undred >ays. !n 05E%, the 3orks Progress dministration
;3P< was formed, which put C.% million people to work between 05E% and 052E+when the
program ended. /he employees built public pro4ects out of concrete and steel, and they also created
cultural works through the &ederal /heater Pro4ect, the &ederal 3riters Program, and the &ederal
rt Pro4ect. /he most enduring of the #ew >eal programs was Social Security, introduced in 05E%,
which created old'age pension funds through payroll and wage ta.es. #one of the #ew >eal
programs brought full reco(ery, but they helped restore confidence in the merican go(ernment and
propelled Doose(elt to a landslide second'term (ictory o(er Depublican lf Landon in 05E7.
,Second #ew >eal- went into effect, which concentrated on labor reforms.
6rban ,ar
!n the end, it would take the approach of 3orld 3ar !!, with its demand for the materials of
strife, to end the Areat >epression. But years before the 6nited States entered that war, another,
different kind of combat was being waged on the streets of the nations cities. Prohibition had
spawned a gangster culture in the 05F1s, which many mericans found colorful, almost romantic.
fter all, the urban outlaws supplied the public with the good times that go(ernment denied them.
/hen came St. @alentines >ay, 05F5, the day l $apone decided to eliminate ri(al $hicago
gangland leader ,Bugs- =oran. $apone dispatched gunmen, disguised as policemen, who rounded
up se(en members of the gang, stood them up against the wall of =orans commercial garage, and
brutally e.ecuted them with /ommy guns. ;=oran himself wasnt present and escaped
assassination.< =obsters had been rubbing one another out for years, but the blatant butchery of the
St. @alentines >ay =assacre finally outraged the public. $apone and other gangsters were no
longer (iewed as Dobin )oods, but as cold'blooded murderers. Yet, as gangsters became more
(iciously (iolent, they also became increasingly organi9ed.
!n the same year as the St. @alentines >ay =assacre, $apone proposed to the gang leaders of
#ew York and other cities that they meet to organi9e crime throughout the 6nited States. /he
meeting took place in tlantic $ity and included such underworld luminaries as Lucky Luciano, Ioe
donis, lberto nastasia, &rank $ostello, and =eyer Lansky. /he national crime Syndicate was
born, consolidating nationwide gambling, prostitution, e.tortion, and li:uor trafficking. fter 05EE,
when the 0Cth mendment was repealed, thereby ending Prohibition, the Syndicate began to enter
the trade in narcotics, hoping it would replace boo9e as the publics illicit substance of choice.
/he economic conditions of the 05E1s produced at least two durable legacies into merican
lifeB one, a federal go(ernment that takes an acti(e role in the welfare of its citi9ens ;e(en today,
when many conser(ati(e politicians clamor to slash ,welfare budgets,- few are foolhardy enough to
suggest reducing the Social Security program< and two, organi9ed crime.
A 8e+ ,ar
/he Areat >epression brought the 6nited States close to the brink of re(olution, but a deeply
ingrained tradition of democratic capitalism, combined with &>Ds ability to restore and maintain
faith in the go(ernment, a(erted a (iolent breakdown. !n 8urope, also hard hit by the >epression,
the people of !taly and Aermany hungered not for democracy, but for the strongman leadership
promised by a 4ournalist named Benito =ussolini ;0CCE'052%< and a failed artist, sometimes house
painter, and full'time political agitator named dolf )itler ;0CC5'052%<. 8.hausted humanity had
assumed that the horrors of 3orld 3ar !, combined with the peaceful prosperity of the 05F1s,
guaranteed the permanent rise of international stability and liberal constitutionalism. But Aermany,
crippled by the harsh conditions of the @ersailles treaty, was robbed of postwar prosperity. /hen the
>epression dro(e its people to desperation. !n Aermany and !taly, militaristic authoritarianism burst
into iron blossom with promises of a return to national glory and national prosperity.
?"ro7e -ar)ens, Then -ies
!n Aermany, )itler and his #a9i party won a popular following that propelled him to the
position of chancellor under the aged and infirm President Paul (on )indenberg and into absolute
dictatorship after )indenbergs death in 05E2. )itler took Aermany out of the League of #ations in
05EE and, in defiance of the /reaty of @ersailles, initiated a massi(e rearmament program. !n 05E7,
the dictator sent troops into the Dhineland, which had been demilitari9ed by the @ersailles treaty.
/he League of #ations stood by helplessly, as did the llies of 3orld 3ar !. !ndeed, one of those
erstwhile llies, !taly, openly sided with #a9i Aermany. Seeking an easy foreign con:uest to
solidify popular support, Benito =ussolini, like some monstrous incarnation of a schoolyard bully,
sent !talys modern army into frica against 8thiopians who were armed chiefly with spears.
8thiopia collapsed by 05E7, and although the nations emperor, )aile Salassie ;0C5F'05?%<,
appealed to the League of #ations with great dignity and elo:uence, the world body, once again,
pro(ed impotent.
)ard on the heels of the !talian con:uest of 8thiopia came the Spanish $i(il 3ar ;05E'7E5<, a
comple. struggle between factions allied with the nations liberal'leftist republican go(ernment and
&ascist'sympathi9ing rightists led primarily by Aeneral &rancisco &ranco ;0C5F'05?%<. )itler and
=ussolini eagerly sent military aid to &ranco, and )itlers Luftwaffe ;air force< in particular used
Spanish towns as practice targets in preparation for the greater conflict looming on the dark hori9on.
3hile So(iet dictator Ioseph Stalin ;0C?5'05%E< ga(e military e:uipment to the Spanish
republicans, the 6nited States, Britain, and &rance+fearing the outbreak of a general war+remained
neutral.
/heir reluctance was as understandable as it was tragic. fter all, in 0502, a tangle of alliances
had escalated a local Balkans war into a conflagration that engulfed the world. Yet while the former
llies waffled and waited, Aermany and !taly forged the Dome'Berlin .is in 05E7. /hat same
year, in sia, the 8mpire of Iapan concluded the nti'$omintern Pact ;an alliance against
$ommunism< with AermanyG in 05E?, !taly signed on to the pact as well. /he following year, 05EC,
)itler in(aded ustria and anne.ed it to his /hird Deich. /he year 05EC also saw )itlers demand
that the Sudetenland+western $9echoslo(akia, where many ethnic Aermans li(ed+be 4oined to the
Deich. &rance and Britain were bound by treaty to defend the territorial integrity of $9echoslo(akia,
but they ne(ertheless yielded the Sudetenland to Aermany in an effort to ,appease- )itler. British
prime minister #e(ille $hamberlain told the world that the cession of the Sudetenland ;the =unich
greement< insured ,peace in our time.-
)e was wrong. !n 05E5, )itler sei9ed the rest of $9echoslo(akia, then took a part of Lithuania
and prepared to gobble up the so'called Polish $orridor, a narrow strip of land that separated 8ast
Prussia from the rest of Aermany. t this time, =ussolinis !taly anne.ed lbania. &inally, on
September 0, 05E5, Aermany in(aded+and crushed+Poland. &rance and Britain could no longer
stand by. 3orld 3ar !! had begun.
#nfamy at %earl
3hile merican eyes focused ner(ously on 8urope, sia was heating to the point of crisis.
>espite a 05FF pledge to respect $hinas territorial integrity, Iapan in(aded =anchuria in 05E0 and
established the puppet state of =anchuko the following year. /he League of #ations protested,
resulting in nothing more than Iapans withdrawal from the organi9ation in 05EE. By 0, 5E ?, Iapan
and $hina were engaged in full'scale war. On September F?, 0521, Iapan signed the /ripartite Pact
with !taly and Aermany, thereby creating the Berlin'Dome'/okyo .is.
lthough it remained officially neutral, the 6nited States, guided by Doose(elt, edged closer
to war. /he sale of military supplies was authori9ed, and then, in =arch 0520, $ongress passed the
Lend'Lease ct, permitting the shipment of material to nations whose defense was considered (ital
to 6.S. security+Areat Britain and, later, $hina and the 6.S.S.D. !n September 0521, the first
peacetime draft law in 6.S. history had been passed, authori9ing the registration of 0? million men.
!n ugust and September 0520, 6.S. merchant (essels were armed for self'defense. /he powder
was packed in the keg. ll it took was a flame for the war to e.plode upon merica.
!t came on >ecember ?, 0520. t ?B%1 on that :uiet Sunday morning, Iapanese aircraft struck
without warning at Pearl )arbor, )awaii, where some ?% ma4or 6.S. #a(y ships were moored. By
0.1 am, the attack was o(er.
/he ne.t day, President Doose(elt asked $ongress for a declaration of war, calling >ecember
?, 0520, a ,day which will li(e in infamy. , Suddenly, the Areat >epression ended in a headlong
rush of young men into the armed forces and of others, men as well as women, into the nations
factories. !ndustries now tooled up+for the second time in the century+to ser(e as the ,arsenal of
democracy.-
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
lthough un4ust, )erbert )oo(er is often blamed for ha(ing caused the >epressionG
howe(er, the federal go(ernment did not take ma4or steps to bring economic relief until
Doose(elt assumed office.
/he massi(e programs of the #ew >eal probably a(erted social breakdown and
re(olution in the 6.S., but it was the economic demands of 3orld 3ar !! that finally
ended the Areat >epression.
,ord for the -ay
5ascism , a system of go(ernment marked by centrali9ation of authority under an absolute
dictator, was masterminded in !taly by Benito =ussolini ;0CCE'052%<. /he name comes from the
Latin word fasces, a bundle or rods bound together around an a., which was the ancient Doman
symbol of authority. $ommunism, as proposed by "arl =ar. ;0C0C'CE<, is a system of collecti(e
ownership of property and the collecti(e administration of power for the common good. !n practice,
$ommunism is a system of go(ernment characteri9ed by state ownership of property and the
centrali9ation of authority in a single political party or dictator. /otalitarianism describes any system
of go(ernment in which the indi(idual is wholly subordinate to the state.
Stats
>espite the #ew >eal, 5.% million people remained unemployed by 05E5.
!ain ?0ent
/he >epression'born longing for a bright future was summed up in two great 3orlds &airs.
/he $entury of Progress 8.hibition of 05EE'E2, held in $hicago, did much to populari9e modern
architecture. nd the #ew York 3orlds &air of 05E5'21 was built around the theme of ,/he 3orld
of /omorrow-+e(en as the nightmare of total war broke once again upon 8urope.
6he =Good War?
(%0(%#%0(5'
In This Chapter
Early defeats
Turnin& !oints. #ictory in "orth Africa and at Mid(ay
$olla!se of ;ermany
Bse of the atomic bomb a&ainst -a!an
3hen merica had entered 3orld 3ar !, it rushed to mobili9e forces for a 8uropean war.
#ow, e(en as 8urope was being o(errun by #a9i Aermany, Iapan had struck directly at 6nited
States territory ;)awaii did not become a state until 05%5<. Preparations for war were e(en more
urgent in 0520. than they had been in 050?, and the blow at Pearl )arbor was 4ust one of many
Iapanese assaults. Iapanese forces attacked 3ake !sland and Auam ;both 6.S. possessions<, British
=alaya, Singapore, the >utch 8ast !ndies, Burma, /hailand, and the Philippines ;at the time a 6.S.
commonwealth territory<. /he 6.S. garrison on Auam was o(erwhelmed and surrendered. On 3ake
!sland, =arines repelled a first Iapanese attack but yielded to a second. Britains crown colony of
)ong "ong collapsed, soon followed by Singapore ;another British possession<, and then the >utch
8ast !ndies. Burma likewise fell, despite the efforts of $laire L. $hennault ;0C51'05%C<, a former
6.S. rmy ir Ser(ice officer and now air ad(iser to $hinas premier $hiang "ai'Shek. $hennault
led his famous &lying /igers+a small force of 6.S.'made $urtiss P'21 fighter planes+in crippling
action against the enemys aircraft.
&or the 6nited States, as for the rest of the formerly ,free- world, the opening years of 3orld
3ar !! were humiliating, dismal, and terrifying.
# Shall .et"rn
/he hardest blow in the Pacific came in the Philippines, where Aeneral >ouglas =acrthur
;0CC1'0572<, commanding %%,111 &ilipinos and mericans, made a heroic stand on the Bataan
Peninsula, but at last, in &ebruary 052F, was ordered to escape to ustralia to assume command of
the llied forces in the southwestern Pacific. Degretfully, =acrthur left his troops to their fate. ,!
shall return,- he pledged+but it would take until 0522 for the llies to put him into a position to
redeem that pledge.
6nder Lieutenant Aeneral Ionathan =. 3ainwright, the &ilipino'merican forces held out
until =ay 7, 052F, when they surrendered and were sub4ect to unspeakable brutality at the hands of
Iapanese captors.
Thirty Seconds :0er To)yo
>esperate for a counterstrike against Iapan, the rmy ir &orce appro(ed the plan of
Lieutenant $olonel Iames >oolittle ;0C57'055E< to take 07 B'F%s aboard the aircraft carrier )ornet
and launch, on pril 0C, 052F, a surprise bombing raid on /okyo. /his attack was the closest thing
to a deliberate suicide mission merican military personnel e(er undertook during the war.
8(eryone well knew that the twin'engine bombers could not carry sufficient fuel to return to any
merican base. 8(en if they had had enough fuel capacity to return to the )ornet, the bombers, not
designed for carrier flight, would ha(e been unable to land. /he plan was to ditch the planes in
$hina, find safe ha(en among $hinese resistance fighters, and somehow, find a way to return home.
=iraculously, most of the bomber crews were, in fact, rescued, and while the damage to /okyo was
minor, the psychological effect was great. /he attack shocked the Iapanese, who were forced to tie
up more fighter aircraft at home, and merican morale was gi(en a terrific boost.
Home $ront
for all its horror, 3orld 3ar 00 is recalled by many mericans as an almost magical time,
when the nation united with single'minded purpose in a cause both desperate and 4ust+a struggle,
:uite literally, of good against e(il. 8(eryone pitched in to produce the materials of war, and women
4oined the work force in unprecedented numbers as the men were inducted into the armed forces.
cti(ity on the home front also had an ugly side. On &ebruary 05, 052F, responding to
pressure from 3est $oast politicians, &>D signed 8.ecuti(e Order 5177. /he order re:uired all
Iapanese'mericans li(ing within F11 miles of the Pacific shores+citi9ens and resident aliens alike+
to report for relocation in internment camps located in $alifornia, !daho, 6tah, ri9ona, 3yoming,
$olorado, and rkansas. =ilitary officials feared sabotage, but non'Iapanese farmers in the region
feared competition e(en more and were eager to get rid of their Iapanese'merican neighbors.
Afri)a *or7s
!n 0520, #orthern frica was held by &ield =arshal 8rwin Dommel ;0C50'0522<, known as
the ,>esert &o.,- whose frika "orps was seemingly in(incible. /he British and mericans agreed
to conduct a #orth frican campaign, defeat the Aermans there, and then attack what Britains great
wartime prime minister 3inston $hurchill called the ,soft underbelly of 8urope.- &orces under
British &ield =arshal Bernard Law =ontgomery and merican generals >wight >. 8isenhower and
Aeorge S. Patton decisi(ely defeated the Aermans and !talians in #orth frica by =ay 052E, and an
!talian in(asion was launched.
&oral Sea and !id+ay
3hile the Aermans began to lose to their grip on frica, 6.S. forces also started to turn the
tide in the Pacific. >uring =ay E'5, 052F, the na(y sunk or disabled more than F% Iapanese ships,
blocking Iapans e.tension to the south and pre(enting the Iapanese from se(ering supply lines to
ustralia. )owe(er, the Iapanese soon returned to the offensi(e by attacking the island of =idway,
some 0,011 miles northwest of )awaii. =arshalling a task force of F11 ships and 711 planes, the
Iapanese counted on the element of surprise to achie(e a rapid (ictory. But, unknown to them,
merican intelligence officers had broken Iapanese codes, and the na(y had ad(ance warning of the
task force.
/he battle commenced on Iune E, 052F, and 6.S. aircraft, launched from the )ornet,
Yorktown, and 8nterprise, sank four Iapanese carriers. Deeling from this blow, the !mperial #a(y
withdrew their fleet, but the mericans ga(e chase, sinking or disabling two hea(y cruisers and
three destroyers, as well as destroying EFF planes. lthough the 6.S. #a(y took hea(y losses+the
carrier Yorktown, a destroyer, and 02? aircraft+=idway !sland remained in merican hands, and the
Iapanese were ne(er able to resume the offensi(e in the Pacific.
#sland Ho77ing
fter suffering defeat at =idway, the Iapanese turned their attention to mounting a fullscale
assault on ustralia. /hey began by constructing an airstrip on Auadalcanal in the southern
Solomon !slands. !n response, on ugust ?, 052F, a 6.S. task force landed =arines at Auadalcanal,
where the Iapanese resisted for si. months. Auadalcanal was the beginning of a 6.S. strategy of
,island hopping-B a plan to take or retake all Iapanese'held islands, thereby gradually closing in on
the Iapanese mainland itself. /he campaign promised to be a (ery long haul. Auadalcanal, ha(ing
taken si. hellish months to con:uer, was fully E,111 miles from /okyo.
/he ne.t step was to neutrali9e the ma4or Iapanese air and na(al base at Dabaul, on the
eastern tip of #ew Britain !sland, 4ust east of #ew Auinea. 6nder Aeneral =acrthur, 6.S. and
ustralian troops attacked through the Solomons and #ew Auinea. 3hen the Iapanese rushed to
reinforce their position on the islands of Lae and Salamaua, on =arch E'2, 052E, 6.S. B'F2
Liberators and B'0? &lying &ortresses attacked troop transports and their na(al escorts with
de(astating results. /he Battle of the Bismarck Sea cost the Iapanese E,%11 menG the llies lost only
fi(e planes. /he defeat was a se(ere blow to the Iapanese presence in the southwest Pacific. By the
end of 052E, Dabaul had been neutrali9ed, se(ering some 011,111 Iapanese from any hope of
supply, support, or reinforcement.
!n the central Pacific, 6.S. forces mo(ed against /arawa and =akin islands. =akin :uickly
fell, but /arawa was defended by (eteran Iapanese 4ungle fighters, and the battle, begun on
#o(ember F1, 052E, was e.traordinarily costly to both sides.
!editerranean Shores
By mid'=ay 052E, Doose(elt and $hurchill agreed to postpone crossing the 8nglish $hannel
to in(ade &rance until the ,soft underbelly- of 8urope had been penetrated (ia an in(asion of Sicily
from #orth frica. On Iuly 5'01, 052E, British and merican forces landed in Sicily, and the !talian
army crumbled before them. Aerman resistance was a different matter, howe(er, and costly fighting
ensued. /he in(asion of Sicily culminated in the fall of =essina to the llies on ugust 0?, 052E.
By this time, Benito =ussolini had been o(erthrown ;Iuly F%, 052E< and was sa(ed from
arrest only by a Aerman rescue mission. /he !talian go(ernment, now under =arshal Pietro
Badoglio ;0C?0'05%7<, made secret peace o(ertures to the llies while the Aermans dug in on the
!talian peninsula and awaited an in(asion.
On September E, 052E, British and 6.S. forces left =essina and landed on the toe of the
!talian boot. /he &ifth 6.S. rmy, under Aeneral =ark 3. $lark ;0C57'05C2<, landed at Salerno,
and within a month southern !taly fell to the llies. /he Aermans e(acuated the key city of #aples
on October ! but then greatly stiffened their resistance, struggling to hold fter Badoglios
go(ernment signed an armistice with the llies and, on October 0E, declared war on Aermany,
)itler installed =ussolini as head of a puppet regime in northern !taly.
&or the balance of 052E, the llied armies in !taly were stalemated. On Ianuary FF, 0522,
%1,111 6.S. troops landed at n9io, 4ust EE miles south of Dome, but were pinned down by Aerman
forces. #ot until Iune 2, 0522, did Dome fall to the llies. &rom this point on, the Aermans steadily
retreated northward. On pril FC, 052%, =ussolini and his mistress, $laretta Petacci, were captured
by !talian anti'&ascists, then shot and hung by the heels in a =ilanese public s:uare.
The Beaches of $rance
lthough 6.S. forces entered 8urope through !taly, fighting on the continent was more
widespread. /he So(iets, who suffered the hea(iest casualties of the war and who had been
de(astated by a surprise Aerman in(asion begun on Iune FF, 0520, were fighting back with a
(engeance. /he Battle of Stalingrad ;present'day @olgograd<, fought from Iuly 0? to #o(ember 0C,
052F, resulted in the loss of ?%1,111 So(iet troops, but also C%1,111 #a9is. /his battle turned the
grim tide of warfare on the 8astern &ront. !n the meantime, British Doyal ir &orce ;D&< bombers
and 6.S. rmy ir $orps bombers pummeled industrial targets throughout Aermany. t sea, the
Battle of the tlantic had raged since early 052F. &rom Ianuary to Iune, Aerman 6'boats sunk three
million tons of 6.S. shipping. )owe(er, the de(elopment of longer'range aircraft and more
ad(anced radar systems led to effecti(e defenses against 6'boats, and by the spring of 052E, the
6'boat threat had been greatly reduced.
3ith pressure applied from the south, from the east, from the air, and at sea, the time was at
last right for a ma4or llied thrust from the westB a full'scale assault on what )itler liked to call
,&ortress 8urope.- &or this offensi(e, the llies mounted in Britain the largest and most powerful
in(asion force in history. Officially christened Operation O(erlord, the in(asion of #ormandy
became popularly known by the military designation of the day of its commencementB >'>ay, Iune
7, 0522.
6.S. Aeneral >wight >a(id 8isenhower was in command of the high+stakes operation,
which+astoundingly'caught the Aermans off guard. /rue, the Aermans e.pected an in(asion+but
not at #ormandy. /hrough an elaborate program of deception and disinformation, the llies had led
the Aermans to belie(e that the in(asion would come at $alais. #e(ertheless, Aerman resistance
was stiff, but the llies pre(ailed and on ugust 0%, 0522, launched a second in(asion of &rance,
this time in the South between /oulon and $annes. /he ob4ecti(e was to trap Aerman forces within
the laws of a giant pincers. On ugust F%, Paris+belo(ed capital of &rance, in Aerman hands since
0521+fell to the llies.
To Berlin and Victory in ?"ro7e
&rom &rance, the llies launched an in(asion into the Aerman homeland itself. By early
September, British forces liberated Brussels, Belgium, and merican troops crossed the Aerman
frontier at 8upen. On October F0, the 6.S. &irst rmy captured achen+the first Aerman city to fall
to the llies.
/he Aermans had lost the war. t least, that is how any rational leader would ha(e (iewed it.
But dolf )itler was no longer rational+if he e(er had been. )itler ordered his soldiers to fight to
the last man, and he reinforced his thinning lines with underage boys and o(erage men. lthough
the Aermans continued to retreat, resistance was always fierce. /hen, on >ecember 07, 0522,
Aeneral Aerd (on Dundstedt ;0C?%'05%E< led a desperate counteroffensi(e, dri(ing a wedge into
llied lines through the rdennes on the &ranco'Belgian frontier. 3ith Aerman forces distending
the llied line westward, the ensuing combat was called the Battle of the Bulge. /he 6.S. &irst and
/hird armies+the latter led brilliantly by Aeneral Aeorge S. Patton ;0CC%'052%<+pushed back the
bulge, which was wholly contained by Ianuary 052%. /he battle was the last great Aerman
offensi(e, and it was Aermanys last chance to stop the llies ad(ance into its homeland.
To+ard VI? -ay
>uring &ebruary 052%, Aeneral Patton sped his armored units to the Dhine Di(er and, after
clearing the west bank, captured the bridge at Demagen, near $ologne, on =arch ?. llied forces
crossed this bridge and at other points along the Dhine, and were now poised to make a run for
Berlin. )owe(er, Aeneral 8isenhower, belie(ing )itler would make his last stand in the Aerman
south, chose to head for Leip9ig. 3ith 6.S. troops 4ust 57 miles west of Berlin, the Supreme llied
$ommander sent a message to So(iet dictator Iosef Stalin, telling him that he was lea(ing the
Aerman capital to the Ded rmy.
3hile the British and mericans had been closing in from the 3est, the So(iets had e.ecuted
a massi(e assault on the Aermans 8astern &ront. By the end of Ianuary, the Ded rmy had pushed
through Poland into Aermany itself. !n truth, little was left of Berlin. combination of 6.S. and
British air power and So(iet artillery had ra9ed the capital of )itlers (aunted ,/housand'Year
Deich.- On pril 07, 052%, So(iet =arshal Aeorgy Hhuko( mo(ed his troops into Berlin. =any
Aerman soldiers and ci(ilians, terrified of the (engeance the So(iets might e.act, fled westward to
surrender to the mericans and the British.
!ndeed, Aermans could ha(e found few places of refuge in the spring of 052%, for the entire
world was learning of war crimes committed on an unimaginably (ast scale. !n their dri(e toward
Berlin, the llies liberated one #a9i concentration camp after another+centers of e.termination to
which Iews, Aypsies, Sla(s, homose.uals, and others deemed by the Deich as ,undesirable- had
been sent for e.termination. Such names as uschwit9, Buchenwald, Belsen, and >achau seared
themsel(es into history. /he #a9is bad not been content with con:uestG they intended nothing less
than genocide.
3estbound So(iet and eastbound merican troops met at the ri(er 8lbe on pril F%, 052%.
&i(e days later, dolf )itler, holed up in a bunker beneath the shattered streets of Berlin, shot
himself. On =ay ?, 052%, senior representati(es of Aermanys armed forces surrendered to the
llies at Aeneral 8isenhowers head:uarters in Deims. /he (ery ne.t day came a formal
unconditional surrender. &rom the pages of merican newspapers, headlines shouted the arri(al of
@'8+@ictory in 8urope+>ay.
$at !an and (ittle Boy
Aerman scientists disco(ered the possibility of nuclear fission+a process whereby the
tremendous energy of the atom might be liberated+in 05EC. &ortunately for the world, )itlers
tyranny dro(e many of Aermanys best thinkers out of the country, and the nations efforts to e.ploit
fission in a weapon came to nothing. /hree )ungarian'born merican physicists+Leo S9ilard,
8ugene 3igner, and 8dward /eller+were all intimately familiar with what a man like )itler could
do. /hey asked mericas single most prestigious physicist, lbert 8instein ;a fugiti(e from #a9i
persecution<, to write a letter to President Doose(elt, warning him of Aermanys nuclear weapons
research.
Late in 05E5, &>D authori9ed the atomic bomb de(elopment program that became known as
the =anhattan Pro4ect. 6nder the military management of Aeneral Leslie D. Aro(es ;0C57'05?1<
and the scientific direction of I. Dobert Oppenheimer ;0512'057?<, the program grew to (ast
proportions and employed the nations foremost scientific minds. prototype bomb+called ,the
gadget- by the scientists+was completed in the summer of 052% and was successfully detonated at
lamogordo, #ew =e.ico, on Iuly 07, 052%.
t this time, the llies were planning the final in(asion of Iapan, which, based on the bloody
e.perience of ,island hopping,- was e.pected to add perhaps a million more deaths to the llied
toll. President /ruman therefore authori9ed the use of the terrible new weapon against Iapan. On
ugust 7, 052%, a lone B'F5 bomber dropped ,Little Boy- on )iroshima, obliterating the city in
three'fifths of a second. /hree days later, ,&at =an- was dropped on #agasaki, destroying about
half the city.
On ugust 01, the day after the attack on #agasaki, Iapan sued for peace on condition that the
emperor be allowed to remain as so(ereign ruler. On ugust 00, the llies replied that they and they
alone would determine the future of 8mperor )irohito. t last, on ugust 02, the emperor
personally accepted the llied terms. cease'fire was declared on ugust 0%, and on September F,
052%, Aeneral =acrthur presided o(er the Iapanese signing of the formal surrender document on
the deck of the 6.S. battleship =issouri, anchored in /okyo Bay.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
#e(er before or since 3orld 3ar !! ha(e mericans fought with such unanimity and
singleness of purpose.
!f e(er a war was a contest of good (ersus e(il, such was 3orld 3ar !!, and mericas role in
achie(ing (ictory ele(ated the nation to ,superpower- status in the postwar political order.
!ain ?0ent
/he Iapanese military was guided by the code of the Samurai warrior, as ancient as it was
harsh. /o be killed in battle was an honor, but to be taken prisoner, a disgrace. ccordingly, the
Iapanese treated its prisoners of war as dishonored men. merica learned this fact the hard way
when 6.S. and &ilipino soldiers who surrendered at $orregidor on pril 5, 052F, were sent on a
forced march to capti(ity in Bataan. /he infamous Bataan >eath =arch resulted in the deaths of
01,111 P. 1 3. s because of abuse and star(ation.
Voice from the %ast
&or many mericans, the most stirring (oice of the war was that of a Britisher, Prime =inister
3inston $hurchill. /he man was so greatly admired in this country that, in 057E, $hurchill was
made an honorary citi9en by act of $ongress+a uni:ue e(ent in merican history. )is first address
as prime minister was deli(ered on =ay 0E, 0521B
,K! say to the )ouse as ! said to =inisters who ha(e 4oined this go(ernment, ! ha(e nothing
to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat. 3e ha(e before us an ordeal of the most grie(ous kind. 3e
ha(e before us many, many months of struggle and suffering.
,You ask, what is our policyO ! say it is to wage war by land, sea, and air. 3ar with all our
might and with all the strength Aod has gi(en us, and to wage war against a monstrous tyranny
ne(er surpassed in the dark and lamentable catalogue of human crime. /hat is our policy.
,You ask, what is our aimO ! can answer in one word. !t is (ictory. @ictory at all costs+(ictory
in spite of all terrors+(ictory, howe(er long and hard the road may be, for without (ictory there is
no sur(i(alK
Stats
/he Iapanese characteristically fought to the death. Of the %,111 Iapanese troops defending
/arawa, only 0? were taken prisoner when the island fell on #o(ember F7.
Stats
ppro.imately %,111 llied ships, 00,111 llied aircraft, and more than 0%1,111 troops
participated in the Iune 7 >'>ay landing.
.eal (ife
>wight >a(id 8isenhower, as Supreme llied $ommander, was the single most powerful
military figure in 3orld 3ar !!.
fter 3orld 3ar !!, 8isenhower ser(ed briefly as army chief of staff, wrote a memoir of the
war ;the 052C $rusade in 8urope<, and ser(ed as president of $olumbia 6ni(ersity. !n >ecember
05%1, President )arry S /ruman named him military commander of #/O. /wo years later,
8isenhower was tapped by the Depublican party as its presidential candidate. )e ser(ed two terms
as, :uite possibly, the most popular president in merican history. Detiring to his farm in
Aettysburg, Pennsyl(ania, in 0570, 8isenhower wrote a series of books. )e died in 0575.
!ain ?0ent
3orld 3ar !! was conducted with an unprecedented degree of cooperation among the llies,
whose leaders held se(eral key strategic and political conferences during the conflict. One of the
most important was the Yalta $onference, held from &ebruary 2 to &ebruary 00, 052%, in the
$rimea. )ere Doose(elt, $hurchill, and Stalin planned the end of the war and laid a foundation for
the postwar world. Stalin promised to establish pro(isional go(ernments in the nations of eastern
8urope now occupied by the So(iets, and he pledged to hold free, democratic elections as soon as
possible.
/he group agreed that the So(iet 6nion would anne. eastern Poland and that Poland would be
compensated by Aerman war reparations. /he con:uered Aermany would be di(ided into four
9ones of occupation, to be administered by the 6.S., 6.S.S.D., Britain, and &rance. Deluctant to
enter the war against Iapan, Stalin agreed that his nation would do so within three months of
Aermanys surrender. !n e.change, the 6.S.S.D. would recei(e the southern half of Sakhalin !sland,
the "uril !slands, and special rights in certain ports.
Stats
$i(ilian deaths in 3orld 3ar !! e.ceeded F% million, of whom 7 million were Iews
systematically murdered by order of dolf )itler.
!ain ?0ent
&ranklin >elano Doose(elt, elected to an unprecedented four terms as president of the 6nited
States and ha(ing seen his nation through the >epression and the blackest days of 3orld 3ar !!,
succumbed to a cerebral hemorrhage on pril 0F, 052%. Doose(elt was succeeded by his (ice
president, )arry S /ruman ;0CC2'05?F<. /ruman attended the last wartime llied conference at
Potsdam, Aermany, during Iuly 0?'ugust F with $hurchill ;who was replaced by his successor,
$lement ttlee, during the conference< and Stalin.
/he conference crystalli9ed plans for the postwar world, confirming the four'9one di(ision of
Aermany, establishing plans for de'#a9ification and demilitari9ation, and establishing a tribunal to
prosecute those guilty of war crimes and atrocities. resol(ed that nothing less than unconditional
surrender would end the war against Iapan. /ruman also re(ealed at Potsdam that the 6nited States
had successfully tested an atomic bomb, which could be used against Iapan.
Stats
>ropped on )iroshima, with a population of about E11,111, ,Little Boy- killed ?C,111 people
instantlyG 01,111 more were ne(er foundG more than ?1,111 were in4uredG and many subse:uently
died of radiation'related causes. #agasaki, with a population of F%1,111, instantly lost some 21,111
people when ,&at =an- was dropped. nother 21,111 were wounded.
A Cold War and a Borean War
(%0((#%05('
In This Chapter
The B<"< and other !ost(ar !eace !ro&rams
2escent of the Iron $urtain and start of the $old War
The $IA and Mc$arthyism
The 4orean War
De4oicing at the end of 3orld 3ar !! was intense, but brief. /he So(iet 6nion, portrayed by
6.S. politicians and press alike as a (aliant ally during the war, once again became an ideological
and political enemy. /he eastern 8uropean nations occupied by the Ded rmy became satellites of
the 6.S.S.D., and the postwar world found itself di(ided between the western democracies, led by
the 6nited States, and the eastern communist ,bloc,- dominated by the So(iets. !t seemed as if the
seeds of yet another war+3orld 3ar !!!O+had been sown. t least mericans could take comfort in
their sole possession of the atomic bombKbut that, too, would soon change.
,inning the %eace
!t was clear to mericas leaders that the llies had won 3orld 3ar 0, only later to ,lose the
peace.- /hey were determined to not make the same mistake again.
The Birth of the 6nited 8ations
>uring 3orld 3ar !!, the powers aligned against the .is called themsel(es the ,6nited
#ations.- /he concept that label con(eyed held great promiseG after all, had the League of #ations
been a more effecti(e body, 3orld 3ar !l might ha(e been a(erted altogether. &rom ugust to
October 0522, the 6nited States, Areat Britain, the 6.S.S.D., and $hina met at a 3ashington, >.$.,
estate called >umbarton Oaks to sketch out plans for a new world body. /he wartime allies'plus
&rance'would constitute a peacekeeping ;,security-< council, while the other nations of the world,
though represented, would play secondary roles.
/he >umbarton Oaks $onference was remarkably successful, e.cept in regard to two ma4or
issuesB the principle of unanimity among the security council members ;Should action re:uire
unanimous consentO< and the So(iet demand for separate membership for each of its 07 republics.
=eeting at Yalta in the $rimea, &ebruary 2'00, 052%, the Big /hree+Doose(elt, Stalin, and
$hurchill+resol(ed their differences. /he principle of unanimity was upheld, but Stalin reduced his
separate membership demand from 07 to threeB Dussia, 6kraine, and Byelorussia. Later in the year,
a formal 6nited #ations $harter was drawn up and adopted by %1 nations at the San &rancisco
$onference. /he charter became effecti(e after a ma4ority of the signatory nations ratified it on
October F2, 052%. /he 6nited #ations, the most significant world body in history, had become a
reality.
Bermany -i0ided
nother element (ital to winning the peace was the postwar treatment of Aermany. merican,
British, and &rench leaders, mindful of how the puniti(e /reaty of @ersailles had created the
conditions that brought )itler to power and plunged the world into the second great war of the
century, did not clamor for re(enge. On the other hand, the So(iet 6nion wanted more than
re(engeG it demanded the utter sub4ugation of Aermany. &or the present, Aermany was car(ed up
into four ,9ones of occupation,- each under the control of a different allyB the 6nited States, Britain,
the 6.S.S.D., and &rance. ll the llies agreed on instituting programs to ,de'#a9ify- Aermany,
purging it of indi(iduals who might seek to resurrect the #ational Socialist party. /he llies further
agreed to establish a tribunal for the trial and prosecution of those who committed war crimes.
Secretary !arshall/s %lan
/he single boldest step toward winning the peace was proposed on Iune %, 052?, by Aeorge
$. =arshall. /he former army chief of staff, now secretary of state, described in an address at
)ar(ard 6ni(ersity a plan whereby the nations of 8urope would draw up a unified scheme for
economic reconstruction to be funded by the 6nited States. lthough the So(iet 6nion and its
satellite nations were in(ited to 4oin, in the growing chill of the $old 3ar, they declined. Si.teen
western 8uropean nations formed the Organi9ation for 8uropean 8conomic $ooperation to
coordinate the program formally known as the 8uropean Deco(ery Program, but more familiarly
called the =arshall Plan.
3inston $hurchill called the =arshall Plan the ,most unsordid- political act in history, but it
was, abo(e all, a political act. lthough =arshall assured the So(iets that the plan was riot directed
,against any country or doctrine but against hunger, po(erty, desperation, and chaos,- it was a
powerful economic sal(o fired against communism. )a(ing witnessed totalitarian regimes rush to
fill the (oid of postwar economic catastrophe, =arshall and other 6.S. leaders were eager to restore
the war'ra(aged economies of the 3est and e(en to stimulate growth. 8conomic well'being, they
felt, was the strongest ally of democracy.
/he 6nited States poured some P0E billion into 8urope and also established a massi(e
>isplaced Persons Plan, whereby almost E11,111 homeless 8uropeans ;including many Iewish
sur(i(ors of the )olocaust< immigrated to the 6nited States and became citi9ens.
&"rtain of #ron
On =arch %, 0527, 3inston $hurchill addressed tiny 3estminster $ollege in &ulton,
=issouri. ,&rom Stettin in the Baltic to /rieste in the driatic,- he declared, ,an iron curtain has
descended across the continent.- /he former prime ministers elo:uent phrase took root, and !ron
$urtain was used for more than %1 years to describe the economic, social, and military barriers
created against the 3est by the So(iet 6nion and the communist countries of 8astern 8urope.
;&ontaining< &omm"nism
!n 0CFE, President Iames =onroe issued his famous ,=onroe >octrine,- warning 8uropean
powers that the 6nited States would act to halt any new attempts to coloni9e the mericas. !n 052?,
President )arry S /ruman promulgated the ,/ruman >octrine,- warning the So(iet 6nion+which
supported a threatened communist takeo(er of Areece and /urkey+that the 6nited States would act
to halt the spread of communism where(er in the world it threatened democracy.
/he /ruman >octrine had its basis in a proposal by State >epartment official Aeorge &.
"ennan ;b. 0512<. /he proposal stated that the most effecti(e way to combat communism was to
contain it, confronting the So(iet 6nion whene(er and where(er it sought to e.pand its ideological
influence. /hus the ,$old 3ar- began in earnest, and with it, a #ational Security ct, passed in
052?. /he act reorgani9ed the 3ar >epartment into the >epartment of >efense and also created the
$entral !ntelligence gency+perhaps the most contro(ersial federal agency e(er established. /he
$! had as its mission co(ert intelligence gathering, which meant that the $! sometimes
functioned with neither e.ecuti(e nor legislati(e knowledge, let alone appro(al. !n the name of
fighting communism, the #ational Security ct had created the closest thing to a secret police ;long
a mainstay of oppressi(e eastern 8uropean regimes< this nation e(er had.
Airlift to Berlin
/rumans policy of containment prompted the 6nited States and its western allies to take a
strong stand in Aermany after the So(iet 6nion began detaining troop trains bound for 3est Berlin
in =arch 052C. ;lthough Berlin was deep inside the So(iet sector of occupied Aermany, the city,
too, was di(ided into 9ones of llied occupation.< !n response, on Iune ?, the western allies
announced their intention to create the separate, permanent capitalist state of 3est Aermany. /wo
weeks later, the So(iet 6nion blockaded 3est Berlin, protesting that because of its location in
So(iet'controlled territory, 3est Berlin could not ser(e as the capital of 3est Aermany.
,o"ld the ,est bac) do+n= ,o"ld this be the start of ,orld ,ar ###=
President /ruman did not take armed action against the So(iets. !nstead, he ordered an airlift,
a spectacular chain of round'the'clock supply flights into 3est Berlin+F?F,111 flights o(er EF0
days, carrying tons of supplies. /he airlift was a political as well as logistical triumph, which caused
the So(iet 6nion to lift the blockade. /he e(ent was also a (indication of the policy of containment,
and in pril 0525, it led to the creation of the #orth tlantic /reaty Organi9ation+#/O+a key
defensi(e alliance of the western nations against the communist 8ast.
,itch H"nts
3hile national leaders and the military were scrambling to ,contain- communism abroad,
certain mericans looked homeward. Ioseph D. =c$arthy ;051C'05%?< was a thoroughly mediocre
senator from 3isconsin whose popularity was flagging. =c$arthy made a pro(ocati(e speech to the
3omens Depublican $lub of 3heeling, 3est @irginia, on &ebruary 5, 05%1. )e held up a piece of
paper, which he said was a list of F1% known communists in the State >epartment.
/he audience was electrified. /he speech was reported nationally, and the nation likewise was
stunned. =c$arthy suddenly became famous and, o(er the ne.t four years, spearheaded a
legislati(e crusade to root out communists in go(ernment and other positions of power. $rusade is a
word =c$arthy and his followers would ha(e been comfortable with. Others called what happened
a witch hunt. ;nd no one e(er bothered actually to e.amine that piece of paper the senator wa(ed
in 3heeling.< =c$arthy pointed fingers, raised suspicions, le(eled charges. >ue process of law, the
rules of e(idence, and the presumption that a person is innocent until pro(en guilty mattered not at
all to ,/ail Aunner Ioe- =c$arthy. )e gained chairmanship of the powerful Senate Subcommittee
on Ao(ernmental Operations and, from this post, launched in(estigations of the @oice of merica
broadcasting ser(ice and the 6.S. rmy Signal $orps. /hat =c$arthy pointed a finger was :uite
enough to ruin a reputation and destroy a career+e(en if no actual e(idence of sub(ersion or
disloyalty was presented. /hose called to testify before the committee were asked to ,name names,-
e.pose other indi(iduals with communist affiliations. !f the witnesses refused, they were found to
be in contempt of $ongress and sub4ect to imprisonment. !f a witness e.ercised his constitutional
right not to testify against himself+a right guaranteed in the &ifth mendment'=c$arthy ;and much
of the public, it seemed< presumed him guilty.
=c$arthy was aided in his witch hunt by a slick young lawyer named Doy $ohn, who was
instrumental in one of the most highly publici9ed phases of the witch hunt, an in(estigation of
communist influence in the )ollywood film industry. parade of e.ecuti(es, producers, directors,
and mo(ie stars appeared before the Senate committee. Some witnesses ,named names.- Some
refused. /hose who failed to ,cooperate- with the committee and those who stood accused were
blacklisted+which meant that no studio would hire them.
/he =c$arthy witch hunts were certainly not born of fantasy. =any influential mericans did
ha(e ties to communist organi9ations+though most of these associations had come and gone with
the 05E1s, when intellectuals and liberals flocked to socialist and communist groups in order to
oppose fascism, which was then menacing the world. /he $old 3ar also spawned a (eritable legion
of spies, including those who communicated 6.S. atomic secrets to the So(iets, thereby enabling the
6.S.S.D. to de(elop an atomic bomb in 0525 and a hydrogen bomb in 05%2.
=c$arthy, howe(er, made no real effort to separate fact from fantasy, and e(en after the
Depublican party captured the 3hite )ouse in 05%F, he continued his strident attacks. !n 05%2,
=c$arthy accused the entire 6.S. rmy of being riddled with communists. /his blow was sufficient
to pro(oke President 8isenhower+a career army man+to encourage $ongress to form a committee
to in(estigate =c$arthys attempts to coerce army brass into granting preferential treatment for a
former aide, Pri(ate A. >a(id Schine.
&rom pril to Iune 05%2, the ,rmy'=c$arthy )earings- were carried on an infant medium
called tele(ision. /he nation was ri(eted+and, not incidentally, sales of tele(ision sets soared.
Ioseph =c$arthy was e.posed for the reckless, self'ser(ing demagogue that he was. $ensured by
action of the Senate later that year, he was o(ertaken by the alcoholism that had always dogged him.
=c$arthy died in 05%?, at the age of 25.
%olice Action in *orea
/he $old 3ar was not 4ust a contest of rattling sabers and strong language. s eastern 8urope
had fallen behind an !ron $urtain, so $hina, the worlds most populous nation, became a communist
nation in 0525. $hina was long the sub4ect of a struggle between communist forces ;led primarily
by =ao /se'tung< and capitalist'nationalist forces ;whose strongest leader was 6.S. 3orld 3ar !!
ally $hiang "ai'shek<. 8lsewhere in sia, communist factions were positioning themsel(es to take
power. fter 3orld 3ar !!, "orea was di(ided along the ECth parallel between a So(iet occupation
9one in the north and a 6.S. 9one in the south. !n #o(ember 052?, the 6nited #ations resol(ed to
create a unified independent "orea, but the communists barred free elections in the north. Only in
the 6.S. southern 9one were elections held, and on ugust 0%, 052C, the Depublic of "orea was
born. !n #orth "orea, the communists created the >emocratic Peoples Depublic of "orea in
September.
#n0asion, &o"nterstri)e, #n0asion
On Iune F%, 05%1, communist'backed forces from the north in(aded South "orea. /he 6nited
States secured a 6nited #ations sanction against the in(asion and contributed the lions share of
troops to repel it. 3orld 3ar !! hero >ouglas =acrthur was put in command of the 6.#. forces.
/he #orth "orean troops+trained by the So(iets and the $hinese+:uickly pushed the South
"oreans back toward the southern tip of the "orean peninsula. =acrthur struggled to hold the
critical southern port of Pusan to buy time until reinforcements arri(ed. )e then e.ecuted a
contro(ersial landing at !nchon, on the west coast of "orea, behind #orth "orean lines. /he landing
was a stunning success+perhaps =acrthurs single greatest military feat+and by October 0, 05%1,
the #orth "oreans had been pushed out of South "orea. 6.#. forces were now arrayed along the
ECth parallel.
3ithin the /ruman administration debate raged o(er whether to cross the ECth parallel and
in(ade #orth "orea. President /ruman compromised, authori9ing the crossing, but taking steps to
a(oid pro(oking the $hinese and the So(iets directly. #o 6.#. troops would enter =anchuria or the
6.S.S.D., and only South "oreans would operate along international borders. On October ?, the
6.#. Aeneral ssembly called for the unification of "orea and authori9ed =acrthur to in(ade. On
October 05, the #orth "orean capital of Pyongnang fell, and the #orth "orean armies were pushed
far north, to the Yalu Di(er, the nations border with =anchuria.
/he war seemed to be o(er+but then, between October 02 and #o(ember 0, some 0C1,111
communist ,(olunteers- crossed the Yalu from $hina. =acrthur launched an offensi(e on
#o(ember F2, only to be beaten back by massi(e $hinese resistance, which pushed 6.#. troops
back across the ECth parallel. /he South "orean capital of Seoul fell to the communists in Ianuary
05%0.
!eatgrinder
)alting their retreat south of Seoul, 6.S. and other allied troops began probing northward
once again in an offensi(e that front'line soldiers dubbed the ,meatgrinder.- By =arch 05%0, 6.#.
forces had returned to the ECth parallel and established a strong defensi(e position.
:ld SoldiersH
!n light of the $hinese inter(ention, Aeneral =acrthur demanded permission to retaliate
against the $hinese by bombing =anchuria. President /ruman and the 6nited #ations'fearing that
direct aggression against $hina would trigger nuclear war with the So(iets+turned =acrthur
down. /he confrontation was contro(ersial, and many mericans+including Senator Ioseph
=c$arthy+(ociferously sided with the general against the president. $ontrary to the accepted
military practice of refraining from publicly differing with the ci(ilian administration, =acrthur
loudly blamed his military setbacks in "orea on /rumans policies. &inally, on =arch F%, 05%0, 4ust
after /ruman had completed preparation of a cease'fire plan, =acrthur broadcast an unauthori9ed
and pro(ocati(e ultimatum to the enemy commander. !n response to this insubordination, /ruman
relie(ed =acrthur of command in "orea on pril 00.
Thr"st, &o"nterthr"st, and Stalemate
Aeneral =atthew B. Didgway assumed command of 6.S. and 6.#. forces after the dismissal
of =acrthur, and Lieutenant Aeneral Iames . @an &leet led the 6.S. Cth rmy northward. But on
pril FF, nearly half a million $hinese troops initiated an offensi(e, dri(ing the Cth rmy to within
fi(e miles of Seoul. On =ay 01, the $hinese launched a second offensi(e, concentrating on the
eastern portion of the 6.#. lineG howe(er, @an &leet counterattacked in the west, north of Seoul,
taking the communists entirely by surprise. !n full retreat, the communists suffered their hea(iest
casualties of the war and withdrew into #orth "orea. By the beginning of summer 05%0, the war
was stalemated at the ECth parallel. &or the ne.t two years, both sides, now dug in, pounded one
another fruitlessly.
%eace Table
rmistice negotiations began at the behest of the So(iets in Iune 05% 0 and dragged on for
two years. !t took until Iuly F7 e(en to establish an agenda for the conference. /he participants
decided that an armistice would re:uire agreement on a demarcation line and demilitari9ed 9one,
impartial super(ision of the truce, and arrangements for return of prisoners of war. /he toughest
single issue in(ol(ed the disposition of PO3s. 6.#. negotiators wanted prisoners to decide for
themsel(es whether they would return homeG the communists, fearful of mass defection, held out
for mandatory repatriation. !n an effort to break the negotiation stalemate, Aeneral =ark $lark, who
had succeeded Didgway, stepped up bombing raids on #orth "orea. t last, during pril 05%E, the
PO3 issue was resol(edG a compromise permitted freed prisoners to choose sides, but under
super(ision of a neutral commission.
The 6nha77iest Ally
fter this long and frustrating process, the only indi(idual who remained thoroughly
displeased was Syngman Dhee ;0C?%'057%<, president of South "orea. Dhee desired nothing less
than unification of "orea and wholly (oluntary repatriation as absolute conditions for cease'fire. So
he threw a monkey wrench into the proceedings by suddenly ordering the release of F%,111 #orth
"orean prisoners who wanted to li(e in the South. /o regain Dhees cooperation, the 6nited States
promised him a mutual security pact and long'term economic aid. #e(ertheless, the armistice
signed on Iuly F?, 05%E, did not include South "orea. Still, the cease'fire held, and the shooting war
was o(er.
/he "orean 3ar did succeed in containing communism+confining it to #orth "orea+but in all
other respects, this costly conflict was inconclusi(e, e.cept that it pro(ided a precedent for
inter(ention in another sian war. /his time the war would take place in a di(ided @ietnam,
beginning in the ne.t decade.
The (east Yo" Heed to *no+
Iubilation at the end of 3orld 3ar !! was short li(ed, as the 3estern capitalist nations and the
eastern 8uropean and sian communist nations s:uared off for a $old 3ar.
policy of ,containing- communism and a fear of touching off a nuclear 3orld 3ar !!!
dominated merican foreign policy in the postwar years.
!ain ?0ent
/he ma4or Aerman war criminals were prosecuted in the #uremberg /rials, which took place
in that Aerman city from #o(ember 052% to October 0527, presided o(er by 4urists from the llied
nations. /he principal trial brought FF Aerman #a9i leaders to 4ustice, of whom 0F were sentenced
to death, including 3ilhelm "eitel ;)itlers closest military ad(iser<, Ioachim (on Dibbentrop
;Aerman foreign minister<, lfred Dosenberg ;a principal architect of #a9i genocide programs<, and
=artin Bormann ;)itlers secretary<. Bormann (anished after )itlers suicide on pril E1, 052%,
and was tried in absentiaG in 05?F, a skeleton identified as his was disco(ered in 3est Berlin.
)ermann Aoering, second only to )itler in authority, committed suicide before he could be
e.ecuted. /hree other war criminals were gi(en life sentences, and four recei(ed F1'year terms.
/hree of the first FF tried were ac:uitted. O(er the succeeding months, lesser criminals were tried in
a series of 0F proceedings.
,ord for the -ay
$oined in 052? by 4ournalist )erbert Bayard Swope in a speech lie wrote for financier
Bernard Baruch, cold war refers to the postwar strategic and political struggle between the 6nited
States ;and its western'8uropean allies< and the So(iet 6nion ;and communist countries<. chronic
state of hostility, the $old 3ar was associated with two ma4or ,hot wars- ;in "orea and @ietnam<
and spawned (arious ,brushfire wars- ;small'scale armed conflicts, usually in /hird 3orld nations<,
but it was not itself a shooting war. /he end of $old 3ar was heralded in 05C5 by the fall of the
Berlin 3all.
Voice from the %ast
/he cru. of the #orth tlantic /reaty, which created #/O, is rticle %B ,/he parties agree
that an armed attack against one or more of them in 8urope or #orth merica shall be considered an
attack against them all.-
!ain ?0ent
On Iune 05, 05%E, Iulius Dosenberg ;born 050C< and his wife, 8thel Areenglass Dosenberg
;born 050%<, became the first 6nited States ci(ilians in history to be e.ecuted for espionage. /heir
trial and their punishment were sources of great bitterness and contro(ersy during the $old 3ar.
Iulius Dosenberg, a member of the $ommunist party, had been employed as an engineer by
the 6.S. rmy Signal $orps during 3orld 3ar !!. )e and 8thel were accused of supplying So(iet
agents with atomic bomb secrets during 0522'2%. /heir chief accuser was 8thels brother, >a(id
Areenglass, who had worked on the ,'bomb- pro4ect at Los lamos, #ew =e.ico, and had fed
the Dosenbergs secret information. Because Areenglass turned states witness, he recei(ed a 0%'year
sentence, whereas, under the 8spionage ct of 050?, the Dosenbergs were sentenced to death on
pril %, 05%0. /he sentence pro(oked protests worldwide+including accusations of anti'Semitism+
but President 8isenhower, con(inced of the couples guilt, refused to commute the sentences.
,ord for the -ay
/he A? bomb , or atomic bomb , first tested and used in 052%, operates on the principle of
nuclear fission+the splitting of the nuclei of uranium or plutonium atoms+which suddenly releases
an incredible amount of e.plosi(e energy. /he )'bomb ;hydrogen bomb<, first tested in 05%F, is a
fusion rather than fission de(ice, 4oining the nuclei of hydrogen atoms together in an uncontrolled
nuclear reaction. /he hydrogen bomb releases about 0,111 times more energy than an atomic bomb.
,ord for the -ay
$ongress ne(er declared war against #orth "orea or $hina. Officially, the conflict was called
a !olice action +a locali9ed war without a declaration of war.
Stats
Iust how many $hinese and #orth "orean troops were killed in the "orean 3ar is unknown,
but estimates range between 0.% and F million, in addition to at least a million ci(ilians. /he 6.#.
command lost CC,111 killed, of whom FE,E11 were merican. =any more were wounded. South
"orean ci(ilian casualties probably e:ualed those of #orth "orea.
From the !ac3 o9 the !us to the Great &ociety
(%0()#%0-1'
In This Chapter
The African? American stru&&le for ci#il ri&hts
*tart of the s!ace race
Bay of Pi&s and $uban Missile $risis
Idealism and social reform in the 4ennedy and -ohnson years
Assassinations
3ith the ruins of war'ra(aged 8urope still smoldering, much of the worlds population
remained hungry, politically oppressed, or both. But mericans, ha(ing triumphed o(er e(il
incarnate in the form of #a9i and Iapanese totalitarianism and en4oying the blessings of liberty, had
much to be proud of. /rue, the postwar world was a scary place, with nuclear incineration 4ust a
push of a button away. $hildhood, which mericans pri9ed as a time of carefree innocence, was
now marred by air raid drills that regularly punctuated the school day. !n an increasingly confusing
world, mericas children were also menaced by a much'discussed and debated wa(e of ,4u(enile
delin:uency.- Yet, all in all, 05%1s merica was a rather complacent place+prosperous, spawning a
web of (erdant ;if rather dull< suburbs interconnected by new highways built under the !nterstate
)ighway ct of 05%7.
Postwar suburbia was an e.pression of the long'held merican dreamB a house of ones own,
a little plot of land, a clean and decent place to, li(e. But if suburban lawns were green, the suburbs
themsel(es were white. s usual, frican'mericans had been e.cluded from the dream+or, at least,
relegated to the (ery back of it.
?@ec"ti0e :rder 44D1
On Iuly F7, 052C, President )arry S /ruman ;0CC2'05?F< issued 8.ecuti(e Order 55C0,
which mandated ,e:uality of treatment and opportunity to all persons in the rmed Ser(ices
without regard to race.- frican'mericans had regularly ser(ed in the armed forces since the $i(il
3ar, but always in separate+segregated+units, though usually Linder white officers. /rumans order
did not use the word integration, but when he was asked point'blank if that is what the order meant,
the president replied with his characteristic directnessB ,Yes.-
8.ecuti(e Order 55C0 did much more than integrate the armed forces. !t began a gradual
re(olution in merican society. &or many soldiers, sailors, and airmen, the army or na(y or air force
;itself newly created as a ser(ice branch independent from the army in 052?<, became their first
e.perience of integration. !n e(en more immediate terms, 8.ecuti(e Order 55C0 meant that the
mom and pop owners of the ta(ern 4ust beyond the post gate had to open their businesses to all
personnel, white and black. !f a local lunch counter refused to ser(e a black soldier, for e.ample, it
could be declared ,off'limits- by the post commander+and there would be no one to ser(e.
The -ream -eferred
Of course, the integration of the armed forces did not completely transform merican society,
let alone transform it o(ernight. Dacial pre4udice was deeply ingrained in merican life, and in
some places, particularly the South, pre4udice was e(en protected by law. !n most Southern states,
the ,Iim $row- legislation that had been passed during the bitter years following Deconstruction
remained on the books in one form or another. /heoretically, Southern society was segregated such
that publicly funded facilities ;like schools< pro(ided ,separate but e:ual- ser(ice. !n practice,
ser(ices and facilities were certainly separate, but hardly e:ual. !n the South, frican'mericans
were treated as an underclass. /his was true in subtler ways up #orth as well, where segregation
was often de facto rather than de 4ure.
&ollowing both world wars, frican'mericans migrated in large numbers from the rural
South to the industrial cities of the #orth. !ndustry welcomed their cheap labor, but many whites,
fearing they would lose their 4obs to the newcomers, met them with hostility. 6p #orth, blacks
typically found themsel(es restricted to menial labor and compelled to li(e in slum districts that
became known as ghettoes. !n effect, the entire merican nation was both separate and une:ual.
.osa %ar)s Boards a B"s
On >ecember 0, 05%%, =ontgomery, labama, was a typical Southern city, its social fabric
shot through with the threads of ma4or in4ustice and tri(ial humiliation carefully ;if no longer :uite
consciously< interwo(en to keep blacks ,in their place.- Dosa Parks ;b. 050E< boarded a city bus to
return home from her 4ob. Like any other commuter, she was tired after a hard days work. She
settled into a seat in the forward section of the bus.
!n most parts of the world, this mundane action would ha(e gone entirely unnoticed. But in
=ontgomery in 05%%, it was a crime for a black person to sit in the front of a city bus. /old to yield
her place to a white person, Parks refused, was arrested, and 4ailed.
/he arrest sparked a boycott of =ontgomery city buses. !f the towns frican'mericans
could not ride in the front of the bus, they would not ride at all. lthough most of =ontgomerys
frican'merican population depended on the buses, they maintained the boycott for more than a
year, focusing national attention on =ontgomery and, more importantly, on the issues of ci(il rights
for frican'mericans.
?mergence of !artin ("ther *ing, >rL
/he De(erend =artin Luther "ing, Ir., pastor of the >e.ter (enue Baptist $hurch in
=ontgomery, emerged during the =ontgomery boycott as moral and spiritual leader of the
de(eloping ci(il rights mo(ement. Born on Ianuary 0%, 05F5, in tlanta, Aeorgia, the son of it
prominent local minister, "ing was educated at =orehouse $ollege, $ro9er /heological Seminary,
and Boston 6ni(ersity, from which he recei(ed a doctorate in 05%%. long with the De(erend Dalph
bernathy and 8dward #i.on, "ing entered the national spotlight during the boycott. )e used his
sudden prominence to infuse the national ci(il rights mo(ement with what he had learned from the
e.ample of !ndias great leader, =ahatma Aandhi, who taught the principle of satyagraha+-holding
to the truth- by non(iolent ci(il disobedience. Dosa Parkss protest was a classic e.ample.
fter =ontgomery, "ing lectured nationally and became president of the Southern $hristian
Leadership $onference ;S$L$<. )e conducted ma4or (oter registration dri(es, demonstrations,
marches, and campaigns in lbany, Aeorgia ;>ecember 0570'ugust 057F<, Birmingham, labama
;pril'=ay 057E<, and >an(ille, @irginia ;Iuly 057E<. !n ugust 057E, "ing organi9ed a massi(e
=arch on 3ashington, where he deli(ered one of the great speeches in merican history, declaring
,! )a(e a >ream.-
!n 0572, "ing was internationally recogni9ed with the #obel Peace Pri9e, then went on to
conduct desegregation efforts in St. ugustine, &lorida. "ing organi9ed a (oter'registration dri(e in
Selma, labama, leading a march from Selma to =ontgomery in =arch 057%, which was met by
angry white mobs. "ing e.panded the ci(il rights mo(ement into the #orth and began to attack not
4ust legal and social in4ustice, but economic ine:uality.
3hile "ing was planning a multiracial ,poor peoples march- on 3ashington in 057C, aimed
at securing federal funding for a P0F'billion ,8conomic Bill of Dights,- he flew to =emphis,
/ennessee, to support striking sanitation workers. !n that city, on pril 2, =artin Luther "ing, Ir.,
fell to a snipers bullet.
:r -oes #t ?@7lode=
/he assassination of >r. "ing, brilliant apostle of non(iolent social change, sparked urban
riots across a number of the nations black ghettoes. /hese riots were not the first of the decade.
>espite the non(iolent message of >r. "ing, racial unrest had often turned (iolent. #$P leader
=edgar 8(ers was assassinated in Iackson, =ississippi, in 057EG Birmingham, labama, was the
site of the bombing of a black church, in which four girls were killedG three ci(il rights acti(ists+
including two whites+were killed in =ississippi while working to register black (oters. On ugust
00, 057%, a si.'day riot ripped apart the 3atts section of Los ngeles after a police patrolman
attempted to arrest a man for drunk dri(ing. Diots broke out the following summer in #ew York and
$hicago, and in 057 ? in #ewark, #ew Iersey, and >etroit. &ollowing the "ing assassination in
057C, more than 011 cities erupted into (iolence.
?mergence of !alcolm J and the Blac) %o+er !o0ement
/he racial (iolence of the 0571s was e.treme e(idence of the pent'up frustration and outrage
long simmering within black merica. Back in 0507, Iamaican'born =arcus =osiah Aar(ey
;0CC?'0521< came to #ew York to recruit followers for his 6ni(ersal #egro !mpro(ement
ssociation and by 05F0 claimed a million members. /he organi9ation, which had as its aim the
establishment of a new black nation in frica, was called ,militant- by whites accustomed to seeing
frican'mericans beha(e passi(ely and submissi(ely.
#ot until the emergence of =alcolm J in the early 0571s was frican'merican militancy
gi(en compelling and elo:uent direction. =alcolm J had been born =alcolm Little in Omaha,
#ebraska, in 05F%. )e turned bitter and rebellious after his father, an acti(ist preacher, was
murdered in 05E0, presumably for ad(ocating the ideas of =arcus Aar(ey.
=alcolm Little mo(ed to )arlem, where he became a criminal and, con(icted of burglary, was
imprisoned from 0527 to 05%F. 3hile in prison, he became a follower of 8li4ah =uhammad
;0C5?'05?%<, leader of the Lost'&ound #ation of !slam, popularly called the Black =uslims.
De4ecting his surname as a ,sla(e name,- =alcolm Little became =alcolm J and, upon his release
from prison, ser(ed as a leading spokesman for the Black =uslim mo(ement.
3hat =alcolm J said gal(ani9ed many in the black community, gi(ing young black men in
particular a sense of pride, purpose, and potential, e(en as his rhetoric intimidated and outraged
many whites, who saw =alcolm J as one of se(eral angry young acti(ists. /hese included such
figures as Stokley $armichael, who called for ,total re(olution- and ,Black Power-G ). Dap Brown,
leader of the Student #ational $oordinating $ommittee ;S#$$<, who e.horted angry blacks to
,burn this town down- in a 057? speech in $ambridge, =arylandG and )uey #ewton, leader of the
militant Black Panther Party, which many whites saw as little more than a national street gang. By
the mid 0571s, the ci(il rights mo(ement was split between the adherents of "ings non(iolence and
those who, ha(ing lost patience with merican society, followed a more aggressi(e path.
!n fact, =alcolm J e(ol(ed ideas that were :uite different from those not only of "ing, but of
the young militants. =alcolm J split with the Black =uslims and founded the Organi9ation of
fro'merican 6nity in Iune 0572, ad(ocating a kind of socialist solution to the corruption of
merican society that had led to racial hatred and the sub4ugation of blacks. )is original message,
that the ,white man- was ;:uite literally< the de(il incarnate, had become transformed into a
religiously inspired :uest for racial e:uality. /he :uest was tempered by a con(iction that black
merica had to look within, and not to white merica, for the means to freedom and progress.
/he e(olution of =alcolm J was cut short on &ebruary F0, 057%, when he was gunned down
by three Black =uslims during a speech at )arlems udubon uditorium. )is utobiography
;dictated to le. )aley, who would later gain fame as the author of Doots, a sweeping no(el of
black history<, published 4ust after his assassination, became an e.traor'dinarily influential
document in e.panding and redefining the ci(il rights mo(ement.
/he 4ourney of black merica, like the life of =alcolm J, remained incomplete during the
0571s and remains incomplete to this day. /he fact is that frican'mericans generally li(e less
affluently, amid more crime, and with less opportunity than white mericans. Yet the range of black
leaders of the 05%1s and 0571s, from Dosa Parks, to =artin Luther "ing, Ir., to =alcolm J, brought
hope and social (isibility to black merica.
S7"tni) and the 8e+ $rontier
>espite growing racial disharmony, the 6nited States was a fairly self'satisfied place in the
05%1s. /hen, on October 2, 05%?, the world learned that the So(iet 6nion had successfully launched
a 0C2'pound satellite into earth orbit. $alled Sputnik !, its radio transmitter emitted nothing more
than electronic beeps, but it sent shock wa(es through the merican nation. Suddenly, the 6.S.S.D.,
our ad(ersary in the postwar world, the embodiment of godless communism, had demonstrated to
the world its technological superiority. /he launching of Sputnik began a ,space race,- in which the
6nited States came in ;lead second during the early laps. /he So(iets put a man, ,cosmonaut- Yuri
Aagarin, into orbit four years after Sputnik and one month before merican ,astronaut- lan B.
Shepard was launched on a 0%'minute suborbital flight on =ay %, 0570.
Sputnik shook mericans out of their complacency. /he 0571 presidential race, between
8isenhowers (ice president, Dichard =. #i.on, and a dashing, youthful senator from
=assachusetts, Iohn &. "ennedy, almost ended in a tie. But the nation re4ected the security of
8isenhowers man and (oted into office a candidate who embodied a new energy, (igor, and
challenge.
>$*
t 2E, Iohn &. "ennedy was the youngest elected president in merican history ;/heodore
Doose(elt was slightly younger when he assumed office after the assassination of 3illiam
=c"inley<. "ennedys administration established the Peace $orps ;an organi9ation of (olunteers
assigned to work in de(eloping nations<, created the lliance for Progress ;which strengthened
relations with Latin merica<, and set a national goal of landing an merican on the moon before
the end of the 0571s. >espite these accomplishments, "ennedy is best remembered for the magic
;there is no better word< he and his beautiful wife, Iac:ueline, brought to the 3hite )ouse and the
national leadership.
;The Torch Has Been %assedH<
!ntelligent ;his books included the Pulit9er Pri9e'winning Profiles in $ourage<, handsome,
idealistic, athletic, irre(erently witty, and a war hero, "ennedy declared in his inaugural address that
the ,torch has been passed to a new generation-+of which he was clearly the embodiment. =ired in
a depressing $old 3ar, plagued by social problems, continually an.ious o(er impending nuclear
war, worried that the So(iets and the $hinese were winning the hearts and minds of the world,
mericans eagerly embraced the attracti(e optimism of I&".
Bay of %igs and Brin) of Armageddon
lthough he was adored by many, "ennedy ne(er succeeded in winning the support of
$ongress. )e and his brother, ttorney Aeneral Dobert &. "ennedy ;05F%'7C<, sought to further
ci(il rights but were repeatedly thwarted by $ongress. "ennedy tried to create programs to fund
broad educational initiati(es, only to see them diluted by $ongress. )e also introduced a program to
pro(ide medical care for the elderly, which was delayed by $ongress.
8arly in "ennedys administration, the nation suffered the tragic humiliation of a bungled
attempt to in(ade $uba, which was under the communist rule of &idel $astro ;b. 05F7<. !n =arch
0571, President 8isenhower had appro(ed a $! plan to train anti'$astro $uban e.iles for an
in(asion to o(erthrow the $uban leader. "ennedy allowed the preparations to proceed, and some
0,%11 e.iles landed on pril 0?, 0570, at Bay of Pigs on the islands southwestern coast.
/he result was unmitigated disaster. #ot only had the attacks secrecy been breached, but
"ennedy, fearing So(iet reprisal, decided not to authori9e promised 6.S. air support. 3orse, the
$! had badly misread the political climate of re(olutionary $uba. /he general uprising the $!
belie(ed would be set off by the landing simply did not happen. By pril 05, the in(asion was
crushed and 0,F11 sur(i(ors were captured. ;/hey were released in >ecember 057F, in e.change for
P%E million worth of 6.S. medicines and pro(isions.<
So(iet premier #ikita "hrushche( saw the failure of the Bay of Pigs as a sign of the new
administrations weakness. "hrushche( :uickly rushed in to e.ploit this flaw by co(ertly sending
nuclear'armed missiles to $uba plus the technical and military personnel to install and operate
them. n merican 6'F spy plane photographed the missile bases under construction, and on
October FF, 0.57F, President "ennedy addressed the nation on tele(ision, announcing a na(al
blockade of the island. "ennedy demanded that the So(iets withdraw the missiles, and by October
F2, the blockade was in place.
/he idea of hostile nuclear warheads parked a mere 51 miles from the 6nited States was
terrifying, but so was the prospect of a na(al battle off the coast of $uba, which might ignite a
thermonuclear war. &or the ne.t four days, mericans braced themsel(es for ,the big one.- Offices
and factories staged air raid drills, as did the nations schools, where children practiced ,duck and
co(er-B ducking under their desks and co(ering their heads.
&ew had much hope that such maneu(ers would help one sur(i(e a full'scale thermonuclear
assault.
On October FC, Premier "hrushche( backed down, offering to remo(e the missiles under
6.#. super(ision. &or his part, President "ennedy pledged ne(er again to attempt to in(ade $uba,
and he also remo(ed 6.S. !$B=s ;intercontinental ballistic missiles< from /urkish bases near the
So(iet border. On October F5, the blockade was lifted, and I&" had scored a signal (ictory in $old
3ar ,brinkmanship.-
An A"t"mn -ay #n -allas
Late in #o(ember 057E, President "ennedy (isited /e.as to bolster his popularity as he
geared up for the reelection campaign. /he presidential aircraft+ir &orce One+touched down at
>allass Lo(e &ield on the morning of the FFnd, and the president was gi(en a gratifyingly warm
greeting. man who en4oyed contact with (oters, who did not hesitate to ,press the flesh,-
"ennedy declined to ride beneath the bulletproof bubble top normally affi.ed to the armored
presidential limousine. s the motorcade passed by a warehouse building called the /e.as School
Book >epository, three shots rang out, the second of which ripped into the presidents head, fatally
wounding him. /e.as go(ernor Iohn $onnally, riding in the front seat of the car, was also
grie(ously wounded, but reco(ered.
/he accused assassin, captured later in the day ;though not before murdering >allas police
officer I.>. /ippett<, was Lee )ar(ey Oswald, a misfit who had li(ed for a period in the So(iet
6nion, ha(ing renounced his 6.S. citi9enship. s he was being transferred from the city to the
county 4ail, Oswald was assassinated himself on #o(ember F2 by >allas nightclub owner and
small'time mobster Iack Duby.
(B>
Lyndon Baines Iohnson ;051C'?E<, the popular /e.as senator tapped by "ennedy as (ice
president to impro(e his standing in the South and 3est, took the oath of office inside ir &orce
One. Iac:ueline "ennedy, her elegant pink dress stained with her husbands blood, looked on. One
of Iohnsons first acts was to appoint a commission, headed by Supreme $ourt $hief 4ustice 8arl
3arren, to in(estigate the assassination. >espite the 3arren $ommissions finding that Oswald had
acted alone, rumors and theories of elaborate conspiracies+some in(ol(ing the $!, &B!, =afia,
and $ubas $astro+de(eloped and persist to this day.
,ar on %o0erty
mericans had much to admire as well as much to critici9e about the ,thousand days- of the
"ennedy administration, but the youthful presidents sudden, terrible martyrdom cast an aura of
enchantment and heroism o(er "ennedy and his programs. President Iohnson was able to refashion
the I&" social programs that had floundered in $ongress and, in the name of the slain president,
o(ersee their passage into law. 3hen Iohnson ran for president in his own right in 0572, he called
upon merica to build a ,Areat Society,- one that ,rests on abundance and liberty for all.-
/he phrase Areat Society became, like &>Ds #ew >eal, the label for an ambitious, idealistic
package of legislation, including =edicare, which helped finance medical care for mericans o(er
7%G elementary, secondary, and higher education acts to enhance education and pro(ide financial aid
to college studentsG and legislation relating to what Iohnson called a 3ar on Po(erty.
&i0il .ights Act of 14F4
Of all the creations of the Areat Society, none has had more lasting and profound impact than
the $i(il Dights ct of 0572. /he act banned segregation and discrimination in public
accommodations such as restaurants, theaters, and hotels, and it barred employers from
discriminatory hiring practices based on race.
/he $i(il Dights ct of 0572 was followed the ne.t year by a @oting Dights ct, which
destroyed the last (estiges of local legislation intended to pre(ent or discourage frican'mericans
from (oting. !n 057C, at the end of the Iohnson years, another ci(il rights act rendered
discrimination by landlords and realtors illegal.
President Iohnsons Areat Society was built in part on the memory of I&" and was also a
result of the black political and social acti(ism of the 05%1s and 0571s. By the end of the Iohnson
years, e:uality in merica was certainly not fully de facto+a fact of life'but it was at least de 4ure+a
condition of law.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he modern ci(il rights mo(ement began with the integration of the armed forces in 052?
and de(eloped through a non(iolent program of ci(il disobedience led by >r. =artin
Luther "ing, Ir., and others.
lthough Iohn &. "ennedy attempted to create an ambitious program of ci(il rights and
social legislation, it was the administration of Lyndon Baines Iohnson that secured
passage of legislation creating the ,Areat Society.-
!ain ?0ent
/he year before Dosa Parkss bus ride, the 6.S. Supreme $ourt effecti(ely declared
segregation illegal when, on =ay 0?, 05%2, it handed down a decision in the case of Brown (.
Board of 8ducation of /opeka, "ansas. /he decision was the culmination of a long series of
lawsuits first brought against segregated school districts by the #ational ssociation for the
d(ancement of $olored People ;#$P< in the 05E1s. Depeatedly, the Supreme $ourt ruled
consistently with its 0C57 decision in Plessy (. &erguson that found ,separate but e:ual-
accommodations for blacks constitutional as long as all tangible aspects of the accommodations
were, indeed, e:ual. But in 05%2, /hurgood =arshall ;051C'5EG in 057?, he would become the first
frican'merican appointed to the Supreme $ourt< and other #$P lawyers demonstrated that
segregated school systems were inherently une:ual because of intangible social factors. /he high
court agreed. >esegregation of the nations schools became the law of the land. !n some places, the
process of integration proceeded without incidentG in others, it was accompanied by (iolent
resistance that re:uired the inter(ention of federal marshals and e(en federal troops.
Voice from the %ast
=artin Luther "ing, Ir., spoke these words from the steps of the Lincoln =emorial,
3ashington, >.$., on ugust FC, 057EB
, . . ! ha(e a dream that one day on the red hills of Aeorgia sons of former sla(es and the
sons of former sla(e owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.
! ha(e a dream that one day e(en the state of =ississippi, a state sweltering with the heat
of in4ustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of
freedom and 4ustice.
,! ha(e a dream that my four little children will one day li(e in a nation where they will
not be 4udged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. ! ha(e a
dream today. ! ha(e a dream /hat one day'down in labama, with its (icious racists, with
its go(ernor ha(ing his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification, one
day right there in labama little black boys and black girls will be able to 4oin hands with
little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.
,K /his is our hope. /his is the faith that ! go back to the South with. 3ith this faith, we
will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hopeK ,
Voice from the %ast
/he great frican'merican poet Langston )ughes ;051F'057?< asked in a poem called
,)arlem,-
,3hat happens to a dream deferredO >oes it dry up
like a raisin in the sunOKOr does it e.plodeO-
,ord for the -ay
Brinmanshi! was a word coined during the $old 3ar. !t signified winning an ad(antage in
international politics by demonstrating a willingness to push a dangerous situation to the brink of
nuclear war.
Cietnam
(%0(-#%0)5'
In This Chapter
Bac&round of the )ietnam War
Escalation and dece!tion
Protest on the home front
B<*< (ithdra(al and communist #ictory
!n 0572, the beacon of the Areat Society shone brightly. =oti(ated by the memory of I&" and
energi9ed by the moral passion of Lyndon Iohnson, the program of social reform, e(en more
ambitious than the #ew >eal had been, seemed unstoppable.
/hen, on ugust F, 0572, the merican destroyer =addo., conducting electronic espionage in
international waters, was attacked by #orth @ietnamese torpedo boats. 6ndamaged, =addo. was
4oined by a second destroyer, the $. /urner Ioy. On ugust 2, both ships claimed to ha(e been
attacked. lthough e(idence of the second attack was thin ;later it was disco(ered that the second
attack had not occurred<, President Iohnson ordered retaliatory air, strikes and asked $ongress for
support. On ugust ?, the 6.S. Senate passed the /onkin Aulf Desolution., gi(ing LBI almost
unlimited authority to e.pand merican in(ol(ement in a long'standing war in a part of the world
few mericans knew or cared much about.
/hat war would wreck the Areat Society, nearly tear the 6nited States apart, spawn an
idealistic albeit drug'oriented youth counterculture, and cost the li(es of %C,111 young mericans.
$lashbac)
3orld 3ar !! left much of the world, including Southeast sia, dangerously unstable. >uring
the 05th century, &rance had coloni9ed Laos, $ambodia, and @ietnam, and when &rance ca(ed in to
Aermany in 0521, the Iapanese allowed &rench colonial officials puppet authority in Southeast sia
until the llied liberation of &rance in 052%. Iapan then sei9ed full control, purging the &rench
police agencies and soldiery that had kept (arious nationalist groups in check. !n @ietnam, )o $hi
=inh ;0C51'0575< led the most powerful of these independence'seeking groups, the @iet =inh.
ided by 6.S. Office of Strategic Ser(ices ;OSS< personnel, @iet =inh fought a guerrilla war
against the Iapanese occupiers.
3hen the war in 8urope ended, llied forces were free to turn their attention to @ietnam ;and
the rest of Southeast sia<. #ationalist $hinese troops ;under $hiang "ai'shek< occupied northern
@ietnam. /he British secured southern @ietnam for re'entry of the &rench, who ruthlessly
suppressed supporters of )o $hi =inh. state of low'le(el guerrilla warfare de(eloped, which
escalated sharply when $hiang "ai'shek, hoping to checkmate communist ambitions in the region,
withdrew from northern @ietnam and turned that region o(er to &rench control.
The !arch to -ien Bien %h"
Like $hiang "ai'shek, 6.S. leaders feared communist incursions in Southeast sia and began
to supply the &rench with funding, military e:uipment, and'on ugust E, 05%1+the first contingent
of 6.S. military ,ad(isors.- By 05%E, the 6nited States was funding C1 percent of the cost of
&rances war effort.
&rance assigned Aeneral )enri 8ugene #a(arre to strike a decisi(e blow on the strategically
located plain of >ien Bien Phu, near Laos. President 8isenhower stepped up military aid, but
despite #a(arres massing of troops, >ien Bien Phu fell to the forces of )o $hi =inh on =ay ?,
05%2. /his disaster was followed by a string of @iet =inh (ictories, and, in a Iuly peace conference,
the &rench and the @iet =inh concluded a cease'fire and agreed to di(ide @ietnam along the 0?th
parallel.
-omino Theory
>uring the thick of the >ien Bien Phu campaign, on pril ?, 05%2, President 8isenhower
presented reporters with his rationale for aiding the &rench+a foreign power'in their fight against
communism in @ietnam+a remote country. ,You ha(e a row of dominoes set up,- he e.plained,
,you knock o(er the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty it will go o(er
(ery :uickly.- /his off'handed metaphor was immediately christened the domino theory, and it
became the basis for an escalating 6.S. in(ol(ement in @ietnam.
American ;Ad0isors<
s a condition of the armistice agreement concluded in Aene(a between )o $hi =inh and the
&rench, the di(ided @ietnam was to hold elections within two years to reunify. South @ietnams
President #go >inh >iem assumed that )o $hi =inh would win a popular electionG therefore, he
declined to abide by the Aene(a accords, refusing to hold the promised elections. /he 6nited States,
more concerned with blocking communism that with practicing democracy in @ietnam, backed
>iems position. 6nder Iohn &. "ennedy, who succeeded 8isenhower in 0570, the number of
military ,ad(isors- sent to @ietnam steadily rose. By Iune E1, 057F, 7,205 mericans were in South
@ietnam. President "ennedy reported to the press that no 6.S. combat forces were in the country,
but he did admit that the ,training units- were authori9ed to return fire if fired upon.
$laming, !on)s and the $all of -iem
/he "ennedy administrations desire to stop the falling dominoes caused 6.S. officials to turn
a blind eye toward the essential unpopularity and corruption of the >iem regime. >iems cronies
were put into high ci(il and military positions, and although a small number of urban South
@ietnamese prospered under >iem, the rural ma4ority fared poorly. =oreo(er, the $atholic >iem
became tyrannical in his support of the nations $atholic minority and openly abused the Buddhist
ma4ority. /he world was soon horrified by a series of e.treme protest demonstrationsB Buddhists
monks doused themsel(es in gasoline and set themsel(es abla9e in the streets of Saigon.
By mid'057E, the "ennedy administration determined that the >iem regime was no longer
(iable. President "ennedy secretly allowed the $! to plot the murder of >iem in a 6.S.'backed
military coup that o(erthrew him on #o(ember 0, 057E. >iems death unleashed a series of coups
that made South @ietnam e(en more unstable o(er the ne.t two years and encouraged the
communists to escalate the war, now fueled by increasing So(iet and $hinese aid.
.olling Th"nder
)indsight, according to a well'worn cliche, is always F1TF1, and historians critical of the
"ennedy administration often blame I&" for miring the nation in a hopeless war. ctually, e(idence
e.ists that, in the months and weeks before his assassination, President "ennedy, recogni9ing that
only the @ietnamese could ultimately resol(e the conflict, was planning a withdrawal. Perhaps.
3hat is certain is that "ennedys successor, Lyndon B. Iohnson, mo(ed (igorously to oppose #orth
@ietnamese insurgents, authori9ing the $! to o(ersee di(ersionary raids on the northern coast
while the na(y conducted electronic espionage in the Aulf of /onkin. /he new president also named
Aeneral 3illiam 3estmoreland to head the =ilitary ssistance $ommand, @ietnam ;=$@< and
increased the number of military ,ad(isors- to FE,111. #e(ertheless, faced with a succession of
weak Saigon go(ernments, President Iohnson continued to weigh the odds. /he domino theory was
persuasi(e, but the conflict began to look increasingly hopeless. !n &ebruary 057%, LBI sent his
personal ad(isor, =cAeorge Bundy, on a fact'finding mission to Saigon.
Suddenly, action by the @iet $ong mo(ed the presidents hand. On &ebruary ?, @iet $ong
units attacked 6.S. ad(isory forces and the head:uarters of the 6.S. rmy %Fnd (iation Battalion,
near Pleiku, killing nine mericans and wounding 01C. Bundy, 3estmoreland, and 6.S.
mbassador =a.well /aylor recommended a strike into #orth @ietnam. Operation &laming >art
retaliated against an enemy barracks near >ong )oi, pro(oking a @iet $ong counterstrike on
&ebruary 01 against a 6.S. barracks at *ui #hon. /he ne.t day, 6.S. forces struck back with a long
program of air strikes deep into the #orth. $ode named Dolling /hunder, the operation formally
began on =arch F, 057%, and marked the start of a course of escalation as %1,111 new ground
troops were sent to @ietnam, ostensibly to ,protect- 6.S. air bases.
?scalation and Vietnamiation
Iohnsons strategy was to continue a gradual escalation of the war, bombing military targets in
a war of attrition that would not pro(oke o(ert inter(ention from $hina or the 6.S.S.D. /his scheme
pro(ed to be a no'win strategy that only prolonged the war. !n an aggressi(e military campaign,
success is measured by ob4ecti(es attained+cities captured, military targets eliminated+but in a war
of attrition, the only measure of success is body count. /o be sure, merican forces produced a
massi(e body count among the enemy, but, 4ust as Buddhist monks were willing to set themsel(es
aflame, this enemy was prepared to die.
=oti(ated by nationalistic passion, the #orth @ietnamese did more than militarily infiltrate
the South. Special political cadres won widespread support from the rural populace of the South.
3ith this support, the @iet $ong en4oyed great mobility throughout the country, often fighting from
a comple. network of tunnels that were all but in(isible. /rue, the growing numbers of 6.S. troops
were successful in clearing enemy territory. Yet 6.S. numbers were ne(er great enough to occupy
that territory, and, once cleared, battle 9ones were soon o(errun again. President Iohnson and his
ad(isors began to recogni9e that the war would not be won by 6.S. inter(ention, and military efforts
were increasingly directed toward @ietnami9ation+gi(ing the D@# ;rmy of the Depublic of
@ietnam< the tools and training to take o(er more and more of the fighting, so that 6.S. forces could
ultimately disengage. /hat word, @ietnami9ation, was endlessly repeated as a mantra of merican
war policy, e(en as it became increasingly apparent that the South @ietnamese did not support their
own go(ernment and had little will to fight.
Hearts and !inds
!n the early stages of the war, President "ennedy had spoken of the need to win the ,hearts
and minds- of the @ietnamese people. nd e(en as mericas technologically ad(anced weaponry
;including napalm incendiary bombs and highly to.ic chemical agents to defoliate the 4ungle and
e.pose the enemy< destroyed the country, the hearts and minds of the people remained elusi(e
targets.
Hell, 8oG ,e ,on/t BoG
/he fact is that merican war policy had not only failed to win the hearts and minds of the
@ietnamese, but it was rapidly losing influence o(er the hearts and minds of citi9ens of the 6nited
States. President Iohnson increasingly relied on the Selecti(e Ser(ice system+the draft+to supply
troops. Delati(ely well'off young people could often a(oid conscription through student deferments
;college enrollment skyrocketed during the war< and by other means. Less'pri(ileged and minority
youth bore the brunt of the draft, a fact that stirred resentment and unrest, especially in the
frican'merican community.
But antiwar sentiment was hardly confined to black merica. 3hat rapidly e(ol(ed into a
full'blown antiwar mo(ement began with leftist college students and peace acti(ists. nd its more
mericans came home in ,body bags,- the mo(ement spread into the mainstream. $ollege
campuses first ser(ed as centers of discussion about and against the war, and then. they became the
staging areas for demonstrations, including a series of marches on 3ashington starting in 057% and
continuing through 057C and again in 05?0.
ntiwar protest widened what was popularly called the generation gap, pitting young people
against ,anyone o(er E1.- /he antiwar mo(ement became associated with a general counterculture
mo(ement, which featured young people in long hair ;for both se.es< and wearing what to their
elders seemed bi9arre gypsy'hobo outfits. Such youngsters called themsel(es hippies and
ostentatiously indulged in ,recreational- drugs ;such as mari4uana and the hallucinogenic LS>< and
,recreational- se.. Ao(ernment officials assumed that the entire peace mo(ement was backed by
communists and used the &B! as well as the $! ;illegally< to infiltrate antiwar organi9ations. /rue,
some organi9ations associated with the mo(ement were undoubtedly sub(ersi(eG howe(er, most
protesters were mainstream indi(iduals, aged F1 to F5, who were simply disgusted and outraged by
the war.
/he student fringe of the peace mo(ement became increasingly (ocal during the 0571s, with
demonstrations+sometimes destructi(e+disrupting and e(en temporarily closing down some college
campuses. !n mass demonstrations across the country, young men burned their draft registration
cards and chanted, ,)ell, noN 3e wont goN- So'called ,confrontations- between demonstrators and
police or e(en #ational Auardsmen became commonplace.
The (ight at the ?nd of the T"nnel
By the end of 057?, it was clear that the @ietnam 3ar was gruesomely stalemated. President
Iohnson repeatedly went before the nation, assuring tele(ision (iewers that there was ,light at the
end of the tunnel.- But the increasing numbers of 6.S. casualties created a credibility gap between
what the administration claimed and what the public belie(ed.
Tet :ffensi0e
!n this period of growing doubt, )anoi staged a series of massi(e offensi(es, first along the
border, with attacks against the 6.S. base at "he Sanh, then against South @ietnamese pro(incial
capitals and principal cities beginning on Ianuary E1, 057C, a @ietnamese lunar holiday called /et.
/he offensi(e, which included an assault on the 6.S. embassy in Saigon, was costly to 6.S. and
D@# forces, but e(en more costly to the @iet $ong. )owe(er, the three'week campaign was a
de(astating psychological (ictory for the communists and con(inced many mericans, including
politicians and policy makers, that the war was unwinnable.
3ith merican casualties now topping 0,111 a month, it was hard to belie(e official military
pronouncements that /et was by no means a defeat. /et hardened public opposition to the war and
sharply di(ided legislators, with hawks ;war supporters< on one side, and do(es ;peace ad(ocates<
on the other.
.esignation of >ohnson
On =arch E0, President Iohnson made two surprise tele(ision announcements. )e declared
that he would restrict bombing abo(e the F1th parallel, thereby opening the door to a negotiated
settlement of the war, and he announced that he would not seek another term as president. Iohnson
recogni9ed that his ad(ocacy of the war was tearing the nation apart.
$ease'fire negotiations began in =ay, only to stall o(er )anois demands for a complete
bombing halt and #L& ;#ational Liberation &ront< representation at the peace table. Iohnson
resisted but in #o(ember agreed to these terms. >espite the boost this mo(e ga(e the sagging
presidential campaign of >emocrat )ubert )umphrey, Dichard =. #i.on ;whom many had counted
out of politics after he lost the race for $alifornia go(ernor in 057F< emerged (ictorious in the
presidential contest.
8i@on/s ,ar
Dichard =ilhous #i.on ;050E'52< was a man who belie(ed in winning at any cost. /o ensure
(ictory in the 057C election, he made repeated'though (ague'promises to end the war. Yet, after he
was elected, #i.on did not hesitate to e.pand the war into neighboring Laos and $ambodia. #i.on
had e(ol(ed a grand strategy with his foreign policy ad(isor, )enry "issinger ;b. 05FE<. /he
strategy called for impro(ing relations with the So(iets ;through trade and an arms'limitation
agreement< in order to disengage =oscow from )anoi, and for normali9ing relations with $hina.
fter the 6.S.S.D. and $hina had cut the #orth @ietnamese loose, #i.on and "issinger reasoned,
the 6nited States could negotiate a ,peace with honor- in @ietnam. /he strategy didnt work. /he
So(iets announced their recognition of the Pro(isional De(olutionary Ao(ernment ;PDA< formed
by the #L& in Iune 0575, and the peace talks foundered.
%aris, &ambodia, and (aos
s peace negotiations went round and round in Paris, the #i.on administration sought to
accelerate the @ietnami9ation process by turning more and more of the responsibility for the war
o(er to D@# forces, which, howe(er, continued to perform poorly. >espite the discouraging
results, 6.S. casualties did drop, and President #i.on was able to begin troop withdrawals.
3ith the failure of diplomacy, #i.on turned to force, striking at communist supply and
staging areas in $ambodia. /his incursion triggered angry protests at home, including a
demonstration at "ent State 6ni(ersity in Ohio on =ay 2, 05?1. /he e(ent resulted in the killing of
four unarmed students and the wounding of nine more when ine.perienced #ational Auardsmen
fired on them. Subse:uently, 011,111 demonstrators marched on 3ashington, and $ongress
registered its own protest by rescinding the /onkin Aulf Desolution. #i.on withdrew troops from
$ambodia but stepped up bombing raids, and when communist infiltration continued unabated, the
6.S. supplied air support for an D@# in(asion of Laos in &ebruary 05?0.
By the end of 05?0, withdrawals had reduced troop strength to 0?%,111 in @ietnam, somewhat
calming protests at home but destroying front'line morale, as remaining troops saw themsel(es
pawns in a lost cause. >rug and alcohol abuse assumed epidemic proportions among soldiers, who
were openly rebelliousG some transformed search'and'destroy missions into ,search'and'a(oid-
operations, the ob4ect of which was to get home safely.
-eath for ?aster
!n =arch 05?F, the communists launched a new in(asion, initially routing D@# troops until
President #i.on retaliated by redoubling air attacks, mining )aiphong harbor, and establishing a
na(al blockade of the #orth. &ollowing the communist ,8aster Offensi(e,- )enry "issinger and
#orth @ietnamese representati(e Le >uc /ho finally formulated an agreement. /he terms were to
withdraw 6.S. troops, return PO3s, and lay the foundation for a political settlement through
establishment of a special council of reconciliation. South @ietnamese president #guyen @an /hieu
re4ected the peace terms because they permitted @iet $ong forces to remain in place in the South.
Bombs for &hristmas
/he fact that #i.ons negotiator, "issinger, had been able to announce that ,peace is at hand-
assured the president reelection in 05?F. Once in office, howe(er, #i.on supported /hieu,
repudiating the peace terms "issinger had negotiated. #i.on then ordered massi(e B'%F bombing
raids north of the F1th parallel, which forced the #orth @ietnamese back to the negotiating table.
/he agreement reached after the bombing was not materially different from what "issinger
had originally concluded. /his time, President /hieu was ignored.
%aris Accords and the $all of Saigon
On Ianuary E0, 05?E, the 6nited States and #orth @ietnam signed the Paris ccords, which
brought 6.S. withdrawal and the return of the PO3s, some of whom had been languishing in #orth
@ietnamese prisons for nearly a decade. four'party Ioint =ilitary $ommission and an
!nternational $ommission of $ontrol and Super(ision super(ised the cease'fire. )owe(er, the
#i.on administration continued to send massi(e amounts of aid to the /hieu go(ernment, and both
the #orth and South freely (iolated the accords. /o pressure the #orth into abiding by them, the
6nited States resumed bombing $ambodia and menaced #orth @ietnam with reconnaissance
o(erflights.
But a war'weary $ongress had turned against the president, whose administration ;as you
shall see in the ne.t chapter< was now wallowing and disintegrating in the 3atergate Scandal. !n
#o(ember 05?E, $ongress passed the 3ar Powers ct, which re:uired the president to inform
$ongress within 2C hours of deployment of 6.S. military forces abroadG the act also mandated the
forces withdrawal within 71 days if $ongress did not appro(e. !n 0.5?2, 6.S. aid to South @ietnam
was reduced from PF.%7 billion to P51? million, and to P?11 million in 05?%.
3hat hopes /hieu held out for support from the #i.on administration were dashed when the
6.S. president, facing impeachment, resigned in ugust 05?2. Beginning in early 05?%, the
dispirited South suffered one military defeat after another. fter $ongress re4ected President Aerald
&ords re:uest for PE11 million in supplemental aid to South @ietnam, #guyen @an /hieu hurriedly
resigned his office. )e left the leadership of his nation to >uong @an =inh, whose single official act
was unconditional surrender to the #orth on pril E1, 05?%. dramatic, fren9ied e(acuation of
mericans remaining in @ietnam followed. /he spectacle of 6.S. personnel being airlifted by
helicopter from the roof of the 6.S. embassy in Saigon was humiliating and heartbreaking. t the
cost of o(er P0%1 billion and %C,111 mericans killed, the @ietnam 3ar had ended in defeat for
South @ietnam and ;as many saw it< for the 6nited States as well.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
6.S. in(ol(ement in the @ietnam 3ar was an e.treme result of the $old 3ar policy of the
,containment- of communism.
/he @ietnam 3ar was the most unpopular and di(isi(e war in merican history,
wrecking the grand social programs of Lyndon Iohnson and badly undermining popular
faith in the federal go(ernment and the nations leaders.
Stats
!n 057%, ?%,111 mericans were fighting in @ietnam. !n 0577, the number 4umped to E?%,111,
and to half a million by 057C.
!ain ?0ent
/he most (isible and (iolent ,confrontation- of the 0571s took place ugust F7'F5, 057C, in
$hicago, during the >emocratic #ational $on(ention. 8arlier, on =arch E0, 057C, President
Iohnson had announced to a stunned nation that he would not run for reelection. )owe(er, probably
the most electable antiwar candidate, Dobert &. "ennedy, was assassinated on Iune 7, following his
(ictory in the $alifornia primary. )ubert ). )umphrey then became the most likely candidate, and
he did not oppose the war. Some 01,111 indi(iduals massed in Arant and Lincoln parks along
$hicagos lakefront to protest the war, to protest the nomination of )umphrey ;>ump the )umpN-
they chanted<, and to (ent rage against $hicago mayor and >emocratic Uboss- Dichard I. >aley,
whom they as a racist and e(en a fascist.
,ord for the day
/he ob4ect of the #i.on+"issin diplomacy was to achie(e detente with the So(iet 6nion and
$hina, a condition of increased diplomatic, commercial, and cultural contact designed to reduce
tensions.
!ain ?0ent
On =arch 07, 057C, a 6.S. infantry company commanded by Lieutenant 3illiam L. $alley
marched into the South @ietnamese hamlet of =y Lai, supposedly a @iet $ong
sanctuaryTstronghold. /he company massacred E2? unarmed ci(ilians, including women, old men,
and children, some of whom were herded into ditches and shot. /he grisly scenes were recorded by
army photographers.
/he ,=y Lai !ncident- was not made public until 0575, and then only through the efforts of
@ietnam (eteran Donald Didenhour, who threatened to go to the media with what he had heard
about the massacre if the 6.S. rmy failed to initiate an in:uiry. /hat proceeding resulted in the
court martial of se(eral soldiers, of whom only $alley was con(icted on =arch F5, 05?0.
&or many mericans, =y Lai symboli9ed the essential brutality of the @ietnam 3ar, a conflict
in which the defenders of democracy were seen as slaughterers of innocent women and children. s
to $alley, some people saw him as likewise a (ictim, thrust into a war in which e(eryone was a
potential enemy. Sentenced to life imprisonment, $alley was released in September 05?2 when a
federal court o(erturned the con(iction.
,ord for the -ay
Officers who ordered their men into dangerous situations risked fra&&in& +that is,
assassination by their own troops+typically by fragmentation grenade.
,9 :o7e the ;oon and $irty 6ric3s
(%0-1#%0)('
In This Chapter
The counterculture mo#ement
Landin& of A!ollo 66 on the moon
"i0on%s forei&n? !olicy breathrou&hs
$risis of national trust. Penta&on Pa!ers and Water&ate
3ho were the (ictims of the @ietnam 3arO /wo, perhaps three million !ndochinese died, and
%C,111 merican li(es were lost. =any thousands more were wounded, some disabled for life. 6.S.
@ietnam (eterans were not welcomed home with parades but were looked on with guilt and
suspicion. By some mericans, (eterans were seen as ,baby killers-G by others, they were regarded
as damaged goods+young men who may ha(e escaped physical wounds but who bore psychological
scars that made ad4ustment to ci(ilian life difficult if not impossible.
/he fact is that all merica was a (ictim of the war, which had created a rift+to use a term
from the era, a credibility gap+between citi9ens and go(ernment. @ietnam killed human beings, and
it also killed trust.
T"ne #n, T"rn :n, -ro7 :"t
Since the early F1th century, illegal drug abuse had been associated with the fringes of
society, with desperate and disturbed indi(iduals, and to some e.tent, with urban
frican'mericans. By the 05%1s, addiction to such narcotics as heroin was becoming a ma4or and
highly (isible problem in many merican cities and was linked to the increasing incidence of
(iolent street crime, Yet drug use was still far from a mainstream affliction.
/his all changed by the mid 0571s. new generation of middle'class youth, characteri9ed by
relati(e affluence and the ad(antages of education, became passionately dedicated to forms of
music and other types of popular art that e.pressed a turning away from much that had been
accepted as the merican dreamB material prosperity, a successful career, a happy marriage, a house
set amid a green lawn and surrounded by a white picket fence. Youngsters cra(ed the e.perience of
new music ;a de(elopment of the rock Un roll that had started in the 05%1s< and new clothing+
colorful, wild, casual, sometimes e(oking the bygone world of British 8dwardian e.tra(agance and
sometimes suggesting the realm of that ultimate thorn in the side of the merican dream, the hobo.
s they looked with distrust on their elders ;,anyone o(er thirty-<, 0571s youth indulged in
so'called recreational drugs. /rue, pre(ious generations had had their o(erindulgences, especially
alcohol, but for many of those coming of age in the 0571s, drugs became an integral part of
e(eryday life.
3ith thermonuclear war an e(er'present danger, with an ongoing war escalating in @ietnam+a
meatgrinder into which merican youth were regularly tossed+and with social 4ustice still an
elusi(e goal in merica, there was much to protest and re4ect in mainstream society. =ari4uana was
one form of protest, alternati(e, and escape ;all rolled up into a cigarette called a roach or 4oint<.
Se. ;which many youth in the 0571s saw as a synonym for lo(e< was another. Yet another
alternati(e was religion+not the ,outworn- faiths of the Iudeo'$hristian 3est, but the apparently
less materialistic beliefs of the 8ast. /he decade spawned a series of spiritual leaders, or gurus,
including the =aharishi =ahesh Yogi ;b. 0500O<, who introduced a generation to /ranscendental
=editation. =ahesh gained renown as spiritual counselor to a be(y of celebrities, including the
Beatles.
guru of a different kind e.horted his followers to ,e.pand- their minds with a
hallucinogenic drug called LS>, which ;it was claimed< offered users a uni(erse of ,psychedelic-
e.perience. ,=y ad(ice to people today is as follows,- proclaimed )ar(ard psychologist and LS>
ad(ocate /imothy Leary ;05F1'57< in 0577B ,!f you take the game of life seriously, if you take your
ner(ous system seriously, if you take your sense organs seriously, if you take the energy process
seriously, you must turn on, tune in, and drop out.-
By taking drugs+-turning on-+one would ,tune in- to what was really worthwhile in life and,
as a conse:uence, be prompted to ,drop out- of life in the hollow mainstream. /he phrase became
the banner slogan of a generationB /urn on, tune in, drop out.
S"mmer of (o0e
mericans who had, to one degree or another, turned on, tuned in, and dropped out
characteristically called themsel(es hippies ;deri(ed from hip, slang for being attuned to the latest
social trends<. /he hippie mo(ement, despite its association with drug'induced escapism, was
certainly not all negati(e. /he mo(ement placed emphasis on kindness, on affection, on looking out
for ones fellow being, on caring for the natural en(ironment, on social 4ustice, on freedom of
e.pression, on tolerance, on fostering creati(ity, on general peaceful coe.istence, and on other
life'affirming (alues. #ai(e from todays perspecti(e, perhaps, hippies seemed to be engaged in a
mass attempt to will the world to return to innocence. nd if lo(e was often confused with se., the
word lo(e took on a more general meaning as well, as in the biblical in4unction to lo(e thy neighbor.
&or many who remember the 0571s fondly, the era was summed up in the summer of 0575,
called the summer of lo(e and capped by an open'air rock'music festi(al held on a farm near
3oodstock, #ew York, ugust 0%'0?, 0575. /he most popular rock music performers of the time
drew perhaps %11,111 fans, who indulged in three days of song, drugs, se., and ;there is no other
word for it< lo(e. 3oodstock immediately became a cultural icon, symbol of a generations
solidarity in rebellion against the 8stablishment ;a collecti(e label gi(en to those who controlled the
status :uo< and its war in @ietnam. 3oodstock was a symbol, too, of a generations hope for a better
world.
The ?agle Has (anded
s much as the counterculture wanted to belie(e it, the 8stablishment did not fail in all it put
its hand to. Beginning with the launch of Sputnik ! in 05%?, the 6nited States had consistently come
in second to the So(iet 6nion in the space race. !n 0570, President "ennedy made a speech in
which he set a national goal of putting a man on the moon before the end of the decade. t the time,
few mericans thought this goal was realistic, but on Iuly F1, 0575, at 2B0? p.m. ;8astern >aylight
/ime<, the people of a world shaken by a multitude of fears, gnawed by myriad acts of in4ustice, and
racked by a terrible war in Southeast sia, watched li(e tele(ision pictures of two merican
astronauts setting foot on the lunar surface, a :uarter million miles from earth.
,/hats, one small step for man,- #eil rmstrong declared as he hopped down off the ladder
of the lunar e.cursion module ;L8=< 8agle, ,and one giant leap for mankind.- /he successful
mission of pollo ! ! was a national+and human+triumph in a time of bitterness, pain, doubt, and
re4ection of long'cherished (alues.
%entagon %a7ers
6nfortunately, the go(ernment that put men on the moon was capable of moral lapses as deep
as its lunar aspirations were lofty. >uring Iune 05 ? 0, the #ew York /imes published a series of
articles on a secret go(ernment study popularly called /he Pentagon Papers. /he 2?'(olume
document, compiled between 057?'0575 by >efense >epartment analysts, meticulously re(ealed
how the federal go(ernment had systematically decei(ed the merican people with regard to its
policies and practices in Southeast sia. mong many other things, the study showed how the $!
had conspired to o(erthrow and assassinate South @ietnam president >iem, and it re(ealed that the
/onkin Aulf Desolution was actually drafted months in ad(ance of the attack on the destroyer
=addo. and the apparent attack on the $. /urner Ioy, the e(ents that supposedly prompted the
resolution.
!n 05?0, >aniel 8llsberg, an =!/ professor and go(ernment consultant who had access to the
study and who had become disgusted and disillusioned with the @ietnam 3ar, leaked /he Pentagon
Papers to the /imes. /he >epartment of Iustice attempted to block publication of the document, but
the Supreme $ourt upheld freedom of the press and ruled in fa(or of the newspaper. lthough
8llsberg ;whom some deemed a hero, others a traitor< was indicted for theft, espionage, and
conspiracy, the charges were dismissed in 05?E because the go(ernment had acted illegally in
obtaining e(idence. Part of the go(ern'ments illegal action included, at the behest of the #i.on
administration, burglari9ing the office of 8llsbergs psychiatrist to find material to embarrass the
whistle blower.
/he re(elations of /he Pentagon Papers marked a low point of popular faith in the merican
go(ernment and the continued prosecution of the @ietnam 3ar. /he effect of these documents was
profoundly depressing precisely because mericans had long taken for granted that theirs was a
free, open, honest, and noble go(ernment+as braham Lincoln had put it, ,the last best hope of the
world,-
SA(T, &hina, and the !iddle ?ast
Last best hope. President #i.on, who had risen to power in $ongress through his
uncompromising, at times (irulent stance against communism, now worked with his ad(isor )enry
"issinger to engineer detente with the So(iets and with the communist $hinese. )is most
immediate moti(ation was to cut them loose from #orth @ietnam, but the ramifications of the
#i.on'"issinger diplomacy e.tended far beyond the @ietnam 3ar. /he consummate ,cold warrior,-
Dichard =. #i.on initiated the long thaw that ultimately ended the $old 3ar.
!n 057C, the 6nited #ations sponsored the #uclear #on'Proliferation /reaty, which sought to
limit the spread of nuclear weapons by persuading nations without nuclear arsenals to renounce
ac:uiring them in return for a pledge from the nuclear powers that they would reduce the si9e of
their arsenals. /he following year, the 6nited States began negotiations with the So(iet 6nion to
limit strategic ;that is, nuclear'armed< forces. /hese UStrategic rms Limitation /alks ;SL/<
produced a pair of important arms'control agreements in 05?F. /hen, from 05?F to 05?5, the talks
of SL/ !! were conducted, e.tending pro(isions formulated in 05?F. lthough the 6.S. Senate
failed to ratify SL/ !!, the two nations generally abided by its arms'limitation and arms'reduction
pro(isions.
Perhaps e(en more remarkable was President #i.ons &ebruary 05?F 4ourney to $hina, where
he was recei(ed in Bei4ing by $hairman =ao /se'tung, the (ery incarnation of the communism
#i.on had spent his life opposing. !n a single stroke of diplomacy, #i.on re(ersed the
long'standing 6.S. policy of refusing to recogni9e $hinas communist go(ernment, and by Ianuary
05?5 ;under President Iimmy $arter<, full diplomatic relations were established between the
nations.
/he third of #i.ons ma4or triumphs in diplomacy came in the war'torn =iddle 8ast.
&ollowing the rab'!srael 3ar in 05?E, #i.ons emissary )enry "issinger presided o(er
negotiations that led to a cease'fire, troop disengagement, and ultimately, the foundations of a more
lasting peace in the region.
&.??%
Brilliant, e(en noble on the international front, Dichard #i.on ne(er won total trust and
confidence at home. (igorous, typically merciless political campaigner, #i.on had a reputation
for stopping at nothing to crush his opponent. ,/ricky >ick,- he was called, and ne(er
affectionately.
s the 05?F elections approached, there was little doubt that #i.on would be reelected. )enry
"issinger had announced that peace in @ietnam was ,at hand,- international relations were
dramatically impro(ing, and mericans were generally loath to ;in Lincolns homely phrase<
change horses in midstream. Yet, oddly, none of this optimism was enough for the president. )e
directed his reelection organi9ation, the $ommittee to Deelect the President+known ;incredibly
enough< by the acronym $D88P+to stack the deck e(en more thoroughly in his fa(or. /he
committee engaged in a campaign of espionage against the >emocratic party and a program of dirty
tricks aimed at smearing >emocratic challengers.
%l"mbers
On Iune 0?, 05?F, during the presidential campaign, fi(e burglars were arrested in the
head:uarters of the >emocratic #ational $ommittee at the 3atergate office building in 3ashington,
>.$. /his was hardly front'page news+e.cept that these burglars were really ,Plumbers.- /hats
what the 3hite )ouse secretly called the men, because their mission was to plug any leaks ;security
breaches< that de(eloped or might de(elop in the aftermath of the publication of /he Pentagon
Papers. /he Plumbers ser(ed the #i.on administration as a kind of palace guard, assigned to do
4obs that lay beyond the chief e.ecuti(es constitutional mandate. One such 4ob in(ol(ed planting
electronic bugs ;listening de(ices< at the head:uarters of the political opposition.
/he fi(e Plumbers included three anti'$astro $uban refugees, all (eterans of the ill'fated Bay
of Pigs in(asion, and Iames =c$ord, Ir., former $! agent and now ,security- officer for $D88P.
=c$ord reported directly to $D88Ps head, #i.ons campaign manager, 6.S. ttorney Aeneral
Iohn =itchell. !n a slapstick security fau. pas, one of the burglars carried in his pocket an address
book with the name of 8. )oward )unt. former $! agent ;hed been in charge of the Bay of Pigs
operation< and writer of spy no(els, )unt was assistant to $harles $olson, special counsel to
President #i.on. )unts addressO ,/he 3hite )ouse.-
3hat President #i.on tried to dismiss as a ,third'rate burglary- pointed to conspiracy at the
(ery highest le(els of go(ernment. !n September, the burglars and two co'plotters+)unt and former
&B! agent A. Aordon Liddy, $D88Ps general counsel+were indicted on charges of burglary,
conspiracy, and wiretapping. fter their con(ictions, #i.ons aides, one after the other, began to
talk.
All the %resident/s !en
>espite the arrests and early re(elations, President #i.on won reelection, but soon after he
began his second term, the 3atergate conspiracy rapidly unra(eled. s each of the ,presidents
men- ga(e testimony to federal authorities, the conspiracy tightened around #i.ons inner circle. !n
&ebruary 05?E, the Senate created an in(estigati(e committee headed by #orth $arolina Senator
Sam 8r(in, Ir. s the rmy'=c$arthy )earings had done two decades earlier, so the 3atergate
)earings ri(eted mericans to their tele(ision sets. fter each key disclosure, the president
announced the resignation of an important aide, including Iohn 8hrlichman and ).D. )aldeman, his
closest ad(isors. #i.ons counsel, Iohn 3. >ean !!!, was dismissed. Patiently, persistently, and with
the cunning of a country lawyer educated at )ar(ard, the drawling 8r(in elicited testimony
re(ealing crimes far beyond 3atergateB
that =itchell controlled secret monies used to finance a campaign of forged letters and false
news items intended to damage the >emocratic party
that ma4or 6.S. corporations had made illegal campaign contributions amounting to millions
that )unt and Liddy had in 05?0 burglari9ed the office of >aniel 8llsbergs psychiatrist in
order to discredit /he Pentagon Papers whistle blower
that a plan e.isted to physically assault 8llsberg
that #i.on had promised the 3atergate burglars clemency and e(en bribes in return for
silence
that L. Patrick Aray, #i.ons nominee to replace the recently deceased I. 8dgar )oo(er as
head of the &B!, turned o(er &B! records on 3atergate to 3hite )ouse counsel Iohn >ean
that two #i.on cabinet members, =itchell and =aurice Stans, took bribes from shady
financier Iohn @esco
that illegal wiretap tapes were in the 3hite )ouse safe of #i.on ad(isor Iohn 8hrlichman
that #i.on directed the $! to instruct the &B! not to in(estigate 3atergate
that #i.on used P 01 million in go(ernment funds to impro(e his personal homes
that during 0575'?1, the 6.S. had secretly bombed $ambodia without the knowledge ;let
alone consent< of $ongress
!n the midst of all this turmoil, @ice President Spiro /. gnew was indicted for bribes he had
taken as =aryland go(ernor. )e resigned as (ice president in October 05?E and was replaced by
$ongressman Aerald &ord of =ichigan. &inally, it was re(ealed that President #i.on had co(ertly
taped 3hite )ouse con(ersationsG the tapes were subpoenaed, but the president claimed ,e.ecuti(e
pri(ilege- and withheld them. #i.on ordered 8lliot L. Dichardson ;who had replaced the disgraced
Iohn =itchell as attorney general< to fire special 3atergate prosecutor rchibald $o.. On October
F1, 05?E, Dichardson refused and resigned in protestG his deputy, 3illiam Duckelshaus, likewise
refused and was fired. /he duty to discharge $o. fell to #i.ons solicitor general, Dobert ). Bork,
and this ,Saturday night massacre- ser(ed only to suggest that #i.on had much to hide.
t length, the president released transcripts of some of the 3hite )ouse tapes ;containing 0C
0TF minutes of suspicious gaps<, and on Iuly F?'E1, the )ouse Iudiciary $ommittee recommended
that #i.on be impeached on three chargesB obstruction of 4ustice, abuse of presidential powers, and
attempting to impede the impeachment process by defying committee subpoenas. #i.on released
the remaining tapes on ugust %, 05?2, which re(ealed that he bad taken steps to block the &B!s
in:uiry into the 3atergate burglary. On ugust 5, 05?2, Dichard =ilhous #i.on became the first
president in 6.S. history to resign from office.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
s 3orld 3ar ! had produced in merica a lost generation, so @ietnam spawned a youth
counterculture mo(ement, founded on idealism, rock music, se.ual freedom, and
,recreational- drugs.
/he turbulent #i.on years saw men land on the moon and the $old 3ar begin to thaw,
but the era ended in the gra(est national crisis since the $i(il 3ar.
!ain ?0ent
#o generation was influenced more thoroughly by popular music than that of the 71s. /he
roots of rock may be found in frican'merican popular music, especially the blues, and was first
populari9ed among white youngsters in the 05%1s by a cadre of young pop performers, most notably
8l(is Presley, who electrified the nation by his 05%7 appearance on /@s popular 8d Sulli(an Show.
But by the early 0571s, merican rock had hit the doldrums and was losing its young audience.
/hen in 0572, a :uartet of ,=od-'clothed, mop'headed British teenagers calling themsel(es
the Beatles toured the 6nited States. !nfluenced by merican rockers $huck Berry and Presley,
guitarists Iohn Lennon and Aeorge )arrison, bass player Paul =c$artney, and drummer Dingo Starr
infused this merican'born music with a new (itality, freshness, and electricity. /heir 0572 tune, ,!
3ant to )old Your )and,- unleashed ,Beatlemania- in this country and pa(ed the way, first for a
,British in(asion- of other 8nglish bands and then for the de(elopment of a redefined merican
rock idiom.
Dock music became the ceaseless anthem of the decade., the beat of rebellion and of the
solidarity of youth.
,ord for the -ay
2?lyser&ic acid diethylamide , also known as L*2 , L*2FG , and acid , is a hallucinogenic
drug disco(ered in 052E by Swiss chemist lbert )ofmann. LS> produces powerful sensory
distortions, with (isual ;and sometimes auditory< hallucinations. !n the 0571s, such LS>
e.periences were called acid trips and were thought to be mind or consciousness e.panding.
.eal (ife
3hen Dichard #i.on was buried at his boyhood home in Yorba Linda, $alifornia, following
his death in 0552, the nation, almost in spite of itself, paid homage to a president who betrayed his
oath of office+the only chief e.ecuti(e in 6.S. history to resign office.
Born on Ianuary 5, 050E, #i.on o(ercame a financially pinched childhood and e.celled in
school, becoming a successful lawyer, then ser(ing in the na(y during 3orld 3ar !!. Deturning
from the war, #i.on ran for $ongress from $alifornias 0Fth district in 0527, handily winning after
he attacked his >emocratic opponent, Ierry @oorhis, as a communist. &rom that point on, #i.on
focused on communism as his principal political theme. Deelected to the )ouse in 052C, #i.on
defeated $ongresswoman )elen Aahagan >ouglas in a 05%7 Senate race, accusing her of
communist leanings ;,pink right down to her underwear-<.
!n 05%F, the E5'year'old #i.on was tapped as running mate of >wight >. 8isenhower and
ser(ed as (ice president through !kes two terms. #i.on earned particular respect in 05%% when he
effecti(ely and confidently filled in for 8isenhower as the president reco(ered from a heart attack.
!n 0571, #i.on became the Depublican candidate for president, only to lose the election by a
mere 011,111 (otes to Iohn &. "ennedy. >iscouraged, #i.on ran for $alifornia go(ernor two years
later and was defeated, telling reporters that they wouldnt ,ha(e #i.on to kick around anymore.-
But #i.on returned as a presidential candidate in 057C, defeating >emocrat )ubert ).
)umphrey. s president, #i.on reached out to'the So(iet 6nion and $hina, beginning a gradual
thaw in the $old 3ar. /hrough foreign policy ad(isor ;later secretary of state< )enry "issinger,
#i.on engineered a painful 6.S. withdrawal from @ietnam. On the domestic front, he de(eloped
what he called the ,#ew &ederalism,- cutting back on federal programs and shifting power as well
as responsibility back onto state and local go(ernments.
/he 05?F elections swept #i.on back into office for a second termG howe(er, his campaign
tactics in(ol(ed a myriad of illegal acti(ities, and, after a lengthy congressional in:uiry, #i.on
resigned office on ugust 5, 05?2. )e accepted a pardon from his successor, Aerald D. &ord, and
spent the rest of his life writing works of autobiography and foreign policy. )e died cloaked in the
mantle of elder statesman.
Women Crisis and a Call to the Great Communicator
(%0-5#%010'
In This Chapter
5eminism and the fate of the E,A
An ener&y crisis tri&&ered by /PE$
A !la&ue of economic and social (oes
The Iran hosta&e crisis
Election 6A@H
/he 0571s marked a period of self'e.amination in the 6nited States, an era of sometimes
liberating reflection and sometimes debilitating self'doubt. >uring the decade, women 4oined
frican'mericans and other minorities in calling for e:ual rights and e:ual opportunity. !n the
course of the following decade, all mericans were forced rethink attitudes about growth,
e.penditure, and the natural en(ironment as the fragility of the nations sources of energy was
dramatically e.posed. /hen, in 05C1, after F1 years of often painful introspection, mericans
elected a president whose resume included two terms as $alifornias go(ernor and a lifetime as a
mo(ie actor. )is message to the nation was to be proud and feel good+a message Donald 3ilson
Deagans fellow mericans eagerly embraced.
A ,oman/s %lace
/he sweet land of liberty was largely a mans world until 05F1, when women, at long last,
were gi(en the constitutional right to (ote. Yet that giant stride changed remarkably little about
merican society. /he first presidential election in which women had a (oice brought 3arren A.
)arding ;0C7%'05FE< into office, embodiment of the status :uo, whose (ery campaign slogan
promised a ,return to normalcy.- #o, it would take a second world war to bring e(en temporary
change to gender roles and se.ual identity in the 6nited States.
$rom .osie the .i0eter to The $eminine !ysti9"e
/he national war effort spurred into action by the >ecember ?, 0520, surprise attack on Pearl
)arbor re:uired ma.imum military force and ma.imum industrial production. But if the men were
off fighting the war, who would run the factoriesO 3omen answered the call in massi(e numbers,
in(ading traditionally male workplaces. Posters e.horting workers to gi(e their all for war
production often depicted a woman in denim o(eralls and bandana, wielding a ri(et gun like an
e.pert. She was Dosie the Di(eter, symbol of merican womanhood in 3orld 3ar !!.
&or most merican women, the war was their first e.perience of life in a workplace other than
the home. 3omen faced new responsibilities but also tasted new freedom and independence. Yet
when the war ended, the women, for the most part, :uit their 4obs, married the returning soldiers,
and settled into li(es as homemakers.
/hroughout the 05%1s, relati(ely few women :uestioned their role in the home. 3ith the
beginning of the 0571s, howe(er, the merican economy started a gradual shift from predominantly
manufacturing'based to ser(ice'based industries, and women soon began finding 4ob opportunities
in these (enues. Propelled in part by the powerful ad(ertising medium of tele(ision, the 0571s were
also dri(en by headlong consumerism. !ncreasing numbers of women found it necessary ;or
desirable< to earn a second income for their product'hungry families.
!n 057E, writer Betty &riedan sent a :uestionnaire to graduates of Smith $ollege, her alma
mater. She asked probing :uestions about the womens satisfaction in life, and the answers she
recei(ed were sufficiently eye opening to prompt her to write a book, /he &eminine =ysti:ue. !ts
thesis, based on the Smith :uestionnaire and other data, was that merican women were no longer
uni(ersally content to be wi(es and mothers. /hey were, in fact, often the unhappy (ictims of a
myth that the female of the species could gain satisfaction only through marriage and childbearing.
/he &eminine =ysti:ue, an instant bestseller, struck a chord that caused many women to ree.amine
their li(es and the roles in which society had cast them.
The %o+er of the %ill
!n 0571, shortly before &riedans book appeared, the 6.S. &ood and >rug dministration
appro(ed the worlds first effecti(e oral contracepti(e, the birth'control pill, which was soon
dubbed more simply ,/he Pill.- !t was destined not only to bring radical change to the nations
se.ual mores+contributing to the so'called se.ual re(olution of the 0571s+but also to liberate
women from the ine(itability of life tied to the nursery. #ow, a women could choose to delay
ha(ing children ;or not to ha(e them at all< and use the time to establish a career.
8:, and !sL
/hree years after publishing /he &eminine =ysti:ue, &riedan helped found the #ational
Organi9ation for 3omen and ser(ed as #O3s first president. n organi9ed feminist mo(ement+
popularly called womens liberation or ;sometimes derisi(ely< womens lib+crystalli9ed around
#O3. /he organi9ation ad(ocated e:uality for women in a general social sense and in the
workplace, liberali9ed abortion laws, and passage of the 8:ual Dights mendment ;8D<, a
proposed constitutional amendment declaring that ,e:uality of rights under the law shall not be
denied or abridged by the 6nited States nor by any State on account of se..- 8D was drafted by
feminist lice Paul ;0CC%'05??< of the #ational 3omans Party and introduced in $ongress in
05FE, where it was essentially ignored until #O3 took up its cause in 05?1.
By the end of the 0571s, the womens liberation mo(ement was in full swing. !n 05?F,
4ournalist and feminist Aloria Steinem started =s. maga9ine, which became a popular, entertaining,
and immensely profitable (ehicle for the feminist message.
#O3 met with opposition not only from conser(ati(e men but also from many women, some
of whom claimed that the feminist mo(ement ran contrary to the natural ;or Aod'gi(en< orderG other
women feared the mo(ement would defemini9e women and lead to the disintegration of the family.
By the 05?1s, #O3 was also under attack from more radical feminists, such as Shulamith
&irestone, "ate =illet, and /i'Arace tkinson, for being too conser(ati(e. #e(ertheless, #O3 and
the entire range of feminist acti(ism ha(e had an impact on merican life. =ore women occupy
corporate e.ecuti(e positions today than e(er beforeG in state legislatures, the number of women
ser(ing doubled between 05?% and 05CCG and by the late 05C1s, 21 of %1 states had laws mandating
e:uality of pay for men and women in comparable 4obs.
?.A S"nset
/hanks to #O3, the 8:ual Dights mendment was appro(ed by the )ouse of Depresentati(es
in 05?0 and by the Senate in 05?F. /he amendment was then sent to the states for ratification, and
when the necessary three'fourths ma4ority of states failed to ratify it by the original =arch 05?5
deadline, a new deadline of Iune E1, 05CF, was fi.ed. Yet, by this date, ratification was still three
states short of the EC needed. Deintroduced in $ongress on Iuly 02, 05CF, 8D failed to gain
appro(al and was dead as of #o(ember 0%, 05CE.
/he failure of 8D points to the limits of what the feminist mo(ement has achie(ed. >espite
gains, far fewer women than men hold high electi(e office or sit on the boards of ma4or
corporations, and despite legislation, women continue to earn, on a(erage, significantly less than
men.
A !eeting of the Shei)s
$iti9ens of the 6nited States, men and women, ha(e always cherished their liberty, and after
051C, when )enry &ord introduced his =odel /, they ha(e increasingly identified a part of that
liberty with the automobile. 3ith si. percent of the worlds population, the 6nited States consumes
a third of the worlds energy+much of it in the form of petroleum. /hrough the 0571s, this posed
little problem. Aasoline was abundant and cheap. !ndeed, at the start of the decade, 6.S. and
8uropean oil producers slashed their prices, a mo(e that prompted key oil nations of the =iddle
8ast+!ran, !ra:, "uwait, and Saudi rabia, plus @ene9uela in South merica+to band together as the
Organi9ation of Petroleum 8.porting $ountries ;OP8$< on September 02, 0571, to stabili9e prices.
;=ore nations 4oined later.< Beginning in 05?1, OP8$ began to press for oil price hikes, and on
October 0.?, 05?E, OP8$ temporarily embargoed oil e.ports to punish nations that had supported
!srael in its recent war with 8gypt. $hief among the embargos targets was the 6nited States.
/he effects of the OP8$ embargo were stunning. #ot only did prices shoot up from EC.% cents
per gallon in 05 ?E to %%.0 cents by Iune 05?2, gasoline shortages were se(ere in some areas.
mericans found themsel(es stuck in gas lines stretching from the pumps and snaking around the
block.
$ruising full speed ahead since the end of 3orld 3ar !!, mericans were forced to come to
grips with an energy crisis, cutting back on tra(el and on electricity use. /he public endured an
unpopular, but energy';and life'< sa(ing %%'mile'an'hour national speed limit, in addition to
well'meaning, if somewhat condescending lectures from President Iimmy $arter, who
characteristically sported a cardigan sweater on /@ appearances because he had turned down the
3hite )ouse thermostat as an energy'conser(ing gesture. !n a modest way, mericans learned to do
without, and oil consumption was reduced by more than ? percent+enough to prompt some OP8$
oil price rollbacks by the early 05C1s. By this time, too, OP8$s grip on key oil producers had
slipped as (arious member producers refused to limit production.
!ade #n >a7an
/he energy crisis came on top of an economic crisis, characteri9ed by a combination of
inflation and recession christened stagflation ;stagnant growth coupled with inflation<. /he crisis
had begun during the #i.on'&ord years and continued into the $arter presidency. By the mid 05?1s,
the heady consumerism of the 0571s was on the wane, and the dollar bought less and less. /o use a
phrase popular during the period, the economy was in the toilet.
nd so, it seemed, was the merican spirit. ccustomed to being preeminent manufacturer to
the world, merican industry was losing ground to other nations, especially Iapan. ll but crushed
by 3orld 3ar !!, Iapan had staged an incredible reco(ery, becoming a world'class economic
dynamo. By the 05?1s, Iapanese automobiles especially were making deep inroads into the 6.S.
automoti(e market. #ot only were the Iapanese (ehicles less e.pensi(e than merican makes, they
were more fuel efficient ;which meant fewer dollars spent on increasing gasoline costs<, and they
were more dependable.
/he $hrysler $orporation, smallest of the Big /hree automakers ;behind Aeneral =otors and
&ord<, found itself on the (erge of bankruptcy and, in 05C1, sought federal aid. /he
go(ernment'backed loan was ultimately paid back and the $hrysler reco(ery became a celebrated
comeback story ;the companys $8O, Lee !acocca, was ele(ated nearly to the status of merican
folk hero<. )owe(er, the P0.% billion bailout of mericas 0?th largest corporation was as
contro(ersial as it was depressing. Patriotic mericans felt (aguely humiliated'e(en as more and
more of them climbed behind the wheel of a /oyota or =itsubishi.
$rightening &ities, &r"mbling Bridges
>ri(ing through an merican city, circa 05?%, in one of those Iapanese imports could be a
pretty depressing e.perience as well. /he post'3orld 3ar !! building boom had de(eloped suburban
merica, and throughout the 05%1s, many middle'class families left the old cities for the new
suburbs. /he pace of this e.odus accelerated following the racial (iolence that plagued many cities
during the 0571s. Social commentators began to speak of white flight+though, in fact, the
abandonment of inner city for suburb was as much a matter of economics as it was of raceG
middle'class blacks fled 4ust as :uickly as their white neighbors. /he result was cities that rotted at
their cores. 3ith the urban economic base dramatically reduced, businesses followed residents to
outlying areas, and once'(ibrant downtown districts became ghetto ghost towns. /hrow into this
dismal mi. the often'ineffecti(e efforts of a chronically underfunded public education system plus a
steady increase in the abuse of illegal narcotics, and it seemed that many 6.S. municipalities had
been reduced to forbidding urban 4ungles.
But deteriorating cities werent the only symptoms of a crisis in the national economy and
spirit. /he merican infrastructure was in need of a general repair. /he (ery roads that had carried
the middle class out of the inner city were typically cratered with potholes. nd a growing
proportion of the nations bridges'physical e.pressions of the necessity and desire to 4oin town to
town and citi9en to citi9en'were failing inspection, too old, too neglected to bear the traffic for
which they had been designed.
!eltdo+n
/he single most terrifying e(ent that suddenly and dramatically forced mericans to :uestion
their faith in 6.S. technology, big business, and go(ernment regulation occurred on =arch FC, 05?5.
nuclear reactor at the /hree =ile !sland electric generating plant, near the Pennsyl(ania capital of
)arrisburg, lost coolant water, thereby initiating a partial meltdown of the reactors intensely
radioacti(e core.
#uclear energy had long been a sub4ect of contro(ersy in the 6nited States. >uring the late
05%1s and early 0571s, the peaceful use of the atom was seen as the key to supplying cheap and
(irtually limitless energy to the nation. But by the 05?1s, en(ironmentalists and others were
:uestioning the safety of atomic power, which was also pro(ing far more e.pensi(e than had been
originally pro4ected. By the end of the decade, a beleaguered nuclear power industry was on the
defensi(e. By remarkable coincidence, 4ust before the /hree =ile !sland accident, a popular mo(ie
dramati9ed the conse:uences ;and attempted corporate co(er'up< of a nuclear power plant accident.
/he mo(ie was called /he $hina Syndrome, an allusion to the theory that a full'scale meltdown of a
reactors core would burn so intensely that the material would, in effect, sear its way deep into the
earth+clear down to $hina, e.perts grimly 4oked.
/he mo(ie was (ery much on peoples minds when a shaken Pennsyl(ania go(ernor Dichard
/hornburgh appeared on tele(ision to warn residents to remain indoors and ad(ised pregnant
women to e(acuate the area. /he partial meltdown had already released an amount of radioacti(e
gases into the atmosphere.
lthough e(idence e.ists that plant officials improperly delayed notifying public authorities
of the accident, backup safety features in the plant did successfully pre(ent a ma4or disaster of the
proportions of the $hernobyl meltdown on pril F7, 05C7, in the So(iet 6kraine, which would kill
E0 persons immediately and untold additional numbers later. #e(ertheless, /hree =ile !sland
seemed to many people 4ust one more in a long string of terrible failures of merican commerce,
technology, and know'how.
The Ayatollah
/he year 05?5 brought a shock of a different kind to national pride. re(olution in !ran, led
by the yatollah Duhollah "homeini ;0511'C5<, toppled longtime 6.S. ally =uhammad De9a Shah
Pahla(i, the Shah of !ran, who fled into e.ile in Ianuary 05?5. !n October, desperately ill with
cancer, the Shah was granted permission to come to the 6nited States for medical treatment. !n
response to this gesture, on #o(ember 2, 05?5, %11 !ranians stormed the 6.S. embassy in /ehran
and took 77 embassy employees hostage, demanding the return of the Shah.
3hile President $arter refused to yield to this demand, the Shah (oluntarily left the 6nited
States in early >ecember. Still, the hostages remained in capti(ity ;e.cept for 0E who were black or
female, released on #o(ember 05'F1<. Stalemated and frustrated, President $arter authori9ed an
army Special &orces unit to attempt a rescue on pril F2, 05C1. /he mission had to be aborted, and
although its failure did not result in harm to the hostages, it seemed yet another humiliating defeat
for a battered superpower.
#ot until #o(ember 05C1 did the !ranian parliament propose conditions for the liberation of
the hostages, including a 6.S. pledge not to interfere in !ranian affairs, the release of !ranian assets
fro9en in the 6.S. by President $arter, the lifting of all 6.S. sanctions against !ran, and the return of
the Shahs property to !ran. n agreement was signed early in Ianuary 05C0, but the yatollah
"homeini deliberately delayed the release of the hostages until Ianuary F1, the day Iimmy $arter
left office and Donald Deagan was inaugurated. lthough the new president, in an act of great grace
and 4ustice, sent $arter as his special en(oy to greet the returning hostages at a 6.S. base in 3est
Aermany, many mericans saw the !ran hostage crisis as a failure of the $arter administration, and
the release was regarded as a kind of miracle performed by the incoming president.
The Breat &omm"nicator
>epressed and downcast, a ma4ority of the merican people looked to smiling, unflappable
Donald Deagan for e(en more miracles. $ertainly, his own life had much magic to it. Born abo(e a
grocery store in /ampico, !llinois, in 0500, Deagan worked his way through college, became a
sportscaster and then an actor'less than a spectacular talent, perhaps, but with %E films and many
/@ appearances to his credit, he was ne(er out of work. Deagan left acting to enter politics with a
strong stop'communism and end'big'go(ernment message. !n 0577 he handily defeated incumbent
>emocrat Pat Brown for the go(ernors office in $alifornia and ser(ed two terms, during which he
made a national reputation as a ta. cutter. >eli(ering a feel'good message to the nation and
promising large ta. cuts, a (ast reduction in go(ernment ;,getting go(ernment off our backs-<, and
a return to merican greatness, Deagan defeated the incumbent $arter by a wide margin in 05C1.
8(en those who bitterly opposed what they saw as a shallow conser(atism admitted that Deagan
deser(ed the title of /he Areat $ommunicator.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he 0571s and 05?1s saw mericans ree.amining themsel(es and struggling to redefine
their nation in an effort to renew the merican dream.
Donald Deagan took his sweeping (ictory o(er Iimmy $arter in 05C1 as a mandate for a
rebirth of patriotism and a re(olution in economics.
,ord for the -ay
/he rise of feminism brought many changes and proposed changes to merican society,
including the modification of se.ist ;gender'biased< language. &or e.ample, the word manind
e.cluded womenG feminists preferred humanind . /he use of =rs. and =iss suggested to that a
womans (alue was unfairly bound to her marital status ;in contrast, men are addressed simply as
=r., whether married or not<. /he abbre(iation Ms . ;pronounced mizz < was widely adopted as a
more e:uitable female counterpart to =r.
!ain ?0ent
!n 05?E, the Supreme $ourt ruled in the case of Doe (. 3ade, which had its origin in a suit
brought by a woman against the state of /e.as for ha(ing denied her the right to an abortion. !n. a
?'to'0 (ote, the high court determined that women ha(e a constitutional right to abortion during the
first three months of pregnancy.
bortion is the most contro(ersial right women ha(e asserted, and the Doe (. 3ade decision
ga(e rise to a so'called Dight to Life anti'abortion mo(ement. 6sually moti(ated by religious
con(iction, Dight to Life ad(ocates ha(e campaigned for a constitutional amendment banning
abortion ;e.cept in cases of rape, incest, or threat to the mothers life<. !n recent years, some
opposition to abortion has been fanatical, leading to the bombing of abortion clinics and the murder
of medical personnel.
Stats
055E 6.S. Bureau of Labor statistics re(eal continued ine:uality of pay for men and women.
mong white adults earning hourly wages, 0,F51,111 men ;o(er age 07< earned P2.F% or less,
compared with F,0??,111 women at this le(el.
0F,20%,111 men were paid P01 or more, compared with only ?,0C7,111 women. ;&igures for
blacks and those of )ispanic origin show narrower gaps between men and women at the lower
range, but wider gaps at the top.<
Stats
Because OP8$ nations still hold ?? percent of the world pro(en oil reser(es, the organi9ation
will continue to remain an important force in the worlds economy.
!ain ?0ent
mericans ha(e typically had a lo(e'hate relationship with their nations greatest city, #ew
York. But during the 05?1s, Aotham became an unwilling emblem of all that was going wrong with
urban merica. Po(erty, decay, crime, and corruption were bigger there than anywhere else and
always under the national spotlight. !n 05?%, =ayor be Bearne issued the astounding statement
that his city could not pay its creditors. #ew York $ity, cultural center of the nation and home of
3all Street, was broke.
President Aerald &ord did not help matters when he steadfastly resisted e.tending federal aid
to the city to pre(ent it from defaulting, and the #ew York >aily #ews trumpeted an instantly
famous headlineB ,&OD> /O #YB >DOP >8>N-
&ortunately, through the efforts of >emocratic leaders such as /e.as representati(e Iim
3right, $ongress (oted emergency loans amounting to PF.E billion, the city a(oided bankruptcy,
ultimately reco(ered, and paid back the loan'with interest.
,ord for the -ay
n ayatollah is a religious leader among the Shiite =uslims, whose religious 9eal and
orthodo.y is often compared to that of $hristian fundamentalists.
A *e+ .conomy a 4la/ue a Fallen+all and a $esert in Flames
(%010#%00%'
In This Chapter
,ise and fall of ,ea&anomics
The AI2* crisis
)ictory in the $old War and the Persian ;ulf
Iran?$ontra scandal
/he presidency of Iames =onroe ;0C0?'F%< ushered in an ,era of good feelings,- a time of
percei(ed national well'being. =uch the same happened during the two terms of Donald Deagan,
the most popular president since !ke 8isenhower. 3here President $arter took a stern moral tone
with the nation, admonishing his fellow mericans to conser(e energy, sa(e money, and generally
do with a little less, President Deagan congratulated his countrymen on the fact of being mericans
and assured them that all was well+or would be well, 4ust as soon as he got ,big go(ernment off our
backs.-
&or a time, business boomed during the Deagan years+though the boom was largely the result
of large'scale mergers and ac:uisitions, the shifting back and forth of assets, rather than any great
strides in production. /rue, too, the Deagan administration saw the beginning of the end of the $old
3ar and the disintegration of the So(iet 6nion, which the president called an ,e(il empire.- Yet,
during the Deagan years, the national debt also rose from a staggering P0 trillion to a stupefying P2
trillion. nd the period was con(ulsed by a terrible epidemic of a new, fatal, and costly disease,
!>S, which the administration met largely with indifference and denial.
=any things good and bad befell the Deagan years, yet, for the most part and for most people,
only the good seemed to stick. /he bad slid off Donald Deagan with such ease that the press dubbed
him the ,/eflon president.-
S"77ly Side and Tric)le -o+n
&ollowing his inauguration, President Deagan lost no time in launching an economic program
formulated by his conser(ati(e economic ad(isors. /he program was :uarterbacked by Office of
=anagement and Budget ;O=B< director >a(id Stockman ;b. 0527<, whose ascetic appearance
seemed to signal his ruthlessness as a slasher of ta.es and domestic social welfare spending. /he
new administration marched under the banner of supply'side economics, a belief that the economy
thri(es by stimulating the production of goods and ser(ices ;the supply side< because ;according to
ad(ocates of the theory< supply creates demand. =ake it, and people will buy it. Ao(ernments
proper role is to stimulate production by reducing ta.es as well as reducing regulation of industry.
Yet, e(en as ta.es are reduced, supply'side economics also demands that the go(ernment operate on
a balanced budget, since deficit spending encourages destructi(e inflation.
/he Deagan re(olution turned on three ma4or policiesB a reduction in go(ernment regulation
of commerce and industryG aggressi(e budget cuttingG aggressi(e ta. cutting'not for middle'and
lower'income indi(iduals, but for the wealthy and for businesses. Deducing the ta. burden on the
rich was supposed to free up more money for in(estment, the benefits of which would ultimately
,trickle down- to the less well off in the form of more and better 4obs.
!f trickle down was a hard concept for many to swallow, Deagans insistence that a reduction
in ta. rates would actually increase go(ernment re(enues seemed downright bi9arre to some. 3hen
Donald Deagan and the man who would be his (ice president, Aeorge Bush, were battling one
another in the Depublican primaries, Bush branded the notion (oodoo economics+a phrase that
would come back to haunt Bush in subse:uent campaigns. But conser(ati(e economist rthur
Laffer ;b. 0521< theori9ed that ta. cuts would stimulate increased in(estment and sa(ings, thereby
ultimately increasing ta.able income and generating more re(enue. President Deagan made fre:uent
reference to the ,Laffer $ur(e,- which illustrated this process.
Plausible or not, a ma4ority of the merican people were prepared to take the leap with their
new president. !n 05C0, a bold program was hurried through a sometimes bewildered $ongress,
including a ma4or ta. cut, a staggering P2E billion cut in the budget for domestic programs, and
broad cutbacks in en(ironmental and business regulation. /he ,Areat $ommunicator- o(ercame all
resistance. 3hen catastrophe struck on =arch E1, 05C0, in the form of would'be assassin Iohn
)inckley, Ir., the ?1'year'old presidents calm and heroic response to his ha(ing been shot in the
chest drew e(en more support for his programs.
Breed #s Bood
relati(ely small number of people made a lot of money as a result of Deaganomics. =ost of
the new wealth was generated not by the stimulated production that the supply'side theory
promised, but by a fren9ied crescendo of corporate ac:uisitions and mergers. /he stock market
bu99ed and churned in a way that ;for some< disturbingly recalled the late 05F1s. $ompanies were
bought and either merged for efficiency ;with resulting loss of 4obs< or broken up, their component
parts and assets sold at a profit to stockholders ;with resulting loss of 4obs<. 6nemployment
generated by the high'le(el financial manipulations of the 05C1s was hard on the man and woman
on the street, but the mo(ement of masses of wealth benefitted those who could afford to in(est in
the right companies at the right time. /he a(erage merican may ha(e been raised to belie(e that
businesses e.isted to make products and pro(ide employment, but the manipulators of wealth
insisted that companies e.isted e.clusi(ely to enrich in(estors, and if that meant destroying a
company, breaking it up, so be it. !n the words of Aordon Aecko, a fictional tycoon played by
=ichael >ouglas in the popular mo(ie ,3all Street- ;05C?<, ,Areed is good.-
8arly confidence in Deaganomics faltered when the recession of the #i.on'&ord'$arter years
deepened further, and public'opinion polls began to suggest that many people belie(ed the ta. cuts
had benefited only the rich. !nflation did roll back, though interest rates remained high, as did
unemployment. )owe(er, by 05CE, ac:uisitions, mergers, and arbitrage had made the stock market
a (ery acti(e place, and prices began to rise sharply. /his change, combined with relati(ely low
inflation and ;at last< rising production, as well as slowly decreasing unemployment, happily
portended reco(ery.
3hat hopeful obser(ers tended to ignore was the prodigiously growing national debt+under a
president whose economic theory called for a balanced budget+and the flimsy sources of the profits
being turned on 3all Street. rbitrage is a high'risk business, which is made less risky if one has
inside information, special knowledge of impending mergers, for e.ample. /he trouble is that such
inside trading is illegal, and beginning in 05C%, 3all Street was rocked by a series of massi(e
insider trading scandals. /rader >ennis B. Le(ine pleaded guilty to making P0F.7 million by trading
on non'public information, and arbitrageur !(an Boesky likewise admitted buying huge blocks of
stock as a result of recei(ing inside information. #ot all the money made on 3all Street was illegal,
but much of it rested on (ery shaky ground.
/o finance the buyout of companies, traders turned to 4unk bonds, high'risk in(estments
;usually issued by a company without an established earnings history or burdened by poor credit<
ac:uired cheaply and paying a high rate of interest. Such transactions, called le(eraged buyouts ;the
takeo(er of a company financed by borrowed funds< were pioneered in the 05?1s, by the 3all Street
firm of "ohlberg "ra(is Doberts and brought to a point of fren9y by =ichael D. =ilken. Often,
4unk bonds were purchased with (ery little hope that the issuing company would e(er repay the
loan, but in the short run, interest payments were so high that the underlying ,4unkiness- of the
bond hardly seemed to matter.
Blac) !onday
/he 4unk being bought and sold hit the fan on October 05, 05C?, when the >ow Iones
!ndustrial (erage ;key measure of stock market performance< plunged %1C points+almost double
the fall in the 05F5 crash that brought on the Areat >epression. s )erbert )oo(er had assured the
merican public that ,prosperity was 4ust around the comer,- President Deagan dismissed the crash
as ,some people grabbing profits.- &ortunately, the market gradually reco(ered+but the high'flying
era of Deaganomics had careened to a gut'wrenching end.
;Bay %la9"e< and a Blind ?ye
3hile many mericans stared with en(y, admiration, or disgust at the 3all Street roller
coaster, they turned a blind eye to the growing legion of homeless people who haunted the nations
large cities and e(en many of its smaller towns. $ertainly, the Deagan administration, ha(ing
drastically cut back federal welfare funding, did little enough for mericas poorest. /he
administration likewise turned away from a terrifying plague that de(eloped initially among
homose.ual men but was soon also diagnosed in heterose.ual men, in women, and in children.
/hroughout the 05C1s, grass'roots !>S organi9ations+including, most notably, Aay =ens
)ealth $risis ;A=)$< and !>S $oalition to 6nleash Power ;$/ 6P<+mobili9ed. /he
organi9ations accused the go(ernment of failing to respond to an epidemic percei(ed to affect
socially marginal groups+homose.uals and intra(enous drug abusers ;who contract the disease by
sharing hypodermic needles tainted with infected blood<. President Deagan failed. e(en to make
public mention of the disease until pril 05C?, fully si. years after health officials had determined
that the epidemic was under way. Only through the efforts of !>S acti(ists was federal funding
increased+from P%.7 million in 05CF to more than PF billion a decade later.
;!rL Borbache0, Tear -o+n This ,allG<
!f the Deagan administration did not engage !>S (igorously, it did not hesitate to take on the
So(iet 6nion, assuming an aggressi(e stance against what the president called ,an e(il empire.-
>efense spending was dramatically stepped up, dwarfing domestic budget cuts in welfare and other
programs.
/he president also acted ggressi(ely to meet percei(ed military threats throughout the world,
sending 6.S. marines in the summer of 05CF to Lebanon as a peacekeeping force. On October FE,
05CE, more than F11 of these troops were killed in their sleep when a truck laden with F%,111
pounds of /#/ was dri(en into the marines Beirut head:uarters building. Iust two days after this
disaster, the president ordered an in(asion of the island nation of Arenada in the 3est !ndies. $uban
troops had been sent to the tiny country ;population 001,011< at the behest of its anti'merican
dictatorship, and the president was determined to protect the appro.imately 0,111 6.S. citi9ens
there. /he president also saw a successful liberation of the country as a kind of emotional
compensation for the death of the marines in Beirut.
Donald Deagans saber rattling was gratifying to some mericans and alarming to others, who
were distressed by the stalemate of 6.S.'So(iet arms'control talks as a fresh deployment of
merican nuclear missiles began in 8urope during #o(ember 05CE. Deagan protested to his critics
that the build'up was needed to counter So(iet ad(ances, yet the strategy produced no tangible
positi(e diplomatic results.
Star ,ars Arm ,restle
>uring 05CE, President Deagan announced the most spectacular, ambitious, elaborate, and
e.pensi(e military pro4ect in world history. !t was called the Strategic >efense !nitiati(e ;S>!<, but
the popular press dubbed the system ,Star 3ars,- after the popular Aeorge Lucas science'fiction
mo(ie of 05??. 6sing an orbiting weapons system, the idea was to create a shield against
intercontinental ballistic missile attack by destroying incoming !$B=s before they began their
descent. /he weaponry was so far beyond e(en the foreseeable cutting edge as to be fancifulB J'ray
and particle'beam de(ices ;as yet theoretical< operated by supercomputers that had to be
programmed by other computers. $ritics pointed out that Star 3ars was not only a (iolation of the
05?F B= ;antiballistic missile< treaty, but a temptation to thermonuclear war because it promised
to make such a war sur(i(able. Others suggested that the system could ne(er be made to work, and
still others protested that the staggering cost of the program+P011 to PF11 billion+would
permanently cripple the nation.
Yet Presidents Deagan and Aeorge Bush pursued Star 3ars to the tune of PE1 billion, e(en
though. the program produced few demonstrable results. &inally, in 055E, anonymous S>!
researchers re(ealed that at least one ma4or space test had been ,fi.ed- to yield successful results.
$aspar 3einberger, who had ser(ed as President Deagans secretary of defense, initially denied
these charges, but subse:uently claimed that the test in :uestion+and perhaps the entire Star 3ars
program+had been an elaborate decoy. /he program ;3einberger said< had been designed solely to
dupe the So(iet 6nion into spending a huge proportion of its resources on a Star 3ars program of
its own+a program that 6.S. scientists already knew was unworkable.
The ,all $alls
3hether one (iews Star 3ars+and the rest of the gargantuan Deagan defense budget+as a (ast
mis4udgment, which :uadrupled the national debt from one to four trillion dollars, or as a costly but
brilliant strategy to win the $old 3ar, the fact is that the $old 3ar did end. /he go(ernment of the
So(iet 6nion was first liberali9ed and then fell apart, the nations economy in tatters and the people
clamoring for democratic capitalist reforms. 8(en though =ikhail Aorbache( ;b. 05E0<, general
secretary of the So(iet $ommunist party ;05C%'50< and president of the 6.S.S.D. ;05CC'50<,
introduced unheard of liberal reforms, President Deagan prodded him to go e(en further. !n 05C?,
standing near the Berlin 3all, brick, stone, and ra9or'wire symbol of a half'century of communist
oppression, the president made a stirring speech calling out to the So(iet leaderB ,=r. Aorbache(,
open this gateN =r. Aorbache(, tear down this wallN- /wo years later, Berliners began chipping
away at the wall, tearing it down piece by piece, as a liberali9ed So(iet 6nion merely looked on.
lthough communist hardliners staged a re(olt against Aorbache( in 0550, progressi(e 4unior
army officers refused to follow "AB ;So(iet secret police< directi(es, and the attempted coup
failed. Aorbache( then disbanded the $ommunist party and stepped down as leader of the So(iet
6nion. Boris Yeltsin ;b. 05E0<, radical reformist president of the Dussian Depublic, assumed
leadership not of the 6nion of So(iet Socialist Depublics+which ceased to e.ist+but of a loose
commonwealth of former So(iet states.
:llie, #ran, and the &ontras
/he debate still rages o(er whether the policies of Donald Deagan won the $old 3ar or
whether the So(iet 6nion, shackled to a financially, intellectually, and morally bankrupt system of
go(ernment, simply lost the half'century contest. nother episode of unorthodo. world diplomacy
continues to pro(oke contro(ersy as well.
!n #o(ember 05C7, President Donald Deagan confirmed reports that the 6.S. had secretly sold
arms to its implacable enemy, !ran. /he president at first denied, howe(er, that the purpose of the
sale was to obtain the release of 6.S. hostages held by terrorists in perpetually war'torn Lebanon,
but he later admitted an arms'for'hostages swap. /hen the plot thickened+shockingly+when
ttorney Aeneral 8dwin =eese learned that a portion of the arms profits had been di(erted to
finance so'called $ontra rebels fighting against the leftist Sandinista go(ernment of #icaragua. s
part of the ongoing 6.S. policy of containing communism, the Deagan administration supported
right'wing rebellion in #icaragua, but $ongress specifically prohibited aid to the $ontras. /he
secret di(ersion of the secret arms profits was blatantly unconstitutional and illegal.
lengthy in(estigation gradually re(ealed that, in 05C%, a cabal of !sraelis had approached
#ational Security d(isor Dobert =ac&arlane with a scheme in which !ran would use its influence
to free the 6.S. hostages held in Lebanon in e.change for arms. Secretary of State Aeorge Schult9
and Secretary of >efense $aspar 3einberger ob4ected to the plan, but ;=ac&arlane testified<
President Deagan agreed to it. !n a bi9arre twist, 6.S. =arine lieutenant colonel Oli(er ;Ollie< #orth
then modified the scheme in order to funnel profits from the arms sales to the $ontras.
s was the case with 3atergate during the 05?1s, in(estigation and testimony implicated
officials on successi(ely lofty rungs of the 3hite )ouse ladder+through national security ad(isors
Iohn Poinde.ter and =ac&arlane, through $! director 3illiam I. $asey ;who died in =ay 05C?<,
and through >efense secretary $aspar 3einberger. &ew people belie(ed that President Deagan had
been ignorant of the scheme, but e(en if he had been the unwitting dupe of 9ealots in his
administration, the implications were bad enough, painting a picture of a passi(e chief e.ecuti(e
blindly delegating authority to his staff.
!n the end, Ollie #orth was con(icted on three of 0F criminal counts against him, but the
con(ictions were subse:uently set aside on appealG Poinde.ter was con(icted on fi(e counts of
decei(ing $ongress, but his con(ictions were also set asideG $! administrator $lair 8. Aeorge was
indicted for per4ury, but his trial ended in mistrialG and $aspar 3einberger was indicted on fi(e
counts of lying to $ongress. ll of those charged were ultimately pardoned by President Deagans
successor, Aeorge Bush. lthough the 0552 report of special prosecutor Lawrence 8. 3alsh
scathingly critici9ed both Deagan and Bush, neither was charged with criminal wrongdoing.
-esert Shield and -esert Storm
President Deagans second term, marred by the !ran'$ontra affair, a bumbling performance at
the 05C7 summit with =ikhail Aorbache(, and the 05C? stock market crash, ne(ertheless saw the
,/eflon president- emerge personally unscathed. @ice President Aeorge Bush sailed to easy (ictory
in the presidential race of 05CC. 3here the ,Areat $ommunicator- Deagan had been charismatic,
howe(er, Bush was percei(ed as testy, and, with the economy faltering ;the principal issue was high
unemployment<, his popularity rapidly slipped in the polls. Bush seemed doomed to a one'term
presidency.
/hen, on ugust F, 0551, !ra:i president Saddam )ussein, a dictator whose florid mustache
recalled Iosef Stalin and whose ruthless actions summoned to mind dolf )itler, ordered an
in(asion of the small, oil'rich rab state of "uwait. !t was the beginning of a tense and dramatic
crisis, but it was also President Bushs finest hour. )is administration brilliantly used the 6nited
#ations to sanction action against !ra:, and with masterful diplomacy, the president assembled an
unprecedented coalition of E0 nations to oppose the in(asion. Particularly delicate was ac:uiring the
support of the rab countries while keeping !srael, which was e(en sub4ect to attack by !ra:i S$6>
missiles, out of the fray. s to the 6.S. commitment, it was the largest since @ietnamB more than a
half million troops, 0,C11 aircraft, and some 011 ships.
!ndeed, comparisons with @ietnam were plentiful, made principally by mericans who
ob4ected to trading ,blood for oil- and who feared that the nation would become mired in another
hopeless conflict. /he fact was that =iddle 8ast oil had become essential to the 3estern economy,
But the issues also went far beyond this commodity. President Bush was one of the last of the
generation of 6.S. leaders who had fought in 3orld 3ar !l. )e well knew what can happen when an
international bully like Saddam )ussein, in command of the fifth largest army in the world, is
allowed to operate unchecked.
!n early ugust 0551, "ing &ahd of Saudi rabia in(ited merican troops into his country to
protect the kingdom against possible !ra:i aggression. $alled Operation >esert Shield, this was a
massi(e, orderly buildup of 6.S. forces. !n Ianuary 0550, the 6.S. $ongress (oted to support
military operations against !ra: in accordance with a 6.#. Security $ouncil resolution, which set a
deadline of Ianuary 0%, 055 0, for the withdrawal of !ra:i forces from "uwait. 3hen Saddam
)ussein failed to heed the deadline, Operation >esert Shield became Operation >esert Storm, a
massi(ely coordinated lightning campaign against !ra: from the air, the sea, and on land. fter
continuous air attack beginning Ianuary 0?, the ground war was launched at CB11 p.m. on &ebruary
FE and lasted e.actly 011 hours before !ra:i resistance collapsed and "uwait was liberated.
8e+ ,orld :rder
Bush, who consistently earned high marks from the merican public for his conduct of
foreign relations, now en4oyed o(erwhelming popular appro(al in the wake of the successful
outcome of the Persian Aulf 3ar. But Bush did not bask alone in the wars afterglow. =ilitary
success in the Aulf seemed to e.orcise the demons of failure born in the @ietnam 3ar, and with the
liberali9ation and ultimate collapse of the So(iet 6nion, mericans felt that their nation was in the
(anguard of what President Bush called a ,new world order.- #ot only had the long ideological
struggle between communism and democracy ended in a (ictory for democracy, but a bully from
the /hird 3orld, Saddam )ussein, had been defeated+and he was defeated with the cooperation of
many nations and to the applause of most of the world.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
President Deagan started a conser(ati(e re(olution in merica, introducing supplyside
economics and undoing much of the welfare state that had begun with &>D.
/he Deagan'Bush years saw (ictory in the %1'year $old 3ar ;as well as (ictory in the
brief but dangerous Persian Aulf 3ar< but at the cost of :uadrupling an already
staggering national debt and sidelining such domestic issues as welfare and the !>S
crisis.
!ain ?0ent
President Deagan had been in office only two months when he e.ited the 3ashington )ilton
)otel on =arch E1, 05C0, after deli(ering a speech. Si. shots rang out, fired from a .FF'caliber
re(ol(er loaded with e.plosi(e ,>e(astator- bullets. Secret Ser(ice agent /imothy I. =c$arthy and
3ashington police officer Iames >elahanty were hit, as was 3hite )ouse press secretary Iames S.
Brady, who suffered a se(ere head wound.
/he president was bundled into his limousine, where it was disco(ered that he, too, had been
wounded in the chest. &ortunately, the bullet, lodged in his lung, had failed to e.plode and was
remo(ed in an emergency surgical operation. ,! hope youre all Depublicans,- the president :uipped
to his surgeons.
/he shooter, F%'year'old Iohn 3arnock )inckley, Ir., was the drifter son of a wealthy >en(er
oil engineer. )inckley was obsessed with screen actress Iodie &oster, who had made a sensation as a
teenage prostitute in ,/a.i >ri(er,- a 05?7 film dealing in part with political assassination. )inckley
apparently decided to kill the president to impress &oster.
4ury found )inckley not guilty by reason of insanity, and fie was confined to a psychiatric
hospital. ll of his (ictims reco(ered, e.cept for Brady, who was left partially paraly9ed. Brady
became a passionate ad(ocate of federal regulation of handguns+a policy President Deagan had
himself opposed.
.eal (ife
/he words put into Aordon Aeckos mouth were paraphrased from a real'life 3all Street
manipulator, !(an Boesky, who told the graduating class of the School of Business dministration
at the 6ni(ersity of $alifornia, Berkeley, on =ay 0C, 05C7B ,Areed is all right, by the way K !
think greed is healthy. You can be greedy and still feel good about yourself.-
,ord for the -ay
>uring the Deagan years, the 3all Street word for the day was arbitra&e +the art of buying
securities, commodities, or currencies in one market and immediately ;sometimes simultaneously<
selling them in another market to profit from price differences. Arbitra&eurs like !(an Boesky acted
on takeo(er bids and impending mergers, buying blocks of the target companys stock at a low
price, with the hope of selling them at a much higher price when the merger occurred. !f the merger
failed to occur, losses could be de(astating.
.eal (ife
=ichael D. =ilken ;b. 0527< was a star e.ecuti(e at the prestigious 3all Street trading firm of
>re.el Burnham Lambert, !nc. )e engineered a number of high'stakes, high'profile corporate
takeo(ers through the use of high'yield 4unk bonds, making many of his clients and himself
enormously wealthy in the process. )owe(er, it was subse:uently disco(ered that much of =ilkens
trading was based on illegal inside information, and in 05C5, a grand 4ury handed down a 5C'count
indictment against him for (iolating federal securities and racketeering laws. 3hen =ilken pleaded
guilty to securities fraud and related charges in 0551, the go(ernment dropped the insider trading
and racketeering charges, which carried greater penalties. )is 01'year sentence was later reduced to
three, and =ilken returned to the world of finance upon his release. )is spectacular rise and e:ually
dramatic fall mirrored the course of the economy and cast a harsh light on the eras :uestionable
business ethics.
Stats
On ,Black =onday,- October 05, 05C?, PC?1 billion in e:uity simply e(aporated as the
market dropped from a >ow of F,F27.?E to 0,?EC.20 points.
,ord for the -ay
AI2* +Ac+uired immune 2eficiency *yndrome +is caused by infection with the )uman
!mmunodeficiency @irus ;)!@<, which attacks immune system cells, ultimately producing se(ere
suppression of the bodys ability to resist other infections.
/he disease is transmitted se.ually, through the blood ;for e.ample, through transfusion with
infected whole blood plasma<, and during birth, from infected mother to their children.
Stats
Since the first !>S cases were formally reported in 05C0, appro.imately a half'million !>S
cases and mote than a :uarter'million !>S'=ated deaths ha(e been reported in the 6nited States.
!t is belie(ed that another million mericans, ha(e been infected with )!@ through the mid'0551s
but ha(e not de(eloped clinical !>S symptoms.
Voice from the %ast
,So in your discussions of the nuclear free9e proposals, ! urge you to beware the
temptation of pride+temptation blithely to declare yoursel(es abo(e it all and label both
sides e:ually at fault, to ignore the facts of history and the aggressi(e impulses of an e(il
empire, to simply call the arms race a giant misunderstanding and thereby remo(e
yourself from the struggle between right and wrong, good and e(il.-
Ronald Reagan, statement made on March 8, 1983
,ord for the -ay
mericans learned two important Dussian words during the 05C1s. Perestroia ;literally,
restructuring< was how Aorbache( described his program of liberal political and economic reforms.
;lasnost ;openness< described how the traditionally secreti(e and closed 6SSD would now
approach its own people and the rest of the world.
Stats
$ombined 6.S. and coalition forces in the Aulf 3ar amounted to %E1,111 troops as opposed
to %2%,111 !ra:is. 6.S. and coalition losses were 025 FEC wounded, C0 missing and 0E taken,
prisoner ;they were subse:uently released<. !ra:i losses ha(e been estimated in e.cess of C1,111
men, with o(erwhelming loss of materiel.
.eal (ife
/he only thing mericans cherish more than their cynicism is their heroes, and the Persian
Aulf 3ar produced one in Aeneral ). #orman Schwar9kopf, o(erall commander of operations
>esert Shield and >esert Storm. Born in /renton, #ew Iersey, on ugust FF, 05E2, Schwar9kopf
graduated from 3est Point in 05%7. )e ser(ed with distinction in numerous staff strategic and
personnel management assignments, as well as in field command in @ietnam and in the 05CE
in(asion of Arenada.
>uring the Persian Aulf 3ar, Schwar9kopf commanded a combined 6.S.'coalition force of
%E1,111 troops opposed to %2%,111 !ra:is and achie(ed o(erwhelming (ictory. &re:uently
appearing on tele(ision press conferences during the conflict, he impressed the merican public
with his forthrightness, military skill, and softspoken humanity. ,ny soldier worth his salt,-
Schwar9kopf declared, ,should be antiwar. nd still there are things worth fighting for.- =uch
honored, he retired after the war.
$emocracy
(%00<8'
In This Chapter
End of the ,ea&an? Bush years
The "e( ,i&ht, Libertarians, and militia &rou!s
An electronic democracy
3riting about what has happened is much easier than writing about what is happening.
Because we dont li(e in the future, its no mean feat to say one current e(ent is historically
significant, but another one isnt. /he history of our times has yet to be written. So this closing
chapter is nothing more than a moistened finger lifted to the pre(ailing ,winds. By the time you read
this, some of these winds may be forgotten bree9es, and ! may well ha(e o(erlooked the coming
storms.
The ?conomy, St"7id
!n 05C1 and again in 05C2, the merican electorate (oted Donald Deagan into office with
gusto. !n 05CC, mericans had relati(ely little enthusiasm for either >emocrat =ichael >ukakis,
go(ernor of =assachusetts, or Depublican Aeorge Bush, (ice president of the 6nited States. #or
was there wild enthusiasm in 055F, when the incumbent Bush was opposed by the youthful
go(ernor of rkansas, Bill $linton. )owe(er, during the Bush administration, the merican dream
seemed somehow to ha(e slipped farther away. /rue, the world was probably a safer place than it
had been at any time since the end of 3orld 3ar !! ;but it was still a dangerous world<, and the
6nited States had ac:uitted itself in the best tradition of its long democratic history by resol(ing the
Persian Aulf 3ar. Yet the electorate felt that President Bush habitually neglected domestic issues
and focused e.clusi(ely on international relations. $andidate Bill $lintons acerbic campaign
manager, Iames $ar(ille, put it directly, ad(ising Ao(ernor $linton to write himself a reminder lest
he forget the issue on which the election would be won or lostB ,!ts the economy stupid.-
Third %arty %olitics
/he economy. !t was not that merica teetered on the edge of another depression in 055F.
lthough homeless men, women, and e(en children could be seen on corners and in doorways of
the nations cities, there were not the long bread lines or crowded soup kitchens of the 05E1s. But a
general sense e.isted among the middle class, among those who had 4obs and were paying the rent,
that this generation was not doing ,as well as- pre(ious generations. Sons were not li(ing as well as
fathers, daughters not as well as mothers. /he pursuit of happiness, fueled in large part by cash, had
become that much more difficult, and a ma4ority of (oters blamed it on Aeorge Bush. Bill $linton
entered the 3hite )ouse by a comfortable margin, but if (oters re4ected Bush, a si9able minority of
them also re4ected $linton.
&or the first time since /heodore Doose(elt ran as a Bull =oose candidate in 050F, a
third'party contender made a significant impact at the polls. Presenting himself as a candidate
dissatisfied with both the Depublicans and >emocrats, billionaire /e.as businessman ). Doss Perot
;b. 05E1< told mericans that they were the ,owners- of the nation and that it was about time they
deri(ed benefit from such ownership.
The 8e+ .ight
/he Perot candidacy was not the only e(idence of widespread discontent with politics as
usual. mericans who had come of age in the 0571s, the era of the Areat Society and of protest
against the @ietnam 3ar, tended to take liberalism for granted, as if it were naturally part and parcel
of the merican way. Beginning in the 05?1s, howe(er, a conser(ati(e counter'mo(ement gained
increasing strength. !ts (alues rested upon the family as traditionally constituted ;father, mother,
kids<, a strong sense of law and order, reliance on organi9ed religion, a belief in the work ethic ;and
a corresponding disdain for the welfare state<, a passion for decency ;e(en to the point of
censorship<, and a desire for minimal go(ernment.
.ight to (ife
=any who ha(e identified themsel(es with the new right hold passionately to a belief that
abortion, e(en in the first trimester of pregnancy ;when the fetus cannot sur(i(e outside of the
womb<, is tantamount to murder. /he so'called Dight to Life mo(ement has spawned a fanatic
fringe, whose members ha(e bombed abortion clinics and ha(e intimidated, assaulted, and e(en
murdered physicians who perform abortions. )owe(er, the mainstream of the mo(ement has relied
on legal means to effect social change, with the ultimate ob4ect of obtaining a constitutional
amendment barring abortion. /he Dight to Life mo(ement became so powerful a political lobby that
the Depublican party adopted a stance against abortion as part of its 055F platform.
Degardless of ones attitude toward abortion+whether pro life or pro choice+many mericans
are alarmed by a trend among particular political candidates and e(en entire political parties to
become identified with single issues+such as abortion, gun control, prayer in schools, gay rights+
rather than with an array of issues, let alone a philosophy of go(ernment.
&hristian .ight
/he &irst mendment to the $onstitution specifies that ,$ongress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion.- $hurch and state are e.plicitly separated in the 6nited
StatesG but the go(ernment freely in(okes the name of Aod in most of its enterprises. Our currency
bears the motto ,!n Aod 3e /rust,- both houses of $ongress employ full'time chaplains, and
;despite occasional protests< the Pledge of llegiance most of us grew up reciting at the start of
each school day describes the 6nited States as ,one nation, under Aod. , 3hile many mericans
shake their heads o(er their perception that religious worship has somehow gone out of fashion in
merica, most opinion polls agree that appro.imately 57 percent of the population belie(es in Aod.
055E sur(ey was able to turn up fewer than one million mericans willing to identify themsel(es
as atheists'out of a total 6.S. population, according to the 0551 census, of F2C,?15,C?E.
/he rise of the so'called $hristian Dight+religiously moti(ated conser(atism'should surprise
no one, though it has worried many, who see in o(ert unions of religious faith and politics a threat
to &irst mendment freedoms. t present, the most significant political manifestation of the
$hristian Dight is the powerful lobbying group called the $hristian $oalition, which was spun off of
the unsuccessful 05CC presidential campaign of religious broadcaster Pat Dobertson ;b. 05E1<.
Based in 3ashington, >.$., the coalition boasts a membership of 0.7 million and has claimed
responsibility for the Depublican sweep of the $ongress during the midterm elections of 0552. !n
055%, the organi9ation spent more than a million dollars mobili9ing its ,born'again- e(angelicals
behind the conser(ati(e ,$ontract with merica- promulgated by Speaker of the )ouse #ewt
Aingrich. 3hile some people ha(e welcomed what they see as a return of morality to merican
political life, others see the $hristian Dight as narrow, coerci(e, and intolerant.
The Age of .age
!n turn, the $hristian Dight has (iewed liberal merica as too tolerant of lifestyles and beliefs
that seem alien or offensi(e to certain religious principles, or that apparently threaten the moral
fiber of the nation.
/his is hardly a new dialogue. Dight and left ha(e been taffy'pulling national life since well
before the De(olution. !ndeed, mericans may be too accustomed to thinking in terms of right
(ersus leftG for another body of belief appears to want little to do with either side. !n its mildest
form, this group has e.pressed itself in a third political party, the Libertarians, founded in 05?0.
Libertarians oppose laws that limit personal beha(ior ;including laws against prostitution,
gambling, se.ual preference<, ad(ocate a free market economy without go(ernment regulation or
assistance, and support an isolationist foreign policy ;including 6.S. withdrawal from the 6nited
#ations<.
But look around and listen. !ts not Libertarian dialogue that you hear. !ts rage. =ost of the
time, it-s part of the background, the =u9ak that marks the tempo of our timesB angry slogans on
bumper stickers, the endless, staccato of sound bites reeling out from the tele(ision tube, the 4agged
litany that issues from talk'radio >Is, and the remarkable (olume of (iolence that plays across
mo(ie screens. Sometimes the rage e.plodes, front and center.
,aco and :)lahoma &ity
pril 05, 055E, saw the fiery culmination of a long standoff between members of a
fundamentalist religious cult called the Branch >a(idians and federal officers. &ollowers of >a(id
"oresh ;his real name was @ernon )owell< holed up in a fortified compound outside of 3aco,
/e.as, and resisted the intrusion of agents from the 6.S. /reasury >epartments lcohol, /obacco
and &irearms 6nit ;/&<. /he agents were in(estigating reports of a stockpile of illegal arms as
well as rumors of child abuse in the compound. 3hen /& officers mo(ed in on the compound on
&ebruary FC, the cultists opened fire, killing four /& agents. "oresh was wounded in the e.change,
and at least two of his followers were killed. &or the ne.t %0 days, the &B! laid siege to the Branch
>a(idians, until pril 05, when the agents commenced an assault with tear gas (olleys. /he Branch
>a(idians responded by setting fire to their own compound, a bla9e that killed more than C1
cultists, including F2 children. =illions witnessed both the &ebruary FC shoot'out and the pril 05
inferno on tele(ision.
=illions also saw the bloody aftermath of the bombing of the lfred P. =urrah &ederal Office
Building in Oklahoma $ity on pril 05, 055%, which resulted in the deaths of 075 persons. /imothy
=c@eigh and /erry #ichols were the two young men indicted in connection with the bombing. /he
men were associated with the ,militia mo(ement,- a phrase describing militant groups organi9ed in
se(eral states after the raid in 3aco and a 055F go(ernment assault on Dandy 3ea(er, a white
supremacist, and his family in Duby Didge, !daho.
/he incidents at 3aco and Duby Didge, together with passage of relati(ely mild federal
gun'control legislation, inspired the formation of these armed cadres. /he groups were opposed not
only to what they deemed e.cessi(e go(ernment control of e(eryday life, but also to what they saw
as a 6nited #ations plot to take o(er the 6nited States in a dri(e toward ,One 3orld Ao(ernment.-
&ew mericans could understand how bombing a federal office building+which contained no
military installations, no $! secret head:uarters, but only such ordinary offices as the local Social
Security unit'could be deemed a blow against tyranny. mong those killed and in4ured were a
number of children at play in the buildings daycare center.
A Tale of T+o Trials
/he rage that has characteri9ed the 0551s is not always politically moti(ated. /wo trials
commanded national attention.
.odney *ing
On =arch E, 0550, Dodney "ing, an frican'merican, was arrested for speeding on a
$alifornia freeway. By chance, a witness carrying a camcorder (ideotaped the arrestB a brutal
beating by four nightstick'wielding Los ngeles police officers. /he tape was broadcast nationally,
sending shockwa(es of outrage from coast to coast. !ncredibly, the officers were ac:uitted on pril
E1, 055F, by an all'white 4ury in the upscale $alifornia community of Simi @alley. &i(e days of
rioting, arson, and looting erupted in Los ngeles, especially in the citys predominantly black
South'$entral neighborhood. ;!n a second, later trial on federal ci(il rights charges, two of the
officers were con(icted.<
/he first (erdict and the riots that followed+the worst urban disorder since the #ew York
,>raft Diots- during Iuly 0E'07, 0C7E+were heartbreaking, suggesting that we as a nation had not
come (ery far in learning to li(e harmoniously and producti(ely together. Yet the sad episode was
also a demonstration of how technology could ser(e the ends of democracy. &or despite the 4urys
(erdict, the beating, (ideotaped and broadcast, united most of the nation not in rage but in outrage.
s those brutal images flickered across tele(ision screens e(erywhere, un:uestioning belief in law
and order dissol(ed. =iddle'class whites were forced to ask themsel(es, !s this what it means to be
black in mericaO t the (ery least, those millions who saw the beating had to ponderB /his is
e.actly what merican democracy was created to pre(ent.
:L>L Sim7son
/ele(ision brought another racially charged legal battle into the nations li(ing rooms when
O.I. Simpson, an frican'merican who had made it big as a football star and, later, sports
broadcaster, was tried for the brutal murder of his e.'wife, #icole Brown Simpson, and her friend
Donald Aoldman. &or almost a year, the tele(ised ,/rial of the $entury- ri(eted a significant
portion of the population. On October E, 055%, after ha(ing been se:uestered for F77 days and then
deliberating for less than four hours, the Los ngeles 4ury found Simpson not guilty. 3hile
tele(ision had once again united the nation in focus on a single e(ent, the tele(ised (erdict re(ealed
a deep national di(ision along racial lines. 3hites o(erwhelmingly deemed the decision a
miscarriage of 4ustice, whereas the ma4ority of frican'mericans belie(ed Simpson had been the
innocent (ictim of racist police officers determined to frame him for the murder of his white
e.'wife and her white friend.
? %l"rib"s 6n"m
=any mericans complained during the long Simpson trial that the media, in de(oting
co(erage to e(ery minute detail of the tortuous legal maneu(ering that characteri9ed the
proceedings, ga(e short shrift to many other important stories of the year. Perhaps. But the tele(ised
trial did ha(e much to teach us about our nationG about what it means to li(e in a country based on
the presumption of innocenceG about what it means to be black+or white+in the 6nited StatesG about
how access to wealth may influence the outcome of a trial.
$rom (ea0e #t to Bea0er to Sesame Street to the #nternet
/he Simpson trial also reminded us+if we needed reminding+of how profoundly mass media,
particularly tele(ision, shapes our perceptions, e(en as it mirrors them. Back in the late 05%1s and
early 0571s, tele(ision programs depicted the merican family as a collection of ethnically
nondescript, (aguely Protestant white people li(ing in white'painted, picket'fenced colonial'style
suburban homesB the 3ard, Iune, 3ally, and /heodore ,Bea(er- $lea(er of Lea(e !t to Bea(er. /his
is how we liked to think of oursel(es back then, and tele(ision obliged.
/hen tele(ision brought us Sesame Street in 0575, a series aimed at entertaining and teaching
children, but one that also depicted an urban neighborhood populated by whites, blacks, )ispanics,
sians, as well as people with handicaps and disabilities. /he 4ourney from Lea(e !t to Bea(er to
Sesame Street consumed a decade in which a ma4ority of mericans became more mindful and
more accepting of the essence of democracyB &rom many, one.
nd that mindfulness may 4ust be the engine dri(ing popular fascination with yet another
technology. s little as two decades ago, the world of computers was an arcane realm that
commanded relati(ely little interest and less understanding from most folks. 6se the word !nternet
much before the 0551s, and you might as well ha(e come from outer space.
#ow it is difficult to get through a day without hearing some reference to the !nternet. &or an
increasing number of mericans, few days go by without a personal (isit to it.
network of computer networks, the !nternet is an information superhighway and also a
forum, the ultimate town s:uare, a place where ideas can be aired, shared, and debated. s yet, the
!nternet is unregulated by any go(ernment agency. !s the !nternet democracyO #o. >emocracy
cannot be reduced to this or that technology. But the !nternet is an e.pression of democracy, a
fer(ent wish to be democratic, to hear and to be heard, to share, to communicate, to connect with
ones neighbors+ne.t'door and around the world+and to be at the center of a great web that offers
infinite centers ;since, on the !nternet, the center is where(er you happen to be<.
3ill the !nternet make democracy any easierO =aybe, maybe not. But, more important, after
the more than F11 years since the $onstitution was written with pen and ink in the painstakingly
graceful hand of the 0Cth century, the binary 1s and 0s, the light'speed ebb and flow of electrons
through the !nternet continue to embody the passion, the ideals, the dreams of those who founded
the nation and those who ha(e nurtured it for so long. 3hether penned with a :uill or tapped out on
a keyboard, the message is the sameB 8 pluribus unum+&rom many, one.
The (east Yo" 8eed to *no+
/he 0551s ha(e been characteri9ed by discontent, political e.tremism, and rage that
threaten democracy, but also by a renewed passion to gather and share information and
ideas, the (ery elements that keep democracy strong.
re(olution in electronic media, born in large part of an impulse to democracy, may well
promote and preser(e democratic (alues in the ne.t millennium.
Stats
8(en though Perot dropped out of the race for a time ;stunning his many supporters<, he won
05,FE?,F2? (otes, an astounding 05 percent of the popular (ote total.
,ord for the -ay
fter 3orld 3ar !!, from 052? to 0570, the birth rate sharply rose in merica. /his period
was described as a baby boom , and those born during this time were baby boomers . /hose born
between 0570 and 05?F, typically college educated but chronically pessimistic and (aguely
dissatisfied with career possibilities, ha(e been dubbed Aeneration J, a label drawn from a no(el of
that name by >ouglas $oupland.
,ord for the -ay
>uring the 05C1s and 0551s, mericans heard a great deal about PA$s . PA$ +Political
Action $ommittee +is a special interest group, lobby, or pressure group organi9ed to raise money for
specific political acti(ity.
,ord for the -ay
,!n Aod 3e /rust- is plain enough 8nglish. /he Areat Seal of the 6nited States, reproduced
on the dollar bill, also !ncludes two phrases of LatinB Annuit coe!tis ;,)e has fa(ored our
undertakings< and "o#us ordo seclorum ;, new order of the ages-<.
.eal (ife
#ewt ;#ewton Leroy< Aingrich ;b. 052E<, elected 6.S. $ongressman from Aeorgias 7th
>istrict in 05?5, became Speaker of the )ouse in 055%. !ntensely, abrasi(ely partisan, the elo:uent
Aingrich brilliantly masterminded the Depublican partys so'called ,$ontact with merica.- /his
conser(ati(e legislati(e agenda promised smaller go(ernment, more responsi(e go(ernment, and a
renewal of a sense of opportunity in merican life. Aingrich has drawn ardent admiration from
conser(ati(es and e:ually contempt from liberals.
Stats
!n the 05C1 presidential election, Libertarian candidate 8d $lark polled 5F1,C%75 (otes, but
candidate >a(id Bergland recei(ed only FF?,525 (otes in 05C2. Don Paul garnered 215,20F (otes in
05CC, and ndre =arrou recei(ed FC0,%1C (otes in 055F.
Voice from the %ast
,People, ! 4ust want to say, you know, can we all get alongO $an we get alongO $an we
stop making it, making it horrible for the older people and the kidsO-
Rodney King, spoken during the os !ngeles riots, May ", 199"
!ain ?0ent
/he (ery last year of the 05th century saw the in(ention of radio+at the time called the
,wireless telegraph-+by the !talian'!rish in(entor Auglielmo =arconi ;0C?2'05E?<. /wenty'one
years later, Pittsburghs station ">" made what is generally considered the first commercial radio
broadcast in the 6nited States ;an announcement of election results<, and electronic mass media was
born. !n 05EE, a Dussian'born merican engineer for D$, @ladimir Hworykin ;0CC5'05CF<,
ha(ing in(ented and patented in 05F% the ,iconoscope- ;basis of the modern ,picture tube-<,
broadcast a tele(ision image o(er a radio'wa(e relay between #ew York and Philadelphia. !t took
well o(er a decade for the new medium to catch on with the merican public, but in 052C, when an
e.'(aude(ille comic named =ilton Berle ;b. 051C< began ca(orting across the small screen ;often
attired in drag<, mericans got hooked. Berles /e.aco Star /heater dominated the airwa(es through
05%7, sales of /@ sets soared, more programming was de(eloped, and tele(ision became the
dominant merican entertainment medium. Soon, it also displaced the newspaper as the dominant
news medium as well.
Dadio and tele(ision are essentially one'way media, broadcasting to a passi(ely recepti(e
audience. /he de(elopment of the personal computer, especially as linked to other computers
through such networks as the (ast !nternet, represents an emerging interacti(e medium, in which
there may be many parties in an e.change of entertainment, news, and information.
/he modern personal computer has its most direct origins in the ,analytical engine- in(ented
by /homas Babbage and Lady Lo(elace in 0CFF'E?, in computational theory de(eloped by the
British mathematician lan /uring in the 05E1s, and in 8#!$, the first electronic computer,
un(eiled at the 6ni(ersity of Pennsyl(ania in 0527. &rom that time until the 05?1s, computers were
big and e.pensi(e, re:uiring a team of e.perts to program and to operate. !n the 05?1s, a number of
companies introduced much smaller and cheaper computers, which could fit on a desktop, and, on
ugust 0F, 05C0, !B= introduced the P$'personal computer+the first truly practical desktop
machine. Since then, the machines ha(e grown cheaper and more powerful each year, and one is
hard pressed to find a desk+in offices as well as homes+that doesnt sport a P$.
Stats
!n 05C2, 0C percent of people o(er age 0C regularly used computers. !n 055E, the figure was
E7 percent. Significantly, %7 percent of children aged E to 0? regularly used computers in 055E.
,ord for the -ay
/he Internet is an international web of interconnected go(ernment, education, and business
computer networks t last estimate, at least F% million people access the !nternet, which many
regard as a kind of electronic community.