A

PAPER PRESENTATION
ON
Modern Trends
In
Power Electronics
By
G.Madhusudananaidu
IV B.Tech (E.C.E)
( gmadhu412@gmail.com )
&
K.Udayakirankumar
IV B.Tech (E.C.E)
(k_uday_kk@yahoo.co.in)
A.V.S COEGE O! E"GG &TEC#
"EO$E
CONTENTS
In%r&duc%i&n
'&(er dissi)a%i&n %&day
'ic&radi& a))*ica%i&n
Bui*din+ c&n%r&*
U*%ra *&( ener+y )ic&radi& ne%(&rks
Ener+y %rade,&--s in ne%(&rks in )r&%&c&*
Ener+y %rade,&--s a% %he MAC *ayer
'inc&de im)*emen%a%i&n
'hysica* *ayer im)*emen%a%i&n
c&nc*usi&n
Abstract
The recen% in%eres% in sens&r ne%(&rks has *ed %& a num.er &- r&u%in+ schemes %ha% use %he
*imi%ed res&urces a/ai*a.*e a% sens&r n&des m&re e--icien%*y. These schemes %y)ica**y %ry
%& -ind %he minimum ener+y )a%h %& &)%imi0e ener+y usa+e a% a n&de. In %his )a)er (e
%ake %he /ie( %ha% a*(ays usin+ *&(es% ener+y )a%hs may n&% .e &)%ima* -r&m %he )&in% &-
/ie( &- ne%(&rk *i-e%ime and *&n+,%erm c&nnec%i/i%y. T& &)%imi0e %hese measures1 (e
)r&)&se a ne( scheme ca**ed ener+y a(are r&u%in+ %ha% uses su.,&)%ima* )a%hs
&ccasi&na**y %& )r&/ide su.s%an%ia* +ains. Simu*a%i&n resu*%s are a*s& )resen%ed %ha% sh&(
increase in ne%(&rk *i-e%imes &- u) %& 234 &/er c&m)ara.*e schemes *ike direc%ed
di--usi&n r&u%in+. "&des a*s& .urn ener+y in a m&re e5ui%a.*e (ay acr&ss %he ne%(&rk
ensurin+ a m&re +race-u* de+rada%i&n &- ser/ice (i%h %ime.
Introduction:
Thnology advances have made it conceivable to build and deploy
dense wireless networks of heterogeneous nodes collecting and
disseminating wide ranges of environmental data. An inspired reader
can easily imagine a multiplicity of scenarios in which these sensor and
actuator networks might excel. The mind-boggling opportunities
emerging from this technology indeed give rise to new defnitions of
distributed computing and user interface. Crucial to the success of
these ubiquitous networks is the availability of small lightweight low-
cost network elements which we call !ico"odes. These nodes must be
smaller than one cubic centimeter weigh less than #$$ grams and
cost substantially less than one dollar. %ven more important the nodes
must use ultra-low power to eliminate frequent battery replacement.
&e envision a power-dissipation level below #$$ microwatts as this
would enable selfpowered nodes using energy extracted from the
environment' an approach called energy-scavenging or harvesting.

POWER DISSIPATION TODAY:
T& )u% )&(er dissi)a%i&n in%& )ers)ec%i/e1 (e can c&m)are i% (i%h %he s%a%e,&-,%he,ar%
c&mmercia* de/ices a/ai*a.*e %&day. One &- %he c*&ses% ma%ches is %he B*ue%&&%h
ranscei/er1 an emer+in+ s%andard -&r sh&r%ran+e (ire*ess c&mmunica%i&ns. 6hi*e mee%in+
%he /&*ume re5uiremen%1 B*ue%&&%h radi&s c&s% m&re %han 73 d&**ars and c&nsume m&re
%han 733 mi**i(a%%s. A*%h&u+h B*ue%&&%h8s )rice )&in% and )&(er Consumption will
nevitably drop with technology scaling these modifcations would still
not address the&rders,&-,ma+ni%ude reduc%i&ns re5uired -&r sens&r ne%(&rk
a))*ica%i&ns. T& reach %hese a++ressi/e )&(er dissi)a%i&n *e/e*s1 (e mus% *imi% %he
e--ec%i/e ran+e &- each 'ic&"&de %& a c&u)*e &- me%ers a% m&s%. E9%endin+ %he reacha.*e
da%a ran+e re5uires a sca*a.*e ne%(&rk in-ras%ruc%ure %ha% a**&(s dis%an% n&des %&
c&mmunica%e (i%h each &%her. A se*-,c&n-i+urin+ ad h&c ne%(&rkin+ a))r&ach is key %&
%he de)*&ymen% &- such a ne%(&rk (i%h many hundreds &- n&des. $educin+ %he
'ic&"&de8s ener+y dissi)a%i&n %& %his *e/e* is &ur -&cus here. The secre% *ies in a
me%icu*&us c&ncern -&r ener+y reduc%i&n %hr&u+h&u% a** *ayers &- %he sys%em desi+n
)r&cess. The *ar+es% &))&r%uni%y *ies in %he )r&%&c&* s%ack (here a %rade,&-- .e%(een
c&mmunica%i&n and c&m)u%a%i&n1 as (e** as e*imina%i&n &- &/erhead1 can *ead %& a many
&rders,&-,ma+ni%ude ener+y reduc%i&n. O%her &))&r%uni%ies *ie in %he ad&)%i&n and
in%r&duc%i&n &- n&/e* se*-,&)%imi0in+ radi& archi%ec%ures and &))&r%uni%ies -&r ener+y
sca/en+in+.
PICORADIO APPLICATIONS:
A))*ica%i&ns &- such sens&r and m&ni%&rin+ ne%(&rks inc*ude en/ir&nmen%a* c&n%r&* in
&--ice .ui*din+s: r&.&% c&n%r&* and +uidance in au%&ma%ic manu-ac%urin+ en/ir&nmen%s:
(areh&use in/en%&ry: in%e+ra%ed )a%ien% m&ni%&rin+1 dia+n&s%ics1 and dru+ adminis%ra%i&n
in h&s)i%a*s: in%erac%i/e %&ys: %he smar% h&me )r&/idin+ securi%y1 iden%i-ica%i&n1 and
ers&na*i0a%i&n: and in%erac%i/e museums.
Building control:
(nteractive environments)
C&nsider an&%her scenari&; A science museum -&r chi*dren<-&r e9am)*e1 %he San
rancisc& E9)*&ra%&rium sh&(n in !i+ure 7<%ha% )resen%s a c&**ec%i&n &- e9hi.i%s
-ea%urin+ a c&m.ina%i&n &- da%a measuremen%s and cause,and,e--ec% e9)erimen%s. Makin+
%he museum e9ci%in+ re5uires crea%in+ a c*&se in%erac%i&n (i%h %he /isi%&rs As &ne
e9am)*e &- an a))*ica%i&n -&r 'ic&$adi& ne%(&rks1 c&nsider %he mana+emen% &-
en/ir&nmen%a* c&n%r&* sys%ems in *ar+e &--ice .ui*din+s. Any )ers&n (h& has s)en% a
si+ni-ican% am&un% &- %ime in such an en/ir&nmen% is acu%e*y a(are &- i%s )r&.*ems; The
%em)era%ure &r %he air-*&( is ne/er ri+h%1 and %here is %&& *i%%*e &r %&& much *i+h%. A
is%ri.u%ed .ui*din+ m&ni%&r and c&n%r&* a))r&ach mi+h% +& a *&n+ (ay in addressin+ %hese
)r&.*ems<-&r e9am)*e1 .y crea%in+ *&ca* micr&c*ima%es ada)%in+ %& an &ccu)an%8s
)re-erences %hr&u+h dis%ri.u%ed air duc%s<and mi+h% /as%*y im)r&/e %he *i/in+ c&ndi%i&ns
-&r %he .ui*din+8s )&)u*a%i&n. A% %he same %ime1 such an a))r&ach can drama%ica**y reduce
%he ener+y .ud+e% needed %& mana+e %he en/ir&nmen%. !irs%,&rder es%ima%i&ns indica%e
%ha% such %echn&*&+y c&u*d reduce s&urce ener+y c&nsum)%i&n .y %(&5uadri**i&n
*T+s ,*ritish Thermal +nits- in the +. a*&ne. This %rans*a%es %& =>> .i**i&n )er
year1 and ?> mi**i&n me%ric %&ns &- reduced car.&n emissi&ns. 6irin+ %he hu+e num.er &-
sens&r and ac%ua%&r n&des needed %& de)*&y such a sys%em is im)rac%ica* and
unec&n&mica*. The c&s% &- ins%a**in+ (irin+ -&r a sin+*e sens&r in a c&mmercia* .ui*din+
a/era+es =@33 in addi%i&n %& %he c&s% &- %he sens&r. !&r *&(,c&s% de/ices such as
%em)era%ure sens&rs1 %he c&s% &- %he (irin+ may .e as much as A3 )ercen% &- %he ins%a**ed
c&s%. In %hese cases1 e*imina%in+ %he c&s% &- (ire .y usin+ a (ire*ess c&nnec%i&n c&u*d
reduce %he ins%a**ed c&s% )er sens&r .y an &rder &- ma+ni%ude and ena.*e %he de)*&ymen%
&- u.i5ui%&us sens&r ne%(&rks in c&n%ras% %& %he curren%*y used sens&r,s%ar/ed s&*u%i&ns.
6e can e/en en/isi&n a -u%ure in (hich %he sens&r n&des are )re.ui*% in%& c&ns%ruc%i&n
ma%eria*s such as cei*in+ and -*&&r %i*es. T& rea*i0e %his /isi&n1 %he c&mmunica%i&nB sens&r
n&des mus% .e c&m)*e%e*y se*-c&n%ained -&r %he *i-e%ime &- %he .ui*din+.
c&n%r&**in+ %he e9hi.i%s and )r&/idin+ -eed.ack &n %he e9)erimen%s. In an e/en m&re
a++ressi/e scenari&1 %he chi*dren can .e ac%i/e )ar%ici)an%s in %he e9)erimen%s. Kee)in+
%he e9hi.i%s -*e9i.*e
and easi*y m&di-ia.*e is hence desira.*e. The a/ai*a.i*i%y &- chea) and easi*y de)*&ya.*e
(ire*ess sens&r1 m&ni%&r1 and ac%ua%&r ne%(&rks c&u*d crea%e a %rue re/&*u%i&n in h&(
%hese museums &)era%e. In addi%i&n %& %he sensin+Bc&n%r&*Bm&ni%&rin+ -unc%i&ns1 ad h&c
(ire*ess ne%(&rks c&u*d a*s& )r&/ide )a+in+1 in%erc&m1 and *&ca*i0a%i&n -unc%i&na*i%y.

In sh&r%1 %hese ne%(&rks make i% )&ssi.*e %& %ake a)ar% -unc%i&ns %ha% %radi%i&na**y (ere
*&ca*i0ed in a sin+*e )&in% and dis%ri.u%e %hem &/er a much (ider s)ace<hence *eadin+ %&
)&%en%ia**y m&re &)%ima* sys%ems.
ULTRALOW ENER!Y PICORADIO NETWOR"S:
The scenari&s e9)&se .&%h %he cha**en+es and &))&r%uni%ies %ha% 'ic&$adi& ne%(&rks
&--er in %erms &- ener+y e--iciency. A num.er &- )rime )r&)er%ies are (&r%h iden%i-yin+;
C Sens&r da%a ra%es are 5ui%e *&(1 %y)ica**y *ess %han &ne her%0.
/ .ensor nodes don0t need to be awake all the time1 in -ac%1 a sin+*e n&de8s
ac%i/i%y du%y cyc*e is %y)ica**y *ess %han 7 )ercen%.
C Sensin+ da%a (i%h&u% kn&(in+ %he sens&r8s *&ca%i&n is meanin+*ess. &ca*i0a%i&n sh&u*d
%here-&re .e c&nsidered an im)*ici% -ea%ure &- %he sensor network. This greatly
simplifes the network discovery and maintenance e2ort and leads to
substantial energy savings. 3or example the sensor network can prune
requests for information and direct them to the region of interest.
/ .ensor networks require di2erent addressing %echni5ues %han %radi%i&na*
da%a ne%(&rks. Da%a re5ues%s are %y)ica**y in %he s%y*e &- EGi/e me %he %em)era%ure
readin+s in r&&m ?31F c&m)ared %& ESe% u) a c&nnec%i&n .e%(een n&des A and B.F The
c&n%en%, and *&ca*i0a%i&n,.ased addressin+ c&nce)%s make %he &/era** ne%(&rk disc&/ery
and mana+emen% a *&% sim)*er .Based &n %hese s)eci-ica%i&ns and )r&)er%ies1 (e can
de/e*&) ener+y,e--icien% ne%(&rk1 %rans)&r%1 mediaaccess1 and )hysica* *ayer )r&%&c&*s.
These in %urn se% %he c&ns%rain%s and re5uiremen%s -&r %he hard(ar

architecture and components of the transceiver nodes including radio
frequency ,43- baseband and protocol processors. A number of
innovations at the protocol stack level will make the intended energy
reductions possible.
Protocol su##ort:
The %hree main *ayers (e c&ncen%ra%e &n are %he )hysica*1 media access c&n%r&* (MAC)1
and ne%(&rk *ayers. C&mmunica%i&n .e%(een %(& n&des re5uires crea%in+ a )hysica* *ink
.e%(een %(& radi&s. The )hysica* *ayer hand*es %he c&mmunica%i&n acr&ss %his )hysica*
*ink1 (hich in/&*/es m&du*a%in+ and c&din+ %he da%a s& %ha% %he in%ended recei/er can
&)%ima**y dec&de i% in %he )resence &- channe* n&nidea*i%ies and in%er-erence. "e9%1
.ecause many radi&s ha/e %& share %he same in%erc&nnec% medium (%he ae%her)1 messa+es
can in%er-ere (i%h each &%her1 and access %& %he medium needs %& .e c&&rdina%ed. The
MAC *ayer )r&/ides %his ser/ice. 6hen radi&s %ha% are n&% (i%hin )hysica* ran+e &- each
other need to communicate the network layer
determines the path for a packet to take through other nodes that
forward packets on their behalf. This forwarding of packets is often
referred to as multihop networking.
En$rg% trad$o&s in n$t'or( #rotocols
Es%a.*ishin+ mu*%ih&) ne%(&rks seems %& .e %he idea* (ay &- %ransmi%%in+ a .i% in an
ener+y,e--icien% -ashi&n. Ge% s&me maH&r cau%i&n is necessary. "&des cann&% kn&( a
)ri&ri %he &)%ima* r&u%e %& &%her n&des .ecause %his )a%h chan+es as n&des m&/e1 en%er1 &r
leave the network. Therefore the network protocol coordinates the
discovery and racking of routes in the network. This discovery and
tracking consumes energy because it equires communication between
nodes. &ith the low data rates and the relatively fast dynamics of
some nodes the network discovery and maintenance overhead may
well dominate the energy
.ource 5estination
!i+ure @. 6i%h mu*%ih&) ne%(&rks1 usin+ se/era* sh&r% in%ermedia%e h&)s %& send a .i% is
m&re ener+y,e--icien% %han usin+ &ne *&n+er h&). c&nsumed -&r da%a %ransmissi&n i%se*-.
This is ac%ua**y %he case -&r a *ar+e num.er &- %he ad h&c ne%(&rkin+ )r&%&c&*s curren%*y
in /&+ue. The +enera* (ays %& d& %his %rackin+ and disc&/ery are )r&ac%i/e and reac%i/e
r&u%in+.
!roactive routing)
In )r&ac%i/e r&u%in+1 %he ne%(&rk *ayer )eri&dica**y u)da%es r&u%es1 and hence a*(ays has
an u),%&,da%e )ic%ure &- %he &)%ima* r&u%es. A )r&ac%i/e ne%(&rk -inds %he r&u%es .e%(een
many n&des a% &nce in an e--icien% manner. Thus1 i% c&nsumes *ess ener+y %han -indin+
each )ar%icu*ar r&u%e se)ara%e*y. 6hen i% needs %& %ransmi% a )acke% &- rea* da%a1 a
)r&ac%i/e ne%(&rk kn&(s %he r&u%e and i% sends %he da%a (i%h *i%%*e e9%rane&us ne%(&rk
ac%i/i%y.In a sense1 )eri&dic u)da%es +enera%e a -i9ed am&un% &- %ra--ic1 .u% any s)eci-ic
)acke% re5uires *ess ne%(&rk &/erhead.
4eactive routing.
$eac%i/e r&u%in+ disc&/ers r&u%es &n*y (hen %he ne%(&rk needs %hem. In %he reac%i/e
scheme1 %he ne%(&rk +enera**y d&es n&% main%ain r&u%es un%i* i% uses %hem. 6i%h %his
me%h&d1 )eri&dic u)da%es d& n&% +enera%e a -i9ed am&un% &- %ra--ic1 .u% %here is ne%(&rk
&/erhead -&r each s)eci-ic da%a )acke% &r s%ream. T& c&mmunica%e in-re5uen%*y (i%h a
sma** num.er &- n&des1 %here is n& ad/an%a+e %& main%ainin+ in-re5uen%*y used r&u%es1 s&
a reac%i/e a))r&ach is )re-era.*e.#&(e/er1 i- %he da%a ra%e is hi+h and %he ne%(&rk
c&mmunica%es (i%h a *ar+e num.er &- n&des1 )r&ac%i/e r&u%in+ is m&re desira.*e. O-
c&urse1 (e can use hy.rid me%h&ds %& &)%imi0e %he ne%(&rk -&r a s)eci-ic a))*ica%i&n.
)%brid solutions
In -ac%1 &ur a))*ica%i&n &--ers a maH&r &))&r%uni%y -&r reducin+ &/erhead. As men%i&ned
ear*ier1 sens&r ne%(&rks are .es% ser/ed .y c&n%en%, and *&ca*i0a%i&n.ased addressin+
schemes<in (hich da%a in %he ne%(&rk is accessed n&% %hr&u+h an a.s&*u%e address1 .u%
%hr&u+h a 5uery -&r in-&rma%i&n &- a cer%ain %y)e in a cer%ain *&ca%i&n (simi*ar %& da%a.ase
5ueries). This a))r&ach a/&ids %he se%u) and main%enance &- e9%ensi/e r&u%in+ %a.*es1
re*yin+ ins%ead &n %he .r&adcas% )r&)a+a%i&n &- 5ueries1 )runed .y in-&rma%i&n c&n%en%
and +e&+ra)hica* da%a. $esearch a*&n+ %hese *ines has yie*ded s&me /ery )r&misin+
)r&%&c&*s1 (hich may he*) %& reduce %he ne%(&rk &/erhead %& a sma** -rac%i&n &- %he
&/era** c&s%. Direc%ed di--usi&n r&u%in+ +e&+ra)hica* r&u%in+1 and s(arm,in%e**i+ence are
Hus% a -e( &- %he %echni5ues %& (a%ch.

En$rg% trad$o&s at t*$ +AC La%$r
The MAC *ayer a--ec%s %he ener+y e--iciency in a num.er &- (ays. !irs%1 MAC,*ayer
)&(er mana+emen% can minimi0e %he s%and.y )&(er &- %he ne%(&rk<%ha% is1 %he )&(er
c&nsumed .y a radi& (hen i% is n&% %ransmi%%in+ &r recei/in+. S%and.y )&(er is %y)ica**y
much lower than transmit or receive power. 6et with the low data rates
of the sensor nodes radios have a small active duty cycle and standby
power easily dominates the overall power dissipation. &e can virtually
eliminate standby power by putting the radio in sleepmode when
nonactive powering down all but a few functions. This poses the
interesting problem of establishing a coherent network in which most
of the nodes are solidly asleep most of the time.
.econd careful control of access to the aether reduces %he num.er &- (as%ed
(re)%ransmissi&ns c&rru)%ed by interference from neighboring nodes in the
ne%(&rk. 6e can acc&m)*ish %his .y care-u**y se)ara%in+ )&%en%ia**y c&n-*ic%in+
%ransmissi&ns in %ime and -re5uencyBc&de s)ace. T& reach &ur u*%ra,*&( ener+y %ar+e%1 (e
need a MAC )r&%&c&* %ha% *e%s radi&s s*ee) m&s% &- %he %ime and ye% *e%s %hem a(aken
)recise*y (hen %hey need %& %ransmi% &r recei/e da%a. (M&s% ne%(&rkin+ )r&%&c&*s assume
%ha% ne%(&rk n&des are Ein *is%enin+ &r recei/eF m&de (hen n&nac%i/e. This is a c&s%*y
assum)%i&n .ecause %he c&m)u%a%i&na* ener+y -&r recei/in+ a .i% su)ercedes %he c&s% &-
%ransmi%%in+ &ne<i+n&rin+ sma** am&un%s &- radia%ed ener+y -&r sh&r%,dis%ance
c&mmunica%i&ns). Un-&r%una%e*y1 curren% radi& %echn&*&+y d&es n&% easi*y a**&( a radi&
%& .e a(akened u)&n re5ues%. #ence1 a radi& mus% (ake u) )eri&dica**y1 see i- any&ne
(an%s %& %a*k %& i%1 and1 i- n&%1 +& .ack %& s*ee). A mechanism %ha% a**&(s %he radi& %& .e
a(akened )recise*y (hen %here is da%a -&r i% c&u*d reduce %he a(ake,%ime and hence %he
&/era** n&de ener+y c&nsum)%i&n. Our s)eci-ic a))*ica%i&n d&main &nce a+ain c&mes %&
%he rescue. M&s% Ec&n%en%,addressedF da%a+rams re5uire .r&adcas%in+ %& a** %he
nei+h.&rin+ n&des. 6akin+ a** nei+h.&rin+ n&des a% &nce is easier %han (akin+ &ne
s)eci-ic nei+h.&r. The reac%i/e .r&adcas% channe*1 %hus es%a.*ished1 can a*s& ad/er%ise
in-&rma%i&n re+ardin+ s)eci-ic c&mmunica%i&n %imes and channe*s -&r )&in%,%&,)&in%
c&nnec%i&ns1 hence reducin+ in%er-erence. Our es%ima%es indica%e %ha% %his MAC )r&%&c&*
can he*) reduce &/era** ener+y c&nsum)%i&n .y a% *eas% a -ac%&r &- >3 (assumin+ radi&
du%y cyc*es .e*&( 7 )ercen%).
PICONODE I+PLE+ENTATION:
Im)*emen%in+ ne%(&rk &)%imi0a%i&ns re5uires a )*a%-&rm %ha% -u*-i**s %he demandin+ *&(,
)&(er re5uiremen%s ye% has en&u+h -*e9i.i*i%y %& ena.*e %he dynamic rec&n-i+ura%i&n and
ada)%a.i*i%y %he ne%(&rk re5uires. 6e are c&ncei/in+ an archi%ec%ure %ha% a%%em)%s %&
sa%is-y %hese cha**en+in+ re5uiremen%s.
The 'ic&"&de archi%ec%ure i**us%ra%ed in !i+ure ? aims %& )r&/ide .&%h -*e9i.i*i%y and
*&( ener+y. This archi%ec%ure is c&m)&sed &- -&ur m&du*es;
C an em.edded )r&cess&r su.sys%em -&r a))*ica%i&n, and )r&%&c&*,s%ack *ayers1 (hich
re5uire m&re -*e9i.i*i%y .u% ha/e *&( c&m)u%a%i&na* c&m)*e9i%y a% re*a%i/e*y *&( u)da%e
ra%es:
C c&n-i+ura.*e )r&cessin+ m&du*es -&r %he )r&%&c&*8s m&re s)eed,in%ensi/e *ayers:
C a )arame%eri0ed and c&n-i+ura.*e di+i%a* )hysica* *ayer: and
C a sim)*e direc%,d&(n c&n/ersi&n $! -r&n% end. A -*e9i.*e in%erc&nnec%i&n scheme %ha% is
&)%imi0ed -&r *&(,)&(er &)era%i&n c&nnec%s %he m&du*es. This architecture is
inspired by observations regarding %he e/&*u%i&n &- %echn&*&+y and ne( %rends
in ener+y,e--icien%
archi%ec%ures. 6e a*s& ha/e addressed






%he )ar%i%i&nin+ &- &)era%i&ns .e%(een %he )r&cess&r and c&n-i+ura.*e )r&cessin+ m&du*es
and %he di+i%a* )hysica* *ayer and $! -r&n% end.
Digital bac( $nd:
S&me &- &ur )re/i&us e--&r%s in %he area &- rec&n-i+ura.*e c&m)u%in+> ha/e dem&ns%ra%ed
%ha% a dynamic ma%chin+ .e%(een a))*ica%i&n and archi%ec%ure *eads %& s)ec%acu*ar ener+y
sa/in+s -&r si+na*,)r&cessin+ a))*ica%i&ns (hi*e main%ainin+ im)*emen%a%i&n -*e9i.i*i%y.
The +&a* here is %& es%a.*ish %ha% a simi*ar scenari& h&*ds -&r )r&%&c&*, and ne%(&rk,
&rien%ed a))*ica%i&ns. As 3igure 7 shows the key insight is that processor
im)*emen%a%i&n is %hree &rders &- ma+ni%ude m&re e9)ensi/e (in %erms &- ener+y
c&nsum)%i&n) %han im)*emen%a%i&n &n dedica%ed hard(are. Sys%ems desi+ners can %rade
-*e9i.i*i%y and )r&+ramma.i*i%y -&r ener+y c&nsum)%i&n in a c&n%inuum -r&m hard(are %&
s&-%(are. Desi+ners mus% ma%ch sys%em e*emen%s indi/idua**y %& im)*emen%a%i&n
)*a%-&rms in
&rder %& reach %he &)%imum in %he ener+y,-*e9i.i*i%y1s)ace. In addi%i&n1 %he &/era**
archi%ec%ure mus% (ea/e %&+e%her %hese he%er&+ene&us .*&cks (i%h a -*e9i.*e1 ye% ener+y,
e--icien% in%erc&nnec% scheme. $ec&n-i+ura.*e archi%ec%ures<(hich u%i*i0e a
)r&+rammin+, in,s)aceF a))r&achI<ha/e )r&/en %& .e /ery e--icien% -&r %he si+na*,
)r&cessin+ c&m)&nen% &- c&mmunica%i&ns )r&cessin+1 de*i/erin+ hi+h,)er-&rmance
c&m)u%a%i&n a% an ener+y c&s% c*&se %& cus%&m hard(are im)*emen%a%i&ns and
main%ainin+ en&u+h -*e9i.i*i%y %& ada)% %& %he /aryin+ c&ndi%i&ns &- %he sys%em and
en/ir&nmen%. 6e are curren%*y es%a.*ishin+ %ha% %he same h&*ds -&r %he c&n%r&*,&rien%ed
c&m)&nen% &- %he %ranscei/er<%he )r&%&c&* s%ack. E9)erimen%s ha/e sh&(n %ha% !'GA
and c&n-i+ura.*e -ini%e,s%a%e,machine im)*emen%a%i&ns &- %he )r&%&c&* s%ack are %(&
&rders &- ma+ni%ude m&re e--icien% %han em.edded micr&)r&cess&r &r micr&c&n%r&**er
s&*u%i&ns.
P*%sical la%$r i,#l$,$ntation:
As !i+ure @ sh&(s1 ana*&+ circui%ry re)resen%s &n*y a sma** -rac%i&n &- %he 'ic&"&de
im)*emen%a%i&n. Tradi%i&na**y1 (ire*ess %ranscei/ers (ere a*m&s% c&m)*e%e*y im)*emen%ed
usin+ $! and ana*&+ circui% m&du*es. A mostly digital approach is currently
coming in%& /&+ue. This %rend is ins)ired .y %he &.ser/a%i&n %ha% di+i%a* circui%ry
im)r&/es e9)&nen%ia**y (i%h %he sca*in+ &- %echn&*&+y1 (hi*e ana*&+ circui%s +e% *inear*y
(&rse1 m&s%*y due %& reduc%i&n &- %he su))*y /&*%a+e. #ence1 i% is .e%%er %& re*y &n a
sma**1 n&ncri%ica* ana*&+ -r&n% end and use di+i%a* .ack,end )r&cessin+ %& c&rrec% -&r %he
n&nidea*i%ies. A*%h&u+h %he da%a ra%es are &n %he &rder &- &ne her%01 (hich seems %ri/ia*
(hen c&m)ared %& %he s%a%e&-, %he,ar% radi&s reachin+ ra%es &- hundreds &- me+a,her%01
%here are s&me cha**en+es a% %he )hysica* *ayer1 m&s%*y re*a%ed %& %he *&(,ener+y %ar+e%s
and /aria.*e demand -r&m %he ne%(&rk. T& sa%is-y /aria.*e demand -r&m %he ne%(&rk1 %he
'ic&"&de )hysica* *ayer mus% .e )arame%eri0a.*e. 'arame%ers inc*ude )&(er c&n%r&*
m&des1 m&du*a%i&n scheme1 and .i% ra%e. The +&a* &- %his s%e) is %& de-ine %he )arame%ers
and iden%i-y %he ran+es -&r %h&se )arame%ers that allow limited 8exibility at the
physical
*ayer (i%h&u% a--ec%in+ ener+y c&nsum)%i&n. In &rder %& achie/e *&(,ener+y &)era%i&n1
%he )hysica* *ayer mus% mee% %(& usua**y mu%ua**y e9c*usi/e +&a*s; -as% si+na* ac5uisi%i&n
and *&( s%and.y )&(er. Many radi& archi%ec%ures e9)end a .i% &- ener+y durin+ s%and.y
in &rder %& achie/e a -as% *&ck &nce a(&ken &r1 c&n/erse*y1 incur a *&n+er ac5uisi%i&n %ime
in &rder %& s*ee) m&re dee)*y durin+ s%and.y. In &rder %& make %he *ess %han 7 )ercen%
du%y cyc*e a rea*i%y1 %he )hysica* *ayer mus% .e a.*e %& 5uick*y ac5uire a si+na* (hen
a(&ken1 recei/e %he .urs% &- da%a1 and %hen immedia%e*y re%urn %& s*ee). On %he c&n%rary1
since %he radi& is as*ee) AA )ercen% &- %he %ime1 %he s%and.y )&(er &- %he radi& mus% .e
/ery *&( in &rder %& mee% %he ener+y .ud+e%. These +&a*s can &n*y .e me% .y ad/ancin+
%he s%a%e &- %he ar% in *&(,ener+y )hysica* *ayer desi+n.
ENER!Y SCA-EN!IN!:
Our )r&Hec%8s #&*y Grai* is -&r %he 'ic&"&des %& .e se*-,c&n%ained and se*-,)&(ered usin+
ener+y e9%rac%ed -r&m %he en/ir&nmen% (ener+y,sca/en+in+). $eachin+ %his +&a* re5uires
ne( ad/ances .&%h in reducin+ %he n&des8 ener+y c&nsum)%i&n and in increasin+ %he
am&un% &- ener+y %he n&des can e9%rac% -r&m %he en/ir&nmen%. #ar/es%in+ am.ien% ener+y
re5uires c&m)*iance (i%h %(& maH&r c&ns%rain%s; a))*ica.i*i%y (i%hin %he en/ir&nmen%s
en/isi&ned -&r %he 'ic&"&des (&--ice .ui*din+s and h&mes) and %he si0e c&ns%rain% &- %he
&ne,cu.ic,cen%ime%er chi). Ta.*e 7 sh&(s a c&m)aris&n &- ener+y s&urces .ased &n a
c&m.ina%i&n &- )u.*ished s%udies1 %he&ry1 and e9)erimen%s. A*%h&u+h .a%%eries can s%&re
har/es%ed ener+y %ha% can8% .e used immedia%e*y1 a c&n%inu&us s&urce &- ener+y is
desira.*e. Ta.*e 7 sh&(s %ha% s&*ar ce**s can c&n%ri.u%e u) %& 7> mi**i(a%%s )er s5uare
cen%ime%er durin+ direc% sun*i+h% h&urs and u) %& 3.7> mi**i(a%%s &n c*&udy days.
A/era+in+ &/er day*i+h% and ni+h%%ime h&urs1 and c&nsiderin+ n&des in %he in%eri&r &- %he
.ui*din+ &r em.edded in cei*in+ %i*es1 sh&(s %ha% s&*ar ce**s can Hus% .are*y ser/e as %he
s&*e ener+y s&urce -&r 'ic&"&des1 and addi%i&na* s&urces &- ener+y (&u*d .e (e*c&me.
#ar/es%in+ ener+y -r&m /i.ra%i&ns is )r&misin+ -&r %his a))*ica%i&n. $aised -*&&rs and
dr&))ed cei*in+s in m&s% &--ice .ui*din+s e9hi.i% measura.*e /i.ra%i&ns (-r&m %rucks
dri/in+ d&(n near.y s%ree%s and )e&)*e (a*kin+ &n %he raised -*&&rs) %ha% can .e
harnessed. Advances in 9%9. devices make integrated and tiny /aria.*e
ca)aci%&rs a rea*i%y. These ca)aci%&rs are used %& make chi),sca*e e*ec%r&s%a%ic /i.ra%i&n
+enera%&rs %ha% (i** in%e+ra%e (e** (i%h %he &%her 'ic&"&de c&m)&nen%s. '&(er &u%)u%s
.e%(een 73,733 micr&(a%%s )er cu.ic cen%ime%er are )*ausi.*e -r&m /i.ra%i&ns in a
n&rma* &--ice .ui*din+ usin+ e9is%in+ MEMS %echn&*&+y. In &ur /isi&n &- dis%ri.u%ed
c&m)u%in+1 %h&usands &- %iny n&des sca%%ered %hr&u+h&u% %he dai*y *i/in+ en/ir&nmen%
+a%her1 )r&cess1 and c&mmunica%e in-&rma%i&n in a se*-,&r+ani0in+ -ashi&n. The maH&r
cha**en+e in %he im)*emen%a%i&n &- %hese (ire*ess ad h&c sens&r1 m&ni%&r1 and ac%ua%&r
ne%(&rks is minimi0in+ ener+y c&nsum)%i&n. ./
As (e sh&(1 %he &n*y (ay %& im)*emen% an u*%ra*&( )&(er n&de is .y &)%imi0in+ a**
*ayers &- %he )r&%&c&*. 6e )resen% a c&n-i+ura.*e archi%ec%ure %ha% ena.*es %hese
&))&r%uni%ies %& .e e--icien%*y rea*i0ed in si*ic&n. 6e .e*ie/e %ha% %his ener+y,c&nsci&us
sys%em, desi+n and im)*emen%a%i&n me%h&d&*&+y (i** *ead %& radi& n&des %ha% are %(&
&rders &- ma+ni%ude m&re e--icien% %han e9is%in+ s&*u%i&ns.
Conclusion:
6e m&%i/a%e a )r&%&%y)in+ )*a%-&rm -&r ad h&c ne%(&rkin+ research sh&(in+ s&me
re5uiremen%s and c&ns%rain%s. The archi%ec%ure &- %he BTn&des1 each &- (hich can s%&re
in-&rma%i&n1 c&m)u%e and c&mmunica%e1 is e9)*ained in c&nHunc%i&n (i%h s&me dem&
a))*ica%i&ns %ha% ha/e .een im)*emen%ed. Im)&r%an% re5uiremen%s and desi+n %rade,&--s %&
.e a.*e %& su))&r% mu*%i)*e1 c&m)a%i.*e c&mmunica%i&n in%er-aces1 %& hand*e *imi%ed
res&urces1 -&r )&(er,a(are &)era%i&n and -&r e--icien% %es%.ed de)*&ymen% are discussed.