Reduction of Emissions by Optimal Use of Gas Turbines: by Terence G. Hazel Senior Member IEEE

Reduction of Emissions by
By Terence G. Hazel
Senior Member IEEE
Optimal use of Gas Turbines
Summary
...................................................................................... p 1
Introduction ................................................................................................. p 2
Basic concepts ............................................................................................ p 4
Frequency control & DryLowNOx operation .............................................. p 8
Voltage control ........................................................................................... p 10
Implementation of algorithms ..................................................................... p 12
Case study ................................................................................................ p 13
PMS implementation ................................................................................. p 17
Conclusion p 20
References................................................................................................ p 21
Executivesummary
................................................................................................
ofEmissionsby OptimaI use of Gas Turbines Reduction
COM-POWER-WP04EN Rev1 | 1
Executive summary
Large facilities are often powered by gas turbines. In many cases turbines
having different ratings and operating characteristics are used at the same
site. The decision regarding which turbines to use and when is not an easy
one to make since several constraints must be taken into account.
Some of these are:
maintain sufcient spinning reserve
operation at low NOx emission levels
poor dynamic response of larger sized turbines
us Heat Recovery Steam Generators
sufcient power for all production islands.
Some of these criteria can be contradictory. For example, operation at low
NOx emission levels requires a high load on the turbine, but high load on
turbines often means lower spinning reserve and unequal load sharing, both
of which can be detrimental to system stability.
The paper will explore the different aspects that must be taken into account
in the optimal selection of which turbines to use under different operating
conditionsto It also describes
the minimum requirements of the Power Management System (PMS)
that

is

necessary to implement this optimization.
enhancethe .
ing
ing
reliabilityofthesuppyofpower
Introduction
Gas Turbines (GTG) and Steam Turbines (STG) often provide much, if not all
of the power necessary for the process at petrochemical plants. They are
therefore very important pieces of equipment and must be carefully selected
in order to fulll the requirements :
sufcient power at rated frequency for all loads
correct voltage at all load busbars
robustness to ride through system disturbances.
In addition there are several environmental constraints that must be met, one
of which is the emission level of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx). Modern GTGs use
combustion methods which limit NOx emission without the use of water or
steam injection, a process called Dry Low NOx combustion (DLN).
This consists

of

mixing

gas

thus recording
the formation of NOx. This type of combustion however, requires
that the GTGs operate at certain minimum power output levels which are
a function of the air inlet temperature.
Another environmental constraint is the increase in efciency in order to
produce more MW per unit of gas. Cogeneration is a method commonly used
and consists of producing steam from the exhaust gas of the GTGs to power
steam turbines. While this increases efciency, it makes the reliable operation
of the GTGs even more important since the loss of a GTG will not only reduce
the available power of the gas turbine, but also of the associated steam
turbine running off of the heat of the GTG exhaust gas.
It is thus very important that extensive engineering studies be carried out
during the Front End Engineering Design (FEED) to ensure that the correct
number and size of GTGs are selected. This will depend on the plant load but
also on the design of the electrical distribution system. As will be shown,
the use of distributed generation can make the designing of power
systems quite complicated. Since the steam supply is very important when
cogeneration is used, it must be decided if independent ring means are
to be used in addition to the heat recovery systems.
For illustration purposes in this paper, the system frequency is 50 Hz and
40 MW and 90 MW are considered. There is no difference when
60 Hz is used or GTGs with other power output ratings.
GTGs
following
better of air and
ensuring
Optimal use of Gas Turbines
Reduction of Emissions by
Robust Control
A system is robust when it can withstand
severe disturbances and keep operating within
acceptable limits. A power system must be robust
in order to be able to provide power to loads even
when faults occur such as short-circuit conditions
or the loss of a GTG or STG. Since electrical
energy that is produced is immediately consumed
without any intermediate storage, a sudden loss
of power will result in an immediate decrease
in system frequency. A short circuit causes
a decrease in active power consumption due to
a loss of voltage at the fault location. This results in
an immediate increase in system frequency.
A robust system must react very quickly to such

disturbances by changing the operating points

of the turbine governors, as well as the generator

and transformer AVRs. The primary regulation

associated with this equipment can provide
the rapid response required provided that the
power system is designed accordingly as will be
discussed hereafter.
The primary regulation must be able to rapidly
restore the balance between generation and
load. It operates with no consideration for the
location of the initial imbalance. Primary regulation
can be implemented in several manners it is the
responsibility of the power system engineer to
determine which mode is correct. The goal of
primary regulation keep the frequency
within 0.5 Hz and

5 %
after a disturbance has occurred. The
frequency steady-state error
less than 150 mHz.
Basic concepts
Secondary regulation operates at a global
level. After the transient conditions following
a disturbance have subsided, the secondary
regulation will send set point changes to
the GTG and STG governors to bring the
frequency back to its nominal value, and to
ensure correct load sharing among the turbines.
It will also send set point changes to generator
and transformer AVRs in order to ensure correct
voltage levels throughout the system. Secondary
regulation will also ensure reactive power sharing.
The key points of robust control are therefore:
separate global & local control functions

(Fig. 1)
local control implement in primary regulation
global control implemented in a PMS
communicatie between control layers using
incremental values ( set points).
Secondary regulation,
set point changes
Optimizing
equipment
operating points
Global control
layer
Incremental set-point
changes
Primary regulation,
governor, AVR
Local control
layer
Turbine, generator,
transformer
Stand-alone
regulation of electrical
equipment
Power generation &
transmission
equipment
Figure 1 Robust control philosophy

isto and
voltage deviation
of
shouldbe
provide
U
n
The local controllers should implement control
based on droop characteristics. Turbines should
all operate at a 4% frequency droop. The use of
droop characteristics will ensure that all turbines
react in the same manner to disturbances and this
greatly enhances the ability of the power system to
recover correctly. Fig. 2 shows 2 GTGs operating
in frequency droop and sharing the load each
GTG supplies the same percentage power based
on its maximum rated output. When the plant load
increases, the GTG primary regulation will detect a
decrease in system frequency and will increase the
GTG power output to compensate. Due to the 4 %
droop setting, the new operating point will be at a
slightly lower but still acceptable frequency as
shown in Fig. 3.
Frequency
Hz
51
50 Hz
49
MW
90 MW GTG
75 60
40 MW GTG
20
20 MW 45 MW
40 90
Figure 2 Primary regulation in frequency droop
Isochronous or xed power modes should not be
used except for very specic operating conditions.
As will be discussed later, the use of DLN turbines
introduces additional operation constraints.
When generators are directly connected to

the same busbar, their AVRs should operate

at

a
5 %voltage droop.
40
Frequency
Hz
51
50
49
MW
90 MW GTG
75 60
40 MW GTG
20
49.75 Hz
25 MW 56.3 MW
90
Figure 3 Operating points after load increase
When generators are connected to busbars via
step-up transformers, the transformer impedance
ensures the voltage droop characteristic, and it is
recommended to set these generator AVRs to
xed voltage. In some cases, busbars will be also
be supplied by transformers which import power
from

other

sources in the system (Note:
Transformers can control the ow of reactive
power but do not produce

any.). The AVRs of
these transformers should also operate at a 5 %
voltage droop thus contributing to maintaining
the busbar voltage in the same manner as the
generators

[1].

This

avoids conicts that can
occur when
withhave different operating modes and
characteristics

try

to control the voltage on the same
busbar. It is also possible in some cases to allow the
transformer to supply the reactive power necessary
to maintain the busbar voltage and to operate the
generators at xed power factor. Generators
operating

at

xed

power factor however, are not
able to contribute to maintaining system voltages
after a disturbance has occurred.
Primary Regulation of GTGs and STGs
generators and tansformers which
Fast Load Shedding
In some cases it is not possible for the primary
regulation to keep the power system within
the limits dened above after a disturbance has
occurred. One reason can be the limitation of
the dynamic release of reserve power from large
turbines as will be discussed in a later section.
The only means of preventing a collapse of
the power system in such cases is to shed
sufcient load quickly enough that the generation
can continue to supply the priority loads.
Plant-wide fast load shedding is one of the typical
functions implemented in a PMS.
The level of security is dened taking into
account credible contingencies, called normative
incidents, for which the power system is
supposed to remain within the limits dened above.
Primary regulation cannot ensure that nominal
values of frequency and voltage are present
throughout the power system. Global control is
required and is provided by the PMS.
The PMS measures the system frequency, busbar
voltages and power output of the turbines and will
change the set points of the primary regulation in
order to ensure:
correct frequency
correct busbar voltages
DLN operation where possible
equal sharing of load as a percentage of rated
power.
The secondary regulation measures the frequency
and output power of each GTG.
When the frequency deviates from the set point,
the secondary regulation will adjust the position of
the droop curves of each GTG such as to adapt
the output power to correct the frequency.
The droop curves of all GTGs are adjusted by
the same amount which guarantees automatic
sharing of the loads. Fig. 4 shows the modied
droop curves.
Frequency
Hz
51
50 Hz
49
MW
75 60 20
Droop curves moved upwards
to maintain 50 Hz at new load.
90 MW GTG
40 MW GTG
25 MW 56.3 MW
40 90
Figure 4 Secondary regulation frequency adjustment
Frequency control, load sharing and DLN
operation require set point changes in turbine
governors. It is very important that the PMS
algorithms consider frequency control be the main
criteria and ensure that the steady state frequency
will never be far from the set point even if it is not
possible to ensure correct load sharing.
A typical normative incident is the loss of a GTG.
For contingencies larger than these normative
incidents, such as the simultaneous loss of several
GTGs, a defense plan is required that will allow the
controlled shutdown of the installation under the
best possible conditions (defense plans are not
covered in this paper).

To implement fast load shedding, the PMS
normally calculates what load, if any, must be shed
for each normative incident. When that particular
normative incident occurs, the predened loads
are immediately tripped. Underfrequency load
shedding is also used as a backup. Should for any
reason insufcient load have been shed and the
frequency continue to decrease, additional circuits
will be tripped as a function of frequency and time.
Secondary Regulation
to
positionofthe
As an example, consider a governor of a lightly
loaded turbine not responding to set point
changes from the PMS due to some internal fault
condition. In order to achieve load sharing, the
PMS must increase the load of this turbine but at
the same time decrease the load on other turbines
in order to avoid any changes in frequency. Since
the faulty governor does not respond to set
point increases, it will not increase its load whereas
the other turbines will respond to the PMS set
point changes and decrease their power output.
The result will be a decrease in frequency. Should
the frequency decrease below the dead-band
value,
the PMS must immediately cease attempts
to share the load since that would result in
an unacceptable decrease in system frequency.
Secondary regulation does not react quickly and
should not react quickly. It is used to ne tune
the power system by bringing frequency, voltage
and power values within steady state tolerances.
Attempting to change state values too quickly
could cause instabilities and power outages.
In addition, the reaction of primary regulation to set
point changes is inherently slow and even
if the secondary regulation tried to quickly change
set points, it couldnt do so.
The basis for power system design is knowing
how the system will react to contingencies.
For green eld projects, or for large extensions to
existing facilities, simulations must be carried out
since it is not possible to make measurements.
The simulations must calculate the transient and
steady state frequency, active and reactive power
ow, and busbar voltages immediately after
contingencies. In many cases it is necessary to
conduct simulations over a long period of time to
ensure that the power system remains stable after
a major disturbance. Short-time simulations may
show that the power system recovers correctly
after a contingency only to nd
after

several

seconds, the power system actually
collapses.
The transfer functions of the turbine governor,
and the generator and transformer AVRs must
be well known in order to perform such
simulations. This information is unfortunately
difcult to get.
As will be discussed, the
dynamic release of reserve power is often much
less than would be expected and must be
correctly simulated [2].
System Calculations and Simulations
atthe site out
actually
that
Frequency control & DLN operation
Frequency control and active power sharing
among turbines is very important and often
referred to asP/f control. Implementation of
DLN operation adds to the complexity of the P/f
control algorithms. In order to reduce the NOx
concentrations in exhaust gas, the air/gas
mustbehomogeneous
This can, however,
only be achieved when the turbine output exceeds
a certain percentage of its nominal rating as
a function of the air inlet temperature. Fig. 5 shows
the relationship between the DLN limit and
the maximum power output. Both depend on
the air inlet temperature (shown on the abscissa).
The ordinate is in percent. From Fig. 5 it can be
seen that for DLN operation, the turbine output
must generally exceed 60 % of the nominal rating.
Since operation close to the DLN limit can result in

instability, it is necessary to ensure that the turbine
output is either well above or well below the DLN
limit. This constraint does not apply to turbines
that do not have the capability of DLN operation
nor

to

steam

turbines.
As mentioned in the previous section, equal
sharing of the load as a percentage of nominal

power is important since it enhances the capability

of the power system to respond correctly to
contingencies. Equal sharing is always possible

when no turbines operate in the DLN mode
since there are no constraints regarding output

power other than exceeding the minimum or
maximum power output. It is easy to meet
these requirements since these points are at the

extremes of the turbine output capability curves.

When DLN operation is used, it is not possible to
ensure equal loading among all turbines.
44 24 4 -16 -36
00
25
50
75
100
Maximum Output
DLN limit
Figure 5 DLN limits as function of temperature
As an example, consider several non-DLN GTGs
supplying the load. As shown in Fig. 2, 3 and 4,
operation in 4 % frequency droop will automatically
ensure that load is shared equally as a percentage
of nominal power. Should the plant load increase,
the steady-state frequency will decrease and
the PMS will send the same set point adjustments
to all governors to increase the GTG output thus
bringing the frequency back to its nominal value
and ensuring correct load sharing at all times.
This is true for all values of output power.
Should, however, one of the GTGs operate in
the DLN mode, it is no longer possible to have
identical load sharing among the machines since
it is necessary to ensure that the DLN machines
operate

far

from

the

DLN

limit.

Secondary

regulation is used to ensure operation far from
the DLN limit. This is achieved by considering two
different values of minimum output for the DLN
machine. At low load, the minimum output will be
a few % of the nominal rating. Operation of the
DLN GTG can then be at the same % output as
all other GTGs since at light load the output will be
far below the DLN limit which is close to 60 % of
rated power. When the plant load is high however,
the DLN GTG must be made to operate well above
the DLN limit. For this case, the minimum output
used is the DLN limit. Secondary regulation will
ensure that the % load within this range (DLN limit
to

maximum

output)

is

the

same

as

the

%

load
of

all other GTGs, their range being between the
minimum

and

maximum

values.

This

is

shown

in

Fig.6.

Frequency
Hz
51
50 Hz
49
MW
75 60 20
DLN Limit
90 MW GTG
40 MW GTG
12.2 MW
40
65 MW
90
Figure 6 Operation above the DLN limit
%P
n
C
o
mixture
.
The dashed-line portion of the droop curve of the
90 MW GTG corresponds to output values below
the DLN limit. The GTG is not to operate there
at high load. This range is from 0 MW to 54 MW
(60 % of the rated output). The solid-line portion
of the droop curve of the 90 MW GTG is the
permissible operating range and equals 36 MW
(90 MW 54 MW). The % loading x is based on
the total power required P
P = (x(36) + 54) + x(40); x =
P - 54
76
The power supplied by the GTG is 65 MW which
exceeds the DLN limit by a comfortable 11 MW.
11 MW is equal to 30.5 % of the permissible 36 MW
operating

range.

The other GTG shall also operate at
30.5 % of its range, but its range is between 0 MW
and

40

MW.

Its

operating

point

is

12.2

MW.

Thus
although the % loading within the operating
ranges are the same, the % loading based on
the total output capacity is not. The DLN GTG is
operated at a higher % load than the other GTG.
When a load step occurs, the primary regulation of
all turbines will react to increase the power output
but at a slightly lower frequency. As shown in
Fig. 7, primary regulation will change the operating
point along the droop curves without taking into
account DLN operation.
Frequency
Hz
51
50
49
MW
75 60 20
DLN Limit
90 MW GTG
40 MW GTG
17 MW
76 MW
40 90
Figure 7 Reaction of DLN turbine to step load
The DLN turbines are intially too heavily loaded
76 MW corresponds to 61 % of the DLN
operating range whereas 17 MW corresponds to
only 42.5 % of the non-DLN operating range.
It is the secondary regulation that will ensure that
the correct operating positions of all DLN and
non-DLN turbines. Fig. 8 shows the operating
points after secondary regulation has modified
the governor
set points of all turbines.The output
of the DLN

turbines

was decreasedand that
of the non-DLN turbines increased. The new
loading factor is
51.3 % for all turbines.
Frequency
Hz
51
50 Hz
49
MW
75 60 20
DLN Limit
90 MW GTG
40 MW GTG
20.5 MW
72.5 MW
40 90
Figure 8 Correction of DLN turbine loading
Even if all GTGs operate in DLN mode, there may be
situations where load sharing cannot be achieved.
In the previous example, consider that both GTGs
could operate in a DLN mode. Should plant load
be close to 78 MW, which is 60 % of the total
generation capacity, it would notbe possible to
equally

share the load since this would result in the
GTGs

operating at their DLN limit. One GTG must
be selected to operate at a higher rated
load

and

the other at a lower rated load. Both GTGs
will thus be operating far from their DLN limits but

will

not

equally

share

the

load.
During disturbances, the primary regulation of all
turbines will react based on the 4 % frequency
droop curve only, as shown in Fig. 2. The minimum
value used by the PMS to determine the operating
points of DLN GTGs has no inuence on the
dynamic response of the turbines.
Simulations
should be made to check that the power system
remains stable when some GTGs are more heavily
loaded

than

others

due to the DLN constraints.
After the transients have died down (and possibly
load shedding), the PMS will recalculate the power
output that each GTG should have and send the
required incremental set point changes to each GTG.
is:
therefore
Voltage control
Voltage control and reactive power sharing is often

referred to as Q/V control. Voltage control in
a power system is very different from frequency
control. The frequency is the same throughout
the whole power system and is not inuenced by
transformers. The primary regulation of all
turbines therefore react to the same state variable

no

matter

where a turbine is located.
Voltage, on

the other hand, is a local state variable

and can
differ greatly throughout the power system. It is
the impedances in the power system

(lines &
transformers) that decouple the voltage levels at

different locations. Frequency control is made
by adjusting thepower output of the turbines.
Voltage

control requires adjusting the reactive
power

output of the generators but also
changing the tap positions of transformers.
When all power sources are connected to
the same busbar, the generator AVRs will ensure

that the voltage on that busbar is correct by
adjusting

the

reactive power output. The PMS will

ne

tune

the

voltage to ensure that it remains
within the steady-state tolerance. Transformers
supplying

load busbars may have

on-load tap
changers (OLTC) and their associated AVRs will
ensure the correct ow of reactive power to
downstream busbars. When distributed
generation is used, it is often necessary to
change the tap position of the transformers on
the interconnection lines in order to move reactive

power from one location to another. This can be

achieved in primary regulation by implementing

a voltage droop characteristic in the transformer

AVR as shown in Fig. 9.
When the transformer
voltage droop has the same % value as the
generator AVR droop, then all generators and all

transformers connected to the same busbar
will supply the same percentage of reactive

power to support the busbar voltage. An
increase in load will also increase the reactive
power consumption. Additional reactive power will

be supplied by both the generator and the
transformer. Transformers can supply additional
reactive power only when there is a surplus
elsewhere in the power system. Reactive power

is produced by generators transformers control

only the ow of reactive power.
Voltage
kV
7.2
6.6 kV
Mvar
100 MVA
Tranformer
80 60 20
6
40
40 MW GTG
18 Mvar
63 Mvar
100
Figure 9 Reactive power sharing
A 40 MW GTG with a generator that has
a power factor capability of 0.8 will be able to
supply up to 30 Mvar. The 100 MVA transformer
could supply 100 Mvar provided there was no
active power owing through it. Both voltage droop
curves are shown in Fig. 9. In reality the transformer
voltage droop curve is not linear Changes in
reactive

power

ow

are due to tap position
changes

which are step functions, not linear as
in the case of the reactive power output of a
generator. Also the

generator AVR will act
much more quickly than the transformer AVR.
The steady state conditions will be in accordance
with the voltage droop curves shown in Fig. 9 but
not during transient conditions.
Since it is not
necessary to have perfect sharing of reactive
.
power, a linear transformer voltage droop curve
having the same dynamic response as the
generator AVR can be assumed for most
calculations.
Since voltage is a local variable, reactive power
sharing makes sense only for generators
connected to the same busbar. Generators
connected to different busbars may have very
different reactive power outputs. Attempting to
all generators produce equivalent amounts
of reactive power can have very detrimental effects
or

voltage

levels throughout the plant. The fact that
the power factor in GTGs and STGs connected at
have

different locations in the plant may be very
different

has no consequence on system stability
nor on correct operation.
Voltage control is independent of frequency
control, DLN operation, and active power sharing.
This allows the PMS to have 2 sets of algorithms,
one set for P/f control and another set for Q/V
control. Since these control algorithms make set
point adjustments to different devices,
they are implemented independently of each other.

The only validation required is to ensure that
the apparent power owing through equipment or
in an interconnection does not exceed acceptable
limits. For example in Fig. 9 it is necessary for
the PMS to ensure that the active power through
the 100 MVA transformer does not exceed 78 MW.
Since changes in reactive power output occur
more quickly than active power, often the PMS
will introduce time delays such that the transition
speed resulting from set point changes sent to
governors and AVRs will be approximately equal.
P/f and Q/V algorithms-
When the power system is islanded,
the P/f algorithm will determine the total power
required

to

maintain the system frequency at its
nominal value.

When however, the power

system

is

connected

to the local utility, the frequency is
xed by the utility. The the frequency
becauseit

xes

has thousands of installed MW of power

generation whereas the industrial plant only a few

hundred.

The

PMS

will

now determine the total
power

required to ensure that the import/export
of active power is within acceptable limits.
After having determined the total power
required, the PMS now determines how this
power is to be shared among the GTGs and
STGs in operation, also taking into account DLN
operation if required. The result of these calculations
will be set point adjustments that will be sent to
each turbine governor as described above. At the
end of each PMS control time interval, new set
point changes will be calculated and executed.
utility
As mentioned, voltage is a local
condition. The PMS will therefore measure voltage
levels at different parts of the plant in order to

determine the reactive power requirements. At
each

location where voltage control is possible,

the PMS will determine the required set point
changes for generator and transformer AVRs.
Reactive power sharing among the devices
controlling the voltage at a specic location will
also be implemented by the PMS.
In the same manner

as

for

the

implementation

of

the P/f algorithms,

set point changes corresponding to 50%
of the
calculated values will be sent to the AVRs. Since
changes in reactive power normally occur much
quicker than active power, the PMS will add time
delays in the Q/V set point changes such that the
rate of change of P/f and Q/V state variables will
be approximately the same.
Load shedding calculations
P/falgorithms:
Q/Valgorithms:
Load shedding calculations: are based on the
dynamic spinning reserve of all turbines in operation.
Should distributed generation be used, the spinning
reserve for each viable island (generation + load) is
calculated.

Should

there

not be sufcient spinning
reserve, the PMS will determine which loads in that
island are to be shed should that part of the plant
actually be islanded from the rest. The PMS will
warn the operator that

load

shedding

occursaftera After each viable island
conguration

has

been

calculated, the PMS will
then
perform the same calculations for the whole
plant. Should there not be sufcient spinning
reserve,

the PMS will determine which

loads

are

to
be shed should a normative incident occur. The
loads

to

be shed are calculated based on
process

requirements

only, and do not take into

account
which normative leads to load shedding
execution. When the normative incident occurs,
load shedding is immediately executed based on
the previously executed calculations.
time
disturbance .
any
.
described inthenext section,
the
These
incident
The PMS will perform several calculations for
determining the set point changes required
by the P/f and Q/V algorithms. The magnitude of
the set point changes will depend on the difference

between the actual state of the power system and
what is should be. Since it is important for system
stability to make changes in a controlled manner,
the PMS will send a set point change that
corresponds at most to 50 % of the calculated
total set point change as, illustrated in Fig. 10.
PMS
time
intervals
P
P
0
1 2 3 4 5
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
dT
max
dT
2
dT
2
Figure 10 PMS execution of set-point changes
The abscissa Fig. 10 shows the PMS control
time intervals. After each time interval, the PMS
calculates all set point changes and will send
the appropriate control signals to the governors
and AVRs. These signals will be executed during
the next PMS control time interval. Fig. 10
shows the P/f calculations to illustrate the control
principles that are implemented. P
n
is the GTG
output

power

that

should be produced after the
n
th
PMS time interval. Since the response to
secondary

regulation incremental set point
changes is a straight line with a xed slope, the
distance between the actual value of P and the
next value is shown by a line,
the length of which
is (P
n+1
-P
n
)/m where P
n+1
-P
n
is

Implementation of algorithms
the amount of MW
the power output is to changeby, and m is the
slope of the response in MW per second. The
result
of the calculation is the time dT the control
signal

is to be applied to achieve the required
change in output power, and this is illustrated by
the line joining points P
n+1
and P
n
. The PMS will,
however, only execute a maximum of 50 % of
the change and this is illustrated by splitting the

line
joining P
n+1
and P
n
into 2 parts, a solid line and a
dashed line. The solid line represents the control
signal

actually sent, and the dashed line shows
what

control signal is still required to achieve the
change in power output.
dT is the time required to apply the control signal
to produce P
1
MW. The signal will only be applied
for dT/2 however. Since dT/2 is shorter than
the PMS control time interval, after dT/2 seconds,
the control signal will be removed and the power
output will remain unchanged for the remainder of
the PMS calculation interval. This is shown by the
horizontal curve just after dT/2. P
2
shows a lower
power output is required, and the same control
sequence is implemented, this time
using

a negative slope. P
3
has the same value as P
2
and
thus no control signal need be applied as shown
by the horizontal output curve.

The time to get from
P
3
to P
4
exceeds twice the
PMS control time
interval. Thus the maximum duration for this control
signal will be the PMS calculation interval itself,
which is less than 50 % of the calculated time.
Thus at no time do the PMS control signals
achieve full correction they just successively bring
the system closer to the desired

operating condition.
The farther away the desired value, the longer the
control

signal

is

applied.

This type of control is very
common.
PMS control - signal duration
in
The case study illustrates many of the concepts
that have been developed in the previous sections.

The plant shown in Fig. 11 has 2 main process
areas and the total load is 200 MW. The total
installed generation is 340 MW.
The 90 MW GTGs are to operate in the DLN
mode. The 40 MW GTGs have standard
combustion. The 40 MW GTG shown in dotted
lines indicates a machine in maintenance.
There is a connection to the local utility,
the purpose of which is to be able to import power
during contingencies in order to help keep
the plant power system stable. The power system
can thus operate in the connected mode
(utility circuits are closed) or in the islanded mode
(utility circuits are open). In normal operation
the exchange of active and reactive power with
the utility should be kept close to zero.
As can be seen in Fig. 11, the turbines are not all
connected to the same busbar. In both process
units there are sufcient turbines to
loads

Case study

supplythe
should that part of the plant be islanded
from

the

utility

and from the other process unit.
This

requires that the load shedding algorithms
also ensure sufcient generation in each process
area to avoid loss of production should any
islanding occur.
2x20 MVA
Utility G G 2x90 MW
110 kV
G G G G
33 kV
3x40 MW
2x100 MVA
2x60 MVA
80 MW
+
55 Mvar
120 MW + 70 Mvar
The design criteria for the power system and PMS
are:
implement the concepts of robust control
maintain correct frequency when islanded
import/export of active & reactive
power

close to zero
maintain correct busbar voltages in both
the islanded and connected modes
DLN operation is when possible
implement active power sharing among DLN
operated turbines
implement active power sharing among other
turbines
implement reactive power sharing among
generators connected to the same busbars
ensure correct transfer of reactive power
between groups of generation
ensure sufcient spinning reserve in each

process area and plant wide
optimize the number and type of each GTG
throughout the planttoreduce
provide fast load shedding in each process area
and plant wide.
In some cases it is not possible to meet all of
the design criteria. It is very important to determine
up front which criteria are the most important. After
the essential criteria have been met, the others will
be implemented based on their importance.
For example, frequency and voltage control are
more important than active and reactive power
sharing. DLN operation is also more important
than load sharing. Under no circumstances
however, should the concepts of robust control be
compromised.
Description of the power system

Figure 11 Case study single-line diagram
System design criteria
use
keepthe
emissions
Steady state operation
Normal operation is in the connected mode as
shown in Fig. 12. Import/export of active and
reactive power is close to zero so all loads are
supplied from the GTGs. The larger turbines
operate in the DLN range meaning that their
proportional loading is higher than the other
smaller turbines. The DLN GTGs are connected
to HRSGs and provide process steam. Sufcient
turbines are to be in operation to ensure
adequate spinning reserve for the whole power
system as well as for the process unit islands.
Due to the amount of load in the various process
units, active and reactive power will ow from
the process area with the larger turbines to
the process loads associated with the smaller
turbines. A dead band is associated with each
state variable such a frequency, voltage, and active
& reactive power output. When a state variable is
within the dead band, no corrections will be
required.
In the connected mode, exchange of active and
reactive power with the utility is to be kept close
to zero. The P/f algorithm measures the active
power owing through the utility transformers and
calculates what the total generatedpower should
be

in

order to keep this value close to zero.
The P/f
algorithm also checks the correct sharing of load
among the smaller turbines and between the 2
larger ones which are operating in the DLN range.
Based

on these 2 sets of values (total power
required

and

load sharing) the PMS calculates
the

set point adjustments required for each
turbine. It then sends set point corrections
equivalent

to

50 % of the calculated values as
described

in

the

previous section. These
algorithms are executed continuously

and

ensure

correct

operation

at

all

times.
In a similar manner the Q/V algorithms are
executed. In the connected mode, the utility tie is
not

strong enough to guarantee that the power
system

voltage

will

be

correct.
0 MW
+
0 Mvar
G G 2x
71.5 MW
+
46 Mvar
G G G G
2x
28.8 MW
+
16.5 Mvar
80 MW
+
55 Mvar
120 MW + 70 Mvar
2x
31.5 MW
+
18.5 Mvar
Figure 12 Case study steady-state power ow
This

is

due

to

the

lack

of

reactive

power

reserves
on

the

utility

side and is the reason for keeping reactive power
import close to zero. The generators are used to
maintain correct system voltages.

Thus the per
unit voltage on the plant side of the utility
transformers will be close to the nominal
value, but the per-unit voltage on the utility side of
these transformers could be quite different from
the nominal utility voltage. The only way to ensure
that the ow of reactive power through the utility
transformers is close to zero is to ensure that
the turns ratio of the utility transformer equals
the ratio of the voltages on the utility and plant
sides. This will cause the voltage drop across
the utility transformers to be very small leading
to a very low ow of reactive power through
the transformers. In order to achieve the correct
turns ratio, the PMS will send voltage set point
adjustments to the utility transformer AVRs.
These set point adjustments will result in the tap
position being changed until such time that
the correct turns ratio is achieved. In accordance
with the principles of robust control described
earlier, only voltage set point changes are sent to
the transformer AVRs no attempt is made by
the PMS to directly control the tap position of the
utility transformers.
It is also necessary to ensure correct voltage
throughout the plant. For load busbars supplied
only via step-down transformers (not shown in
Fig. 11), this is achieved by the transformer AVRs
without any assistance from the PMS. For load
busbars that are also supplied by GTGs (the 33
kV bus in Fig. 11), it is necessary to ensure that
reactive power provided both from
the generators, and from the step-down
transformers connected to the same busbar.
This is achieved by
implementing the same
voltage droop characteristic in the transformer
AVR

as in the generator AVRs. Should the busbar
voltage differ from the nominal value, the PMS
will send voltage set point changes to the
transformer AVR and reactive power output
set point changes to the generator AVRs. Should
insufcient or excessive reactive power ow
through the transformers, the PMS will make
further transformer AVR set point changes to
ensure correct ow of reactive power between both
process units.
Load shedding calculations are made for each
process unit individually and then for the whole
plant in both the connected and islanded mode.
Load shedding tables corresponding to every
normative incident for each conguration
are

made.

Should

there not be sufcient spinning
reserve for any of the congurations, the PMS will
warn the operators and also suggest which GTG
should be started.
If there is too much spinning reserve, the PMS
will also warn the operator and will suggest
which GTG should be stopped.
Seconds
130 125 120 115 110 105 100
-4
0
4
8
12
16
MW step load
Figure 13 Dynamic & static spinning reserve
The fast load shedding calculations must be based
on the dynamic spinning reserve [2]. Thus even
though there is sufcient generation capacity, load
shedding may be required. Fig. 13 shows what
often happens when a GTG is subjected to a large
load step, in this case 14 MW for a 90 MW GTG.
Initially the governor responds by opening the

gas

valve which results in a very quick increase
in
output

power. This is of course the desired result
the ideal response is shown in Fig. 13 with
the solid line. The increased amount of gas,
however, increases the exhaust gas temperature
until such time as sufcient air available.
The opening of the air inlet vanes is, however, very
slow in comparison with the gas valve. Thus

the

exhaust gas temperature will initially rise and the
exhaust gas temperature regulation will
decrease

the ow of gas until the air inlet vanes have
opened

sufciently. This explains the dip in
the output power curve shown in a dotted line.
The dynamic spinning reserve is only 4 MW.
Full power is available only after 20 seconds.

GTG dynamic response & fast load shedding
is
becomes
It is possible however, to consider 2 types of
load shedding. Some process loads will accept
outages of several tens of seconds and can be
restarted afterwards and the process continues.
Other process loads when switched off, even for
a very short period of time, will require manual
intervention prior to restarting. Process loads
accepting outages could be shed rst, and then
restarted gradually, at about the same rate as
the opening of the air inlet vanes. Loads not
accepting outages should be shed only if
absolutely necessary. In this manner it is possible
to make use of the static spinning reserve as
well at the dynamic spinning reserve. It requires,
however, categorizing loads based on acceptable
outage times and not just on importance as is
normally done when dening load shedding tables.
Sudden islanding of a process unit will of course
have consequences for that process unit.
The consequences can often be limited by
the use of fast load shedding. There are however
also consequences for the other process unit
when the other one is islanded. If the process unit
associated with the 40 MW GTGs is islanded,
the other GTGs will suddenly lose much of
the load. Primary regulation will ensure that
the GTGs reduce their power output, but
the main problem will be that they can no longer
operate in the DLN region. It is important that
the consequences of normative incidents be
reviewed for all parts of the plant, and not just
the part most directly affected.
In this plant, much of the process steam is
produced from HRSGs associated with
the larger turbines. The power output of these
GTGs is however determined by electrical and
DLN considerations, and not by process steam
requirements. This would also be the case should
STGs use the steam. Since it is not possible to
regulate the GTG output based on process steam
requirements, it is necessary to t the boilers with
auxiliary burners [3]. Thus, steam can be produced
independently of the operation of the turbines.
This decouples the steam system from the power
system. Thus the PMS can dene the required
power output of the turbines based on electrical
considerations only, and does not need to take
into account steam system constraints.
Process Steam
Case Study Remarks
There are advantages to using distributed
generation. A single, large contingency cannot
cause a total loss of generation and thus
production. Also having loads close to generation

reduces transmission losses. The down side is
the difculty in correctly controlling the power
system, especially the voltage.
Operation of some GTGs in DLN mode will result
in very unequal load sharing. The DLN turbines
will generally be more heavily loaded since they
must operate well above the DLN limit to ensure
stable ring. The dynamic response of the turbines

will not be the same since they are operating at
different percentage loads. In some cases this can
lead to nuisance tripping after a contingency has
occurred. The very limited dynamic response
capability of large turbines is often a surprise.

Fast load shedding must be triggered even
though there

is enough generation capacity
on paper. From

a dynamic spinning reserve
viewpoint,
it is better to have more smaller
turbines than fewer

larger ones.
The use of DLN turbines has,however, positive

points. The emissions are greatly reduced and
this is very important today since more and more
regulations are coming into effect on this subject.
As shown in the case study, the effective loading
of the DLN turbines is higher than the non-DLN
turbines since they must operate well above
the DLN limit. The DLN turbines are modern
machines which have a higher efciency than
older machines. Thus operating the more efcient
turbines at a higher output reduces energy
consumption and CO
2
emissions. This, however,
can be achieved only using secondary regulation.
PMS implementation
A Power Management System is an integrated set
of sensors, actuators, communication devices and
networks, control logic and operator interfaces.

The purpose of the PMS is to provide real-time
control of the industrial power system by means of
the following functions, many of which have been
discussed in the sections above:
monitor the power system
remote control the power system switching
devices
control power system frequency
control utilization voltages
ensure good power quality
provide immunity to power system disturbances
control power import & export.
Although the PMS relies heavily on Information

Technology to perform many of the functions,
the conceptual design must be made by power
system engineers. Both disciplines must work
closely together to design a PMS that meets

the requirements.
Fig. 14 gives a very general overview of a PMS.
It shows the connections to the electrical
distribution system which are made via intelligent
devices and communication networks, as well as
hard-wired digital & analog signals. The
operator

workstations The
redundant PLCs required for power
management functions including their interface
to the governors and AVRs. This interface shows
the use of incremental set point changes,
one of the basic
principles of Robust Control.
Description of a Power Management System (PMS)
providethe interface.
are
G G
G G G G
Utility
PLC
I/ORack
PLC
AVR
G
AVR Governor
+
-

p
o
w
e
r
+
-

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
+
-

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
Figure 14 PMS Overview
Data Integrity Validation
The PMS actuators will send incremental set-point
changes to gas turbine governors and generator
& transformer AVRs. These set-point changes control
the system frequency and voltage and thus are
very important for correct power systemoperation.
All

decisions

made

by the PMS are based on the
data

that

has

been

collected from the various
devices connected to the power system. It is thus
very important that

only valid data be used. Bad
data can cause the PMS to send incorrect set-point
changes and drive the power system to an abnormal
operating condition.


One of the most important functions of
the PMS is Data Integrity Validation. This consists
of a number of measures to check that the data
being used is coherent. Should discrepancies
occur, an alarm will be set and the PMS functions
which depend on this data will be suspended
until the discrepancies have been eliminated.
The philosophy of robust control ensures
satisfactory operation of the power system without
the PMS. Data Integrity Validation ensures that PMS
will not execute functions based on corrupt data.

These are the most common functions of the
PMS and consist in showing the operator
status of the power system and allowing him to
open and close circuit breakers and thus change
the power system conguration. Remote control is
usually from a central control point. All operators
have their own user name and password and only
operators who have the correct authorization are
allowed to execute orders of any kind. Any time
remote control is implemented, whether by the
operator or from the PMS itself, redundant
communication systems are normally required.
This prevents the failure of any single device from
propagating through the system.
Monitoring & Remote Control
PowerManagementfunctions
voltage
control thefrequency
and and provide immunitytopowersystem
disturbances. Data Integrity Validation is of atmost
importanceforthese functions. Theseare

automatically executed and the control
logic is
performed by Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs). The PLCs are normally provided in a
hot-standby conguration in order to be able
to execute their

functions even should a fault occur
in

one

device.

The PLCs are connected to the PMS
communication system in such a manner as to
have direct access to the information needed to
implement the functions. The PLC outputs are
connected directly to the primary regulation control
devices.
the
Operator work stations provide the information
necessary to the operator for correct control of
the power system. The information must be
organized in a very clear manner in order that the
operator

immediately

sees what is important and

what needs his attention.Generally there is a
main

PMS operator work station in the

central
control room, near the process control
work stations. The main work station normally has
dual screens allowing permanent visualization
of

the

status

of

the power system while allowing
the operator to work on the other screen. Often
there are local

PMS work stations in each
substation,

these

work stations being primarily
used

when

maintenance work is being carried

out.
Testing a PMS
The testing of a PMS is always a challenge since only
part of the system can be tested prior to installation
at site. During the Factory Acceptance Tests (FAT),
the complete PMS communication system, all
operator work stations, all PLCs and other PMS
devices are interconnected and powered. Interfaces
to the power system devices such as intelligent relays
and meters are simulated in order to demonstrate
correct communication. All PMS functions are tested
during the FAT but it is not possible to demonstrate
that all performance criteria are met since only few
of the many devices are connected.
It is only at site, after the PMS has been installed
& connected that the compliance with the PMS
performance criteria can be demonstrated.
There are many control functions in the PMS and
each control function depends on many variables
and

dead

bands.

During

the

commissioning

these
variables are optimized in order to provide the best
performance of the system. This ne tuning is
a very important step and requires access to
the GTGs during commissioning, something that
is often difcult to obtain.
The PMS should be designed to allow testing at
site without risk to the power equipment.
One means of achieving this is to provide
a gain for each function. When the gain is
0 %, the PMS will not send any control
signals but the commissioning engineer can
check that the signal that the PMS would have
sent is correct or not. After validation of the
function at 0 % gain, the gain is slowly increased
and the functions checked. When all checking
has been done and the variables and dead bands
optimized, the gain will be at 100 % and the PMS
fully operational.
Training
It is quite difcult to provide adequate training for
PMS operators for several reasons. One reason
is simply the fact that any orders sent by PMS
operators will have important consequences on
the operating point of the power system.
Trainees cannot be allowed to actually execute
orders. The other problem is that a well designed
robust power system normally operates correctly
for long periods of time without any operator
intervention. Some functions will be used only very
infrequently.
When operators dont use the system for long
periods of time, they often forget what they have
to do.
Training of new operators, and repeat training
of experienced operators can best be done by
means of a training simulator [4].
The training simulator has the same operator
interface as the PMS and allows the operator to
execute orders and see their consequences.
The orders are simulated they are not really
executed on the power system.
Conclusion
The use of DLN combustion is becoming more
common due to stricter regulations. The additional
constraints that it brings regarding the operation
of the power system should however, not be
underestimated. It is necessary to carry out in
depth studies and simulations of all possible
operating modes of the power system in order to
be sure that the loads can be supplied at the right
frequency and voltage. This is especially the case
when there are turbines having different operation
modes (DLN and standard) at the same facility.
The dynamic response of the turbines should be
carefully reviewed with the turbine supplier.
This should be taken into account in dening
the number and rated power of the turbines to be
purchased for the plant power supply. Although
there are economical reasons for having fewer,
larger turbines, these should be weighed against
the costs of poor power system performance.
When STGs are used, or when the GTGs are
associated with HRSGs, close collaboration
between the electrical and steam system
engineers is required. This will help ensure
that each system is capable of satisfying the
requirements independent of the operation
of the other system.
References
[1] Nick Hiscock, Terence Hazel, Jonathan
Hiscock; "Voltage Regulation at Sites with
Distributed Generation," IAS Transactions on
Industry Applications, Vol 44, No. 2,
March-April 2008, pp 445-453.
[2] Roy Hamilton, John Undrill, Paul Hamer, Scott
Manson, Considerations for Generation
in an Islanded Operation, Causes of Long
Interruptions, IEEE PCIC Conference Record,
2009.
[3] Graeme Peck, "Challenges in Using Waste Heat
Recovery and DLE Combustion to Reduce
CO2 and NOx Emissions" in PCIC Europe
Conference Record, 2009.
[4] Terence Hazel, Isabelle Condamin, Fabrice
Audemard, Facilitating Plant Operation &
Maintenance Using an Electrical Network
Monitoring & Control System Simulation Tool,
IEEE PCIC Conference Record, 2004.
Vita
Terence Hazel graduated from the University of
Manitoba Canada with a BScEE in 1970.
He worked for one year as a power coordination
engineer in Perth Australia and for several years
in Frankfurt Germany as a consulting engineer for
construction and renovation of industrial power
distribution systems. Since 1980 he has worked
for Schneider Electric (formerly Merlin Gerin) in
their projects group where he has provided team
leadership for several major international projects
involving process control and power distribution.
His main interests are in power quality, and
the reliability of electrical distribution systems.
Mr. Hazel is a senior member of IEEE and is author
of several IEEE papers and tutorials. He is also
Secretary and Technical Chair of the Petroleum &
Chemical Industry Committee Europe which holds
an annual technical conference.
(www.pcic-europe.eu)
Schneider Electric Industries SAS
35, rue Joseph Monier
CS 30323
F- 92506 Rueil Malmaison Cedex
RCS Nanterre 954 503 439
Capital social 896 313 776
www.schneider-electric.com
12-2009 COM-POWER-WP04EN

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Reduction of Emissions by

ofEmissionsby OptimaI use of Gas Turbines Reduction

ensure sufcient spinning reserve in each

Description of the power system

Although the PMS relies heavily on Information

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