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This document provides information on the theory of metal cutting. It discusses how metal cutting processes work by shearing metal crystals at the shear plane as the cutting tool advances. Different types of chips are formed during this process depending on factors like material properties. It also summarizes key aspects of using lathes like specifications, constructional features, cutting parameters and tool geometry. Specifically, it discusses how rotating speed, cutting depth, feed rate and tool geometry like rake angles and relief angles affect cutting performance and surface finish.
This document provides information on the theory of metal cutting. It discusses how metal cutting processes work by shearing metal crystals at the shear plane as the cutting tool advances. Different types of chips are formed during this process depending on factors like material properties. It also summarizes key aspects of using lathes like specifications, constructional features, cutting parameters and tool geometry. Specifically, it discusses how rotating speed, cutting depth, feed rate and tool geometry like rake angles and relief angles affect cutting performance and surface finish.
This document provides information on the theory of metal cutting. It discusses how metal cutting processes work by shearing metal crystals at the shear plane as the cutting tool advances. Different types of chips are formed during this process depending on factors like material properties. It also summarizes key aspects of using lathes like specifications, constructional features, cutting parameters and tool geometry. Specifically, it discusses how rotating speed, cutting depth, feed rate and tool geometry like rake angles and relief angles affect cutting performance and surface finish.
Metal cutting or traditional machining processes are also known as conventional
machining processes. A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing or other forms of deformation. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping. All machine tools have some means of constraining the workpiece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. TYPES OF MACHINE TOOLS Turning Machines Sawing Machines Drilling Machines Shaping Machines Planing Machines Grinding Machines THEORY OF METAL CUTTING Chip Formation All metals in the solid state have a characteristic crystalline structure, freuently referred to as grain structure. The grain or crystals vary in si!e from very "ne to very coarse, depending upon the type of metal and its heat#treatment. The cutting tool advances again in the work piece. $eavy forces are e%erted on the crystals in front of the tool face. These crystals, in turn e%ert similar pressures on &rystals ahead of them, in the direction of the cut or force applied 'y the cutter. As the tool continues to advance, the material at sheared point is sheared 'y the cutting edge of the tool or it may 'e torn loose 'y the action of the 'ending chip which is 'eing formed. As the tool advances, ma%imum stress is e%erted along sheared line, which is called the shear plane. This plane is appro%imately perpendicular to the cutting face of the tool. There e%ists a shear !one on 'oth sides of the shear plane, when the force of the tool e%ceeds the strength of material at the shear plane, rupture or slippage of the crystalline grain structure occurs, thus forming the metal chip. The chip gets separated from the workpiece material and moves up along the tool face. (n addition, when the metal is sheared, the crystals are elongated, the direction of elongation 'eing di)erent from that of shear. The circles which represent the crystals in the uncut metal get elongated into ellipses after leaving the shearing plane. TYPES OF CHIPS *. Discontinuous or segmental chips +. &ontinuous chips ,. &ontinuous chips with 'uilt#up edge. -. .on homogenous chips .on homogenous chips are developed during machining highly hard alloys like titanium which su)ers a marked decrease in yield strength with increase in temperature. Orthogonal ctting TOOL !EAR AN" LIFE Gradual wearing of certain regions of the face and /ank of the cutting tool. A'rupt tool failure. !EAR #ONES &rater wear 0lank wear &orner wear !EAR CONTROL SURFACE FINISH The allowa'le deviation from a perfectly /at surface that is made 'y some manufacturing process. All machining processes will produces some roughness on the surface. This roughness can 'e caused 'y a cutting tool, cutting rate and environmental conditions and the type of material you are working with. Surface "nish is generally 'roken up into three components such as roughness, waviness, and form. CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
COOLENTS OR CUTTING FLUI"S OR EMULSIONS During any machining or metal cutting process, enough heat is evolved in cutting !one. To remove this heat from cutting !one, solu'le oils are used as cutting /uid during machining. 1mulsions 2also known as solu'le oil3 cool the work#piece and tool and thus relieved them from overheat. Air circulation is reuired so as to remove the heat 'y evaporation. The remaining oil forms a protecting layer over the machined work piece and save it from rust and corrosion. Such coolants decrease adhesion 'etween chip and tool, provides lower friction and wear and a smaller 'uilt up edge. They remove chips and hence help in keeping freshly machined surface 'right. Fnction$ or U$%$ o& Coolant$ or Ctting Fli'$ 2i3 &utting /uid washes away the chips and hence keeps the cutting region free. 2ii3 (t helps in keeping freshly machined surface 'right 'y giving a protective coating against atmospheric, o%ygen and thus protects the "nished surface from corrosion. 2iii3 (t decreases wear and tear of cutting tool and hence increases tool life. 2iv3 (t improves machina'ility and reduces power reuirements 2v3 (t prevents e%pansion of work pieces. 2vi3 (t cools the tool and work piece and remove the generated heat from the cutting !one. 2vii3 (t decreases adhesion 'etween chip and tool4 provide lower friction and wear, and a smaller 'uilt#up edge. UNIT II CENTRE LATHE AN" SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES COMMON TYPES OF LATHES( Engin% Lath%( The most common form of lathe, motor driven and comes in large variety of si!es and shapes. )%nch Lath%( A 'ench top model usually of low power used to make precision machine small work pieces. Trac%r Lath%( A lathe that has the a'ility to follow a template to copy a shape or contour. Atomatic Lath%( The lathe in which the work piece is automatically fed and removed without use of an operator. &utting operations are automatically controlled 'y a seuencer of some form. Trr%t Lath%( The lathes which have multiple tools mounted on turrent either attached to the tailstock or the cross#slide, which allows for uick changes in tooling and cutting operations. Compt%r Controll%' Lath%( $ighly automated lathes, where cutting, loading, tool changing, and part unloading are automatically controlled 'y computer coding. CENTRE LATHE LATHE SPECIFICATIONS Distance 'etween centers Swing over the 'ed Swing over the cross slide $orse power of the motor .um'er of speeds .um'er of feeds CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES 5ed6 supports all ma7or components &arriage6 slides along the ways and consists of the cross-slide, tool post, apron $eadstock6 $olds the 7aws for the work piece, supplies power to the 7aws 8 has various driveSpeeds Tailstock6 supports the other end of the work piece 0eed 9od and :ead Screw6 0eed rod is powered 'y a set of gears from the headstock. Rotating Sp%%' (t e%presses with the num'er of rotations 2rpm3 of the chuck of a lathe. ;hen the rotating speed is high, processing speed 'ecomes uick, and a processing surface is "nely "nished. $owever, since a little operation mistakes may lead to the serious accident, it is 'etter to set low rotating speed at the "rst stage. Ctting "%pth The cutting depth of the tool a)ects to the processing speed and the roughness of surface. ;hen the cutting depth is 'ig, the processing speed 'ecomes uick, 'ut the surface temperature 'ecomes high, and it has rough surface. Moreover, a life of 'yte also 'ecomes short. (f you do not know a suita'le cutting depth, it is 'etter to set to small value. F%%' The sending speed of the tool also a)ects to the processing speed and the roughness of surface. ;hen the sending speed is high, the processing speed 'ecomes uick. ;hen the sending speed is low, the surface is "nished 'eautiful. There are <manual sending< which turns and operates a handle, and <automatic sending< which advances a 'yte automatically. A 'eginner must use the manual sending. 5ecause serious accidents may 'e caused, such as touching the rotating chuck around the 'yte in automatic sending. OPERATION IN LATHE CUTTING TOOL &utting tools performs the main machining operation. They comprise of single pointcutting tool or multipoint cutting tools. (t is a 'ody having teeth or cutting edges on it. Asingle point cutting tool 2such as a lathe, shaper and planner and 'oring tool3 has only onecutting edge, whereas a multi#point cutting tool 2such as milling cutter, milling cutter, drill,reamer and 'roach3 has a num'er of teeth or cutting edges on its periphery. Nom%nclatr% Singl% Point Tool The elements of tool signature or nomenclature single point tool is illustrated in *i+ )ac, ra,% angl% (t is the angle 'etween the face of the tool and a line parallel with 'ase of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. (f the slope face is downward toward the nose, it is negative 'ack rake angle and if it is upward toward nose, it is positive 'ack rake angle. This angle helps in removing the chips away from the work piece. *ii+ Si'% ra,% angl% (t is the angle 'y which the face of tool is inclined sideways. This angle of tool determines the thickness of the tool 'ehind the cutting edge. (t is provided on tool to provide clearance 'etween work piece and tool so as to prevent the ru''ing of work# piece with end /ake of tool. (t is the angle 'etween the surface the /ank immediately 'elow the point and the line down from the point perpendicular to the 'ase. *iii+ En' r%li%& angl% (t is the angle that allows the tool to cut without ru''ing on the work# piece. (t is de"ned as the angle 'etween the portion of the end /ank immediately 'elow the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the 'ase of the tool, measured at right angles to the /ank. Some time e%tra end clearance is also provided on the tool that is also known as end clearance angle. (t is the secondary angle directly 'elow the end relief angle *i-+ Si'% r%li%& angl% (t is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the material. (t is the angle 'etween the portion of the side /ank immediately 'elow the side edge and a line perpendicular to the 'ase of the tool measured at right angles to the side. (t is incorporated on the tool to provide relief 'etween its /ank and the work piece surface. Some time e%tra side clearance is also provided on the tool that is also known as side clearance angle. (t is the secondary angle directly 'elow the side relief angle. *-+ En' ctting %'g% angl% (t is the angle 'etween the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the shank of the tool. (t provides clearance 'etween tool cutting edge and work piece. *-i+ Si'% ctting %'g% angl% (t is the angle 'etween straight cutting edge on the side of tool and the side of the shank. (t is also known as lead angle. (t is responsi'le for turning the chip away from the "nished surface. *-ii+ No$% ra'i$ (t is the nose point connecting the side cutting edge and end cutting edge. (t possesses small radius which is responsi'le for generating surface "nish on the work#piece Tool Signatr% &onvenient way to specify tool angles 'y use of a standardi!ed a''reviated system is known as tool signature or tool nomenclature. (t indicates the angles that a tool utili!es during the cut. (t speci"es the active angles of the tool normal to the cutting edge. This will always 'e true as long as the tool shank is mounted at right angles to the work#piece a%is. The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting tool can 'e stated in the following order6 Tool signature =#>#?#@#*A#*?#=.@ *. 5ack rake angle 2=B3, +. Side rake angle 2>B3, ,. 1nd relief angle 2?B3, -. Side relief angle 2@B3, A. 1nd cutting edge angle 2*AB3, ?. Side cutting edge angle 2*?B3, >. .ose radius 2=.@ mm3 TAPER TURNING METHO"S *35y a form tool. +35y setting over the tailstock. 2 L l then , workpiece the of length entire on the turned is taper the if 2 conicity X work the of length entire 2 tan tan sin purposes, practical all for small, very is taper, of anle the , angle the If sin sin : geometry From d D setover setover l d D L setover L setover L setover AB BC setover BC
= = =
= = = = = =
,35y swiveling the compound rest -35y taper turning
attachment.
THREA" TERMINOLOGY THREA" CUTTING
CUTTING SPEE" 2C3 DED.F?= MACHINING TIME 2T3 D :ength of &ut 2:3F0eed 2f3 G .o. Hf 9otation 2.3 PO!ER ESTIMATION2$.P3 D &ITT(.G 0H9&1 203 G &ITT(.G SP11D 2C3F>A TURRET IN"E.ING MECHANISM
)AR FEE" MECHANISM UNIT III MACHINE TOOLS SHAPER
Cran, an' Slott%' Lin, M%chani$m PLANER SLOTTER MILLING A machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a rotating multipoint cutter. TYPES UP/Milling or Con-%ntional Milling "o0n/Milling or Clim1 Milling
OPERATIONS
TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS
IN"E.ING AN" "I2I"ING HEA"S The dividing heads are of three types6 2*3 Plain or simple dividing head, 2+3 Iniversal dividing head and 2,3 Hptical dividing head. "RILLING Drilling is an operation of making a circular hole 'y removing a volume of metal from the 7o' 'y cutting tool called drill. A drill is a rotary end#cutting tool with one or more cutting lips and usually one or more /utes for the passage of chips and the admission of cutting /uid. A drilling machine is a machine tool designed for drilling holes in metals. TYPES 2*3 Porta'le drilling machine 2+3 Sensitive drilling machine 2a3 5ench mounting 2'3 0loor mounting 2,3 Ipright drilling machine 2a3 9ound column section 2'3 5o% column section machine 2-3 9adial drilling machine 2a3 Plain 2'3 Semi#universal 2c3 Iniversal 2A3 Gang drilling machine 2?3 Multiple spindle drilling machine 2>3 Automatic drilling machine 2@3 Deep#hole drilling machine TYPES OF "RILLS OPERATIONS PUSH3 PULL )ROACHING MACHINES GEAR CUTTING3 FORMING3 GENERATION AN" GEAR FINISHING PROCESS4 A)RASI2E PROCESSES GRIN"ING !HEEL SPECIFICATIONS AN" SELECTION TYPES OF GRIN"ING PROCESS CYLIN"RICAL GRIN"ING SURFACE GRIN"ING CENTRELESS GRIN"ING HONING LAPPING SUPER FINISHING POLISHING AN" )UFFING UNIT I2 UNCON2ENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS UNCON2ENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS CLASSIFICATION A)RASI2E 5ET MACHINING (n AJM a high velocity 7et of dry air, nitrogen or &H+ containing a'rasive particles is aimed at the work piece. The impact of the particles produces suKcient force to cut small hole or slots, de'urring, trimming and removing o%ides and other surface "lms. ULTRASONIC MACHINING (n IM the tip of the tool vi'rates at low amplitude and at high freuency. This vi'ration transmits a high velocity to "ne a'rasive grains 'etween tool and the surface of the work piece. Material removed 'y erosion with a'rasive particles. The a'rasive grains are usually 'oron car'ides. This techniue is used to cut hard and 'rittle materials like ceramics, car'ides, glass, precious stones and hardened steel. ELECTRIC "ISCHARGE MACHINING 5ased on erosion of metals 'y spark discharges. 1DM system consists of a tool 2electrode3 and work piece, connected to a dc power supply and placed in a dielectric /uid. ;hen potential di)erence 'etween tool and work piece is high, a transient spark discharges through the /uid, removing a small amount of metal from the work piece surface. This process is repeated with capacitor discharge rates of A=#A== k$!. Dielectric /uid L mineral oils, kerosene, distilled and deioni!ed water etc. role of the dielectric /uid *. acts as a insulator until the potential is suKciently high. +. acts as a /ushing medium and carries away the de'ris. ,. also acts as a cooling medium. 1lectrodes L usually made of graphite. ~ power supply o!!le "#rasive slurry $ransducer %p&down vi#ration of tool hammers the a#rasive particles against workpiece, causing cutting ~ power supply o!!le "#rasive slurry $ransducer ~ power supply o!!le "#rasive slurry $ransducer %p&down vi#ration of tool hammers the a#rasive particles against workpiece, causing cutting 1DM can 'e used for die cavities, small diameter deep holes, tur'ine 'lades and various intricate shapes. ELECTRON )EAM MACHINING Similar to :5M e%cept laser 'eam is replaced 'y high velocity electrons. ;hen electron 'eam strikes the work piece surface, heat is produced and metal is vapori!ed. Surface "nish achieved is 'etter than :5M. Ised for very accurate cutting of a wide variety of metals. LASER )EAM MACHINING (n :5M laser is focused and the work piece which melts and evaporates portions of the work piece. :ow re/ectivity and thermal conductivity of the work piece surface, and low speci"c heat and latent heat of melting and evaporation L increases process eKciency. Application # holes with depth#to# diameter ratios of A= to * can 'e drilled. e.g. 'leeder holes for fuel#pump covers, lu'rication holes in transmission hu's. ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING 9everse of electroplating An electrolyte acts as a current carrier and high electrolyte movement in the tool#work#piece gap washes metal ions away from the work piece 2anode3 'efore they have a chance to plate on to the tool 2cathode3. Tool L generally made of 'ron!e, copper, 'rass or stainless steel. 1lectrolyte L salt solutions like sodium chloride or sodium nitrate mi%ed in water. Power L D& supply of A#+A C. A'-antag%$ o& ECM Process leaves a 'urr free surface. Does not cause any thermal damage to the parts. :ack of tool force prevents distortion of parts. &apa'le of machining comple% parts and hard materials 1&M systems are now availa'le as .umerically &ontrolled machining centers with capa'ility for high production, high /e%i'ility and high tolerances. UNIT 2 CNC MACHINE TOOLS AN" PART PROGRAMMING
NUMERICAL CONTROL *NC+ MACHINE TOOLS Programma'le automation in which the mechanical actions of a Mmachine toolN are controlled 'y a program containing coded alphanumeric data that represents relative positions 'etween a work head 2e.g., cutting tool3 and a work part4 CONSTRUCTIONAL "ETAILS NC Coor'inat% S6$t%m$ For 7at an' pri$matic *1loc,/li,%+ part$( Milling and drilling operations &onventional &artesian coordinate system 9otational a%es a'out each linear a%is For rotational part$( Turning operations Hnly x# and z#a%es
Motion Control S6$t%m$ Point/to/Point $6$t%m$ Also called position systems System moves to a location and performs an operation at that location 2e.g., drilling3 Also applica'le in ro'otics Contino$ path $6$t%m$ Also called contouring systems in machining System performs an operation during movement 2e.g., milling and turning3 Int%rpolation M%tho'$ *. :inear interpolation Straight line 'etween two points in space +. &ircular interpolation &ircular arc de"ned 'y starting point, end point, center or radius, and direction ,. $elical interpolation &ircular plus linear motion -. Para'olic and cu'ic interpolation 0ree form curves using higher order euations Machin% Control Unit CNC( TYPES .umerical control 2.&3 L Data is sent to the machine tool 'y means of pnch car'$ or tap%$. The reader at the machine performs no calculations or interpolations. &omputer .umerical control 2&.&3 L The idea of computer numerical control is to po$ition a compt%r right at th% machin% tool. Most, if not all machine tools that are numericaly controlled are &.& machine tools. Direct numerical control 2D.&3 L control of multiple machine tools 'y a single 2mainframe3 computer through direct connection and in real time *O?=s technology Two way communication Distri'uted numerical control 2D.&3 L network consisting of central computer connected to machine tool M&Is, which are &.& Present technology Two way communication NC Application Charact%ri$tic$ *Machining+ 5atch and $igh Colume production 9epeat andFor 9epetitive orders &omple% part geometries Mundane operations Many separate operations on one part Co$t/)%n%8t$ o& NC &osts $igh investment cost $igh maintenance e)ort .eed for skilled programmers $igh utili!ation reuired 5ene"ts &ycle time reduction .onproductive time reduction Greater accuracy and repeata'ility :ower scrap rates 9educed parts inventory and /oor space Hperator skill#level reduced PART PROGRAMMING FUN"AMENTALS MANUAL PROGRAMMING 5inary &oded Decimal System 1ach of the ten digits in decimal system 2=#O3 is coded with four#digit 'inary num'er The 'inary num'ers are added to give the value 5&D is compati'le with @ 'its across tape format, the original storage medium for .& part programs 1ight 'its can also 'e used for letters and sym'ols Cr%ating In$trction$ &or NC 5it # = or * D a'sence or presence of hole in the tape &haracter # row of 'its across the tape ;ord # seuence of characters 2e.g., y#a%is position3 5lock # collection of words to form one complete instruction Part program # seuence of instructions 2'locks3 )loc, Format Hrgani!ation of words within a 'lock in .& part program Also known as tape format 'ecause the original formats were designed for punched tape ;ord address format # used on all modern &.& controllers Ises a letter pre"% to identify each type of word Spaces to separate words within the 'lock Allows any order of words in a 'lock ;ords can 'e omitted if their values do not change from the previous 'lock T6p%$ o& !or'$ . # Seuence num'er pre"% G # Preparatory words 1%ample6 G== D PTP rapid traverse move G, P, Q # pre"%es for x, y, and z#a%es 0 # 0eed rate pre"% S # Spindle speed T # Tool selection M # Miscellaneous command 1%ample6 M=> D turn cutting /uid on COMPUTER ASSISTE" PART PROGRAMMING ;rite machine instructions using natural language type statements Statements translated into machine code of the M&I APT 2Automatically Programmed Tool3 :anguage Sampl% Stat%m%nt$ Part is composed of 'asic geometric elements and mathematically de"ned surfaces 1%amples of statements6 P- D PH(.TF,A,O=,= :* D :(.1FP*,P+ &* D &(9&:1F&1.T19,P@,9AD(IS,,= Tool path is seuence of points or connected line and arc segments Point#to#Point command6 GHTHFP- &ontinuous path command6 GH:0TF:*,TA.TH,&*
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