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Sciences, Division of onum Kal. Septembres hora fere sep- time, was called to the terrace of his house by
Neurosurgery, tima mater mea indicat ei apparire his sister to note the enormous plume hover-
Via Sergio Pansini, 5, nubem inusitata et magnitudine et ing above the top of Mount Vesuvius to the
80131 Napoli, Italy.
Email: dediviti@unina.it
specie” (On the ninth day prior to the Kalends northeast. Plinius reassured her: “It is simply
of September [i.e., August 24th], at approxi- brushwood being burned by the shepherds
Received, July 30, 2004. mately the seventh hour [i.e., one hour after and farmers.” Because they were 15 miles
Accepted, August 6, 2004. noon], my mother pointed out to him [i.e., to away from the column of smoke, he did not
his brother, Plinius the Elder] an extraordi- realize that the smoke already rose 6500 or
nary cloud, huge and strange, that had ap- 10,000 ft into the sky. A few hours later, the
peared) (Fig. 1). In a letter that later became column had taken on the shape of a giant pine
famous (25), Plinius the Younger (AD 61–112), tree, formed by the falling vapor and ashes. It
nephew of his illustrious ancestor of the same was only then that he understood what an
name, only 17 years of age at the time but exceptional event was taking place, a natural
destined to become a brilliant lawyer and pol- event so extraordinary that it had to be wit-
itician, wrote to Tacitus, providing him with a nessed and recounted de visu. He then com-
detailed description of those dramatic hours; manded a slave to prepare a liburna, an agile
thus, this exceptional event was handed down ship with two rows of oars that was ideal for
to posterity. It was the year AD 79: Plinius the short trips. As he was about to leave the villa,
Elder (AD 23–79), naturalist and man of sci- a messenger, greatly troubled, arrived from
ence, author of the 37-volume encyclopedia the site of the event, sent to him to seek help
Naturalis Historia, and also commander of the by Rectina, the wife of Guascus, an important
imperial fleet home ported in Misenum at the personage and friend who owned a villa at the
FIGURE 1. Painting showing Plinius the Younger and his Mother at Mise-
num. Angelica Kauhffmann (1741–1807), Princeton University Museum.
among Neapolitan people: “Monday August the 9th about 9 the Younger, each successive eruption was defined as “Plin-
o’clock in the morning the mountain began to manifest itself ian.” The destruction of the cities was the subject of numerous
by violent explosion of inflamed matter from the crater [Fig. 2]. studies undertaken during archaeological excavations from
During this day’s eruption the relicts of St. Januarius [St. the 18th century on, providing a unique opportunity to study
Gennaro], protector of Naples, were carried in procession and eruptions by observing the effects of volcanic residue on man,
exposed to the furious mountain, amidst a prodigious con- flora and fauna, houses, objects used in daily life, and, finally,
course of people who are convinced that to this ceremony mosaics and paintings. What remains of Pompeii provides us
alone Naples may attribute its happy escape. But it is very with a complete picture of daily life in Campania at the time
reasonable. Tuesday August the 10th Vesuvius was quiet.” of the eruption. Visiting Pompeii, one has the feeling of actu-
The latest eruption took place in March 1944. Since then, the ally visiting the living city, learning its customs and the dis-
volcano appears to have been extinguished, its plume of tribution and type of public buildings, shops and businesses,
smoke, made famous in thousands of gouaches, finally vanish- houses, and gardens. For this reason, Pompeii has been de-
ing (Fig. 3). The mountain still preserves its charm as well as fined as “the most alive of the dead cities.” It is a city in which
its threatening appearance, although the people living near life stopped in a split second, interrupted but not destroyed.
Mount Vesuvius even now seem to have difficulty accepting This catastrophic event, a circumstance that is probably
the fact that a terrible menace looms over the area. Many small unique in the history of archaeology, has returned to human-
towns have grown up along the foothills of Mount Vesuvius, ity an entire city and its varied forms of life, which may be
including all the cities originally destroyed in AD 79. Today, observed and studied, even after almost 2000 years, by more
as in the past, there are vineyards that produce the same wine than a million people a year, all thrilled and excited by the
as 2000 years ago, the Lacrima Christi. Orchards also provide opportunity.
extraordinary fruit because the soil, also a product of the Mount Vesuvius was the absolute protagonist of the trag-
volcano, is particularly fertile and soft, divided into small edy that invested the cities nestled at its base, creating an
plots that can produce at least three bountiful crops per year. indissoluble and rare bond between mountain and city, be-
Mount Vesuvius was considered a golden mountain because cause, for many, Pompeii and Mount Vesuvius represent the
of the abundance of its products: it destroyed and created as antipodes of a single entity. Mount Vesuvius proved to be a
well as taking away and giving back. During the eruption of skilled sculptor, with its rain of ashes preserving the shape
1794, all the vineyards were destroyed, but 2 years later, the and even the wrinkles in the clothes the Pompeians were
grapes were so abundant that most of them were not har- wearing while they tried to escape during the day of the
vested because of the lack of vats (22). tragedy. The Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi calls Vesuvius the
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 had a unique sterminator Vesevo (16), towering over an enchanting gulf and
cultural impact, because it completely buried several Roman sites of unparalleled amenity, highlighting the contrast be-
cities located along the foot of the mountain (i.e., Pompeii, tween beauty and danger. René de Chateaubriand, Secretary
Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Oplontis), preserving them under- of the French Legation to the Holy See, describes his excursion
neath the ashes. It was also a highly important event for to the volcano in his Voyage au Mont-Vésuve in July 1806 (7),
science, because this was the first time volcanic activity had where he defines the coast along the gulf of Naples, sur-
been described in such great detail; after the letter of Plinius rounded by orange groves and vineyards, as Paradise viewed
from Hell.
HISTORY
Located at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, dominating the
entire valley of the Sarno River and providing a unique nat-
ural harbor for the nearby cities of the hinterland, ancient
Pompeii was an ideal site for an urban settlement. The name
probably comes from Pompe, which means “five” in the Oscan
language and refers to five villages that were joined together,
or it could come from the Greek word ⌹⑀´ , meaning “to
send” and referring to the fact that Pompeii was an important
commercial port. Thanks to its strategic geographical position,
it had always enjoyed wealth and prosperity; however, for this
same reason, it was also a highly desirable land to conquer.
Thus, it soon it became the site of a great and rapid succession
of highly developed civilizations: first, the Oscans; then, the
Etruscans; then, the Greeks; and, finally, the Romans, who
FIGURE 3. Photograph showing aerial view of the crater of mount Vesu- seized it from the Samnites, a population coming from the
vius as it appears today. mountain regions of the hinterland. The Samnites perhaps
contributed more to the economic development of Pompeii cult. The onus of repairing public structures was too heavy a
than any other civilization, increasing the splendor and wealth burden; thus, reconstruction was concentrated principally on
of the city. During the period from the 3rd to the 1st century rebuilding houses and business establishments.
BC, the Samnites made an enormous contribution to economic
development, based predominantly on agriculture, and to THE ERUPTION
town planning and the development of creative arts. Their
fortifications were enormous, as were those works intended to The incredible efforts of the people of Pompeii to rebuild
improve the quality of life of the celebrated center (6). their city turned out to be futile, because on the morning of
In 80 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla laid siege to and conquered August 24, AD 79, a cloud shaped like a pine tree was ob-
Pompeii, which then became a Roman city with a new consti- served hovering over Mount Vesuvius. The detailed descrip-
tution. Latin became the official language and Venus Pompei- tion of Plinius the Younger and modern-day static studies of
ana the tutelary goddess of the city. The name of the colony the eruptive residues have made it possible to reconstruct (3)
became Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeiorum, from the name of the various phases of the eruption that took place 2000 years
its conqueror Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the goddess Venus, ago with great accuracy, including the hours and days during
who was greatly venerated. The conquered lands were which the phenomena first became obvious. The eruption was
awarded to the veterans of Sulla who had fought with him. characterized by three principal phases: 1) the explosive and
Publius Cornelius Sulla, the nephew of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, sudden rupture of the crater, with the outpouring of white ash
was made deductor of the colony. A politician and personage toward the southeast to a distance of up to 43 miles; 2) the
of many qualities, he was responsible for the initial transfor- emergence of a tall column of thick material (Plinian phase),
mations within the Pompeian administration. It was at this frequently hurtling back to the ground and gushing along the
time that the Samnite magistrates, or meddices, were sup- sides of the volcano; and 3) the entrance of water into the
pressed. The city was governed by a senate of approximately magmatic system, forming turbulent pyroclastic flows that
100 members, the ordo centurionum centurioni; two aediles, mag- spread out radially around the volcano over more than 9 miles
istrates responsible for the monuments and the roads; and two (Fig. 4).
duumviri, high magistrates empowered with executive author- The hill that the inhabitants were accustomed to seeing as a
ity, of whom the first were two of Sulla’s legates, Gaius peaceful and serene mountain, cloaked in vineyards and
Quinctius Valgus and Marcus Portius. Under the vigilant and woodland, so loved for its lushness and fruitfulness, suddenly
wise guidance of Rome, now abounding in culture and art as awoke, burying seven centuries of history and, in one brief
well as splendor and magnificence, the Campanian colony instant, forever stopping time in Pompeii. Within the space of
developed, growing at the same pace as the capital (21). In- 48 hours from the beginning of the eruption, Pompeii, Hercu-
dustry and commerce progressed, and a renewed extraordi- laneum, Stabiae, Oplontis, Leucopetra, Boscoreale, and other
nary undertaking was begun to construct stores, shops, tem- minor centers of the area surrounding Sarno and Nocera
ples, and houses; comfort and decor permeated the city as ceased to exist. Pompeii and Stabiae were buried under more
frescoes and mosaics, gardens, and splendid atriums embel- than 23 ft of lapilli, lava, and fiery cinders, and Herculaneum
lished the houses of the people of Pompeii. was inundated by a torrent of lava (40,000 m3/s) mixed with
In AD 62, an unexpected event destabilized the socioeco- sand and ashes that buried this city under a layer almost 65 ft
nomic equilibrium of this now well-established colony (1). A high, which, once solidified, assumed the appearance of a
terrible earthquake caused serious damage to a large part of compact tuffaceous mass. Herculaneum disappeared com-
Campania and, with it, Pompeii. D. Cassius Cocceianus said: pletely, and all that remained in Pompeii were the tops of
“. . . in that occasion giants were seen wandering in the area some buildings emerging from a desolate landscape.
. . .” (in mythology, the vision of giants was associated with In the city of Pompeii, located southeast of the volcano, the
catastrophic natural events). At the time, Campania was al- pyroclastic material rapidly began to accumulate in the streets
ready known as a volcanic region, a characteristic it continues and courtyards as well as on the rooftops. Many inhabitants
to demonstrate to this day. The volcanic activity of the Campi sought refuge under roofs and balconies and inside houses
Phlegraei (⑀␥´ ), burning a region west of Mount Vesu- and buildings, whereas others fled toward the area of Nola,
vius, was already evident and is still today the site of numer- away from Vesuvius. The ensuing accumulation of pyroclastic
ous small eruptions, soffiones of boiling steam and fumaroles. material, especially the layers of pumice, trapped many, suf-
Not long after, in AD 64, there was another telluric phenom- focating them during their attempt to escape. There was prob-
enon. Suetonius, a Latin historian of the 2nd century AD and ably a brief pause between the eruptions of the Plinian phase
author of the biographies of 12 Roman emperors, narrates that, and the pyroclastic flow, and this may have deceived many
during that year, because of the earthquake, the Emperor Nero people, who probably returned to their homes to collect per-
had to suspend some theatrical performances that were to take sonal belongings and furnishings, leading to even more
place in Naples in which he was to sing, but that he did so deaths.
only after he had finished his performance in the play already The first shower of pumice barely grazed the city of Hercu-
in progress (26). The cities that suffered serious damage were laneum, located 4.3 miles west of Mount Vesuvius. The ma-
aided by the Roman Senate, but recovery was slow and diffi- jority of its inhabitants, frightened by the enormous cloud, the
yesterday verdant in the shade of the vine leaves: here the ished in an exemplary manner by public whipping with igno-
renowned grapes flowed from the press and filled casks to the miny, imprisonment, and 3 years of exile.
brim. This the mountain Bacchus loved more than Nisa: until In 1750, a fragment of an inscription extracted from the well
yesterday upon this mount the Satyrs danced. Here was the that had been excavated 41 years before by D’Elboeuf was
city of Venus [Pompeii], whom she loved more than Sparta; examined by Marcello Venuti, director of the Royal Library,
here the city whose name recalled the glory of Hercules [Her- who said he discerned the word theatrum (31). Venuti had
culaneum]. All is engulfed by flames and leaden ashes: the himself lowered to the bottom of the well by a rope; there, by
gods would have preferred not to be permitted to wreak such the light of a torch, he discovered the layout of steps and the
havoc” (19). curve of a semicircular structure. Recalling a tale of D. Cassius
Cocceianus, according to which the people of Herculaneum
had been surprised by the eruption while they were in a
History of the Excavations theater, he reported to the sovereign that this was actually the
In 1594, the architect Domenico Fontana slashed into the hill city that had been buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius
of modern Pompeii to excavate a canal to bring water from the in AD 79, an observation soon confirmed by other epigraphic
Sarno River to Torre Annunziata, known as Oplontis at the proof. This was the period that brought to light the villa of
time of the original eruption. On that occasion, the ruins of Cicero (later recovered), the villa of Diomedes, the theater, and
buildings and epigraphs were discovered, but the city itself the path of the Sepulchre.
was not recognized. Even J.W. Goethe, in Italy for his own Grand Tour in 1786
Excavations in Herculaneum were begun in 1709 by the and attracted by the beauties of Naples, went to Mount Vesu-
Austrian prince Emmanuel Maurice D’Elboeuf. He came vius and to some of the archaeological sites; however, perhaps
across the stage wall of a theater as his workers were excavat- because the excavations had not yet achieved the extraordi-
ing a well in the woods of the Alcantrine friars. The prince nary results we are familiar with today, he did not formulate
ordered the removal of the statues and the precious marble any complimentary judgments of Pompeii (“Pompeii is a sur-
that covered the walls of the stage, and these subsequently prise to all visitors for the modesty of its proportions, roads
found their way to the great museums of Europe. that are narrow though straight and with sidewalks on both
In 1748, as a result of some fortuitous discoveries, King sides. Small houses without windows, rooms connected to
Charles III of Bourbon ordered the first explorations of Pom- courtyards and to porticoes whose only light comes from the
peii, similar to those that were already in progress in Hercu- doors. Even the public buildings, such as the Bank at the
laneum. The often bitter controversies that accompanied these entrance to the city and the Temple and even a nearby villa
excavations from the beginning later led to the irrefutable seem to resemble toy models and doll displays rather than
accusations made by the famous archaeologist Winkelmann buildings”). In March 1787, however, he was stunned by the
regarding the “excavators,” among whom was the Spanish magnificence of the Greek temples of Paestum, where he
military architect Roque Joaquim de Alcubierre, who “had as tasted mozzarella, a typical cheese produced using the milk of
much to do with antiquity as the moon has with shrimps” and the buffalos native to the area and described by the writer as
who directed the excavations together with two other engi- animals “resembling hippopotami and with wild and bloody
neers, Jacob Karl Weber and Francisco La Vega (30). The goal eyes” (11).
of the excavation, assigned to engineers often in conflict with Excavations proceeded slowly under the Bourbons, with the
each other and lacking an actual program of research, was to aim of enriching the Bourbon Museum of Naples rather than
extract from the ground and assemble the objects found in of classifying the ruins and placing them into a historical
archaeological sites; the sites were then covered up once again. context. Many men of culture who were involved in the po-
The objects were to enrich the Bourbon Museum of Naples, litical debate of the period, including the Neapolitan followers
now the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, built by Charles of of the Enlightenment, clearly disapproved of this method of
Bourbon. Horace Walpole, son of the Whig English Prime conducting the excavations. This was the result of harsh and
Minister, in Naples as part of his Grand Tour, remarked: “The continuous confrontations between the conservatives and the
work is unhappily under the direction of Spaniards, people of supporters of renewal, as exemplified by the statement: “Vous
no taste or erudition, so that the workmen dig as chance êtes des charlatains, messieurs les antiquaires!” Thus, Charles
directs them.” Notwithstanding, the sovereign deluded him- Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, reproached a dear
self into believing that he was supervising the works from the friend in the antique business in a letter dated November 9,
palace and continued to use Alcubierre, who was justly cen- 1751. The irony of the writer of L’esprit des lois was directed not
sured by more cultured and farsighted persons. The king was only to the manias of antiquarians in general but also referred
also a jealous custodian of anything that was extracted and to their methods, aimed at the discovery of individual objects
claimed as exclusive privilege not only any fragment of antiq- rather than a faithful reconstruction of the complex historical
uity but the right of reproduction and design. The extreme experience that those objects represented. The esprit philos-
harshness of the royal penalty fell on five inhabitants of Res- ophique of that period condemned any cultural undertaking
ina, who confessed under torture to the crime of having stolen that was not socially useful. It also expressed the concept that
three clay lanterns and one of bronze. The misdeed was pun- the cult of ancient objects conceived the human condition to
Public Buildings
At the intersection of the two main roads or its immediate
vicinity was the Forum Civile, a long rectangular square paved
in travertine and enclosed on two sides by columned porticoes
on two levels. Dominated on the north by the Temple of
Jupiter, the forum was the center of religious, political, and
commercial life, with the most important public buildings
located around it according to a repetitive scheme similar to
the layout of many Roman cities throughout the world. The
forum was the Greek 〈´ ␣´ , the fulcrum of the urban system
and of city life (Fig. 10). This vast porticoed rectangular area,
with public buildings along three sides, set the scene for most
political and religious activities, business meetings, and lei-
sure time. Carts were forbidden from entering the area, and
the square was surrounded by more than 100 blocks contain-
ing buildings in which all the urban, public, religious, lay,
residential, and commercial functions took place. At the back
of the square, to the north, was the Temple of Jupiter, built in
the 2nd century BC; after the founding of the Roman colony in
the year 80 BC, it was transformed into the Capitolium and
dedicated to the cult of the Capitoline triad (Jupiter, Juno, and
Minerva). Along the western side were located the horreum
FIGURE 9. Photograph showing the Via dell’Abbondanza connecting the (public granary), the treasury, and the mensa ponderaria (i.e.,
area of the forum with the Porta Sarno (3rd century BC). weighing tables that made use of standard-capacity measures
and were supervised by special magistrates to prevent any
fraud by shopkeepers; a total of 12 units of measurement were
certain degree of accuracy: what the people of Pompeii did in used). To the south were the buildings used by the public
their leisure time in the thermae, the theatrum, and the amphi- administration: the buildings of the duumviri, the aediles, and
theatrum. Life there was lived at a frenetic pace, with constant the curia (municipal council). On the eastern side was the
bustle in streets filled with persons going about their business, eumachia, headquarters of the fullones guild (manufacturers
buying and selling, or working in the numerous craft shops of and washers of woolen fabrics), and the macellum (Fig. 11), the
the city, whereas many others would be found eating in the food market. The basilica, also located along the square, was
numerous thermopolia. Frescoes, mosaics, and statues recon- used for business dealings and for the administration of jus-
struct even the sexual habits of its people with naturalness and tice. This was the meetingplace for businessmen and was used
simplicity. Customs were free of any prejudices, and there by lawyers to meet with their clients. The graffiti in the Oscan
were absolutely no taboos regarding sexual proclivity (28). language found written along the walls and the seal Ni Pupie
The people of Pompeii were open-minded on the subject of (Numerius Pupidius, Samnite magistrate) place this building
sex, considering it an important part of daily life and an among the oldest examples of this style. Next to the forum is
activity to be carried out with extreme lack of constraint. the Temple of Isis (Fig. 12), a cult imported from Egypt,
Sexual habits that we may today view as perversions were containing a small subterranean cavity used to preserve the
practiced openly because they were considered as fulfilling sacred water of the River Nile and a large room in the back of
practical and earthly needs, granted through the benevolence the temple that served as a meeting place for the numerous
of Venus, the protectress of the city. There are sexual symbols worshippers of this cult.
and scenes everywhere: graffiti or paintings on the walls of the At the crossroad of the main roads were located the thermae
thermae and in the lupanar depict the most varied of sexual suburbanae (Fig. 13), the suburban thermal baths, arranged on
positions and services, and phalluses of varying size and two levels and connected by an internal stairway (14). The
shape are found at the entrance of many homes and business steam issuing from the water heated in huge tanks circulated
establishments because they were symbols of plenty as well as through the classical premises by means of cavities in the
being useful as doorbells. Inside many houses, frescoes or walls and in the floors. The lower level was the actual thermal
statues representing Priapus, the god of fecundity and abun- area and contained the apodyterium (dressing rooms) (Fig. 14),
dance, always with extraordinary attributes, welcomed every- the frigidarium (cold baths), the tepidarium (premises with a
one who entered. There is even a phallus sculpted into a moderate temperature), the laconicum (a small room for steam
FIGURE 13. Photograph showing the thermae suburbanae. The thermal FIGURE 15. Photograph showing the amphitheatrum. In the back-
complex was built in the early imperial age and is found outside the city ground is Mount Vesuvius.
walls.
ded in the mountain, this is the oldest Roman amphitheater in
existence. Although it did not have the structural and con-
struction complexity of the later imperial amphitheaters, it
was sufficiently large to accommodate 20,000 spectators. In
AD 59, this amphitheater became the site of a terrible fight
between the Pompeians and Nocerians (27) that took place
during the course of an exhibition of gladiators organized by
Livinius Regulus. The citizens of Nocera and Pompeii began
to trade insults, which led to rock throwing and then sword
thrusts, finally ending up with a great number of wounded
and dead. The Emperor delegated the Roman Senate to inves-
tigate, which, in turn, delegated the Consuls, who suspended
all performances in Pompeii for 10 years and condemned
Livinius and the instigators of the riot to exile. Next to the
FIGURE 14. Photograph showing the thermae suburbanae with apo- great amphitheater is the gymnasium, surrounded by a portico,
dyterium (wooden boards for clothing). On the top floor were some erotic with a swimming pool at its center. According to the plentiful
paintings without any decorative function (perhaps sexual performances graffiti found there, this is where the gladiators trained for
by the slaves).
their performances.
area covered with porticoes to shelter the public when it
rained, could contain up to 5000 persons. The steps, or cavea, Commercial Establishments
in the shape of a horseshoe, were divided into three zones: the All along the streets of the city, stores and shops occupied
lower or ima cavea, in marble, was reserved for the decurions the premises on the ground floor of the buildings, many
and citizens who had served their country; a balustrade dec- transformed to this use only during the final years of Pompeii
orated with the claws of the winged griffin separated the ima when the mercantile class became more fully developed. In
from the media and the summa cavea, reserved for the general their single ground floor premises, some of the shops also had
public. Usually, the performances consisted of the plays of a mezzanine, usually made of wood, used as a residence for
Plautus or Terentius; popular farces in Oscan, the Atellanae; the shopkeepers. This functional scheme is still visible in many
and mimes and pantomimes accompanied by dances and of the shops in southern Italy to this day. At times, the shops
music. The duumviri Gaius Quinctius Valgus and Marcus Por- opened onto the sidewalk, with a small wooden portico pro-
tius, both lieutenants of Sulla, built the amphitheatrum (Fig. 15) viding shelter from the sun and used to display merchandise.
around the year 80 BC at their own expense. Partially embed- At the entrance to the shops was a long stone counter covered
dium (lunch) outside the home. This type of eating establish- Samnites, with their influence still felt even after 4 centuries of
ment, a sort of “fast food restaurant,” could provide a hot meal progressive Romanization. The style of the houses varied accord-
that could be eaten while remaining in the street, through a ing to the social status of the owner. Wealthy aristocrats, land-
wide opening in the premises, or while going inside, to the owners, fenatores (bankers), forenses (lawyers), and the nobiles
rooms in the back. The structure had a masonry counter in (nobility) lived in luxurious homes having a surface area of 4842
which were embedded the dolia, containing the merchandise. to 32,280 sq ft, mostly situated in the regio VI. In Italic style, these
In one of these containers was found a number of coins were later enlarged with peristilia (gardens), triclinia (dining
weighing approximately 3 kg and valued at 680 cesterces, rooms), and oeci (salons), for example, with enchanting hanging
perhaps the income of the day, given the enormous quantity terraces overlooking splendid panoramas. The house was de-
of change (374 aces and 1237 quadrants). signed specifically with receptions and banquets in mind, be-
The graffiti written on the doors of different buildings identify cause this class was accustomed to providing “. . . atria et perys-
numerous craft shops, each having a different specialty, indicat- tilia amplissima, silvae ambulationesque laxiores . . . praeterea
ing the high level of efficiency that existed in Pompeii at the time bybliothecas, pinacothecas . . . quod in domus eorum saepius et publica
of the earthquake. On the majority of the entrances to commercial consilia et privata iudicia arbitraque conficiuntur . . .” (. . . wide atri-
establishments hung the tintinnabula, which had the dual func- ums and peristyles, ample gardens and porticoes . . . libraries and
tion of warning of the entry of a customer and keeping away the art galleries . . . for their homes were often used for public coun-
evil eye (apotropaic function, from the Greek ␣´ ´ ␣ cils as well as for private arbitrations . . .) (29). The more modest
[keeping away the evil]). The writing of the words faber ferrarius and less wealthy class of freedmen, artisans, and businessmen
Iunianus indicated a hardware store, where horse bits, common lived typically in smaller houses ranging in size from approxi-
keys, falces vinitoriae (small scythes for the vineyards), and four mately 1291 to 3765 sq ft. The rooms were grouped around a
sets of compedes (fetters for slaves) were found. Another example central covered atrium or around a garden enclosed by a retain-
of graffiti read quactiliari rogant (the felt workers recommend); to ing wall called a viridarium. Wall and floor decor was less luxu-
the left of the entry to this shop was a Pompeian Venus laden rious even though rather elegant at times. The third type of
with jewels and cloaked in felt. The shop of the lignarius, or residence, called a house-shop or simply shop, was usually 215 to
woodworker, had a bas-relief of a phallus at the entrance to 538 sq ft in size, with a room behind the shop or a loft built above
protect against the evil eye. In the shop of a pottery maker called the shop area called a pergula that could be reached by a wooden
Zosimus, which sold the vasa faecaria (i.e., containers for garum stair. This latter type of residence was considered quite humble:
sauce) among other things, six containers with residue of the habitare in pergula meant living in a hovel “. . . hic qui pergula natus
sauce still inside were found. In the officina lanifricaria, which est, aedes non somniatur . . .” (he who is born in a hovel, dreams
specialized in shearing and wool making, graffiti indicate the not of palaces) (23).
best period to shear sheep—between the spring equinox and the The names assigned to the houses by the excavators during
summer solstice (March 21–June 22) and preferably during the the various eras followed different criteria. If the name of the
waning moon. The officina infectoria, with the graffiti infectores owner was found on a bronze seal or on wall graffiti, that was
rogant (dyers suggest), contained recommendations on how to the name assigned to the house (e.g., House of the Vettii), the
keep colors bright. name may refer to an important object discovered in the house
(e.g., House of the Faun, House of the Golden Bracelet), or the
name may refer to a painting found therein (e.g.,Villa of the
The Home Mysteries, Villa of the Ship Europa).
Almost two-thirds of the urban area of Pompeii was occupied The domus italica had a number of rooms used principally to
by private homes. The city of Pompeii provides an excellent meet physical requirements, such as bedrooms, toilets, kitch-
opportunity to study the private residence in all its aspects and ens, and dining rooms, all located alongside the spaces re-
through the entire period of Pompeii’s social and historical de- served for the family’s social and cultural activities (17). These
velopment, lasting more than 4 centuries, from the 3rd to 4th spaces were either covered, as in the case of the atrium (Fig.
century BC to the 1st century AD. Because the different types of 18), or open, as in the peristilium (Fig. 19). The most popular,
construction refer to distinctly different eras, it is possible to the atrium-style house, consisted of a central nucleus, the
determine the date of the initial construction of a building as well atrium, with a roof having an opening in the center to allow
as all subsequent renovations and/or transformations. Pompeii rain water to flow into a tank called an impluvium. Linked
provides us with a rare and precise anthology of the domus, around the atrium were the various rooms for the family and
whose basic scheme was established by the Samnites. The Sam- servants, and in the back was a large area used partly as an
nite era is characterized by the opus incertum and by constructions orchard or vegetable garden and partly as a flower garden. At
of tufa stone. The constructions dating to the first Roman period, the entrance to the house and to many of the commercial
on the other hand, consist of small square blocks with an octag- establishments was a lararium, the private oratory of the Ro-
onal grid placement, whereas brick was introduced during final mans or chapel used to worship the Lares, the household gods
Roman period. Through the centuries, each invading population who protected the house and the family. The well-preserved
transplanted to Pompeii its own customs and culture, but of all lararium of the House of the Vettii was inserted in an aedicule;
the invasions, the people that left the greatest imprint were the in the middle was the Genius of the owner, and laterally were
FIGURE 20. Fresco in the House of the Vettii showing the Genius (spirit) of
the household in the center, the Lares (protectors) laterally, and the Agatode-
mon (good snake) at the bottom. The lararium is located in an aedicula.
The atrium was often embellished with columns, and the gar-
den was adorned with fountains and statues. Private rooms
for women only (the gynaeceum), rooms for conversation (the
exedrae), and private thermal baths (the balneum) were created.
From the 2nd century BC, this model underwent a Hellenic
influence, whereby one or more peristyles were added in the
rear, the area previously used as an orchard or garden.
The garden was the heart and center of the house, where the
family would eat, pray, work, and relax. The older houses also
had fruit and walnut trees, underneath which vegetables were
grown. In modern houses, the gardens were more ornamental,
with lawns, berries, viburnums, laurel, oleanders, and roses.
Initially, the garden, or hortus, simply had the function of
providing food and was the responsibility of the lady of the
house: “. . . Haec cura feminae dicebatur . . .” (24). In time, how-
ever, the garden assumed a more architectural aspect and was
placed under the responsibility of a topiarius, the master gar-
FIGURE 19. Perspective drawing demonstrating reconstruction scheme dener. The old hortus was now transformed into a place of
and section of a peristilium-type house (from, “Pompei e gli architetti prestige to be used for rest, amusement, and receptions, and it
francesi dell’800”; catalog of the exhibition, Naples, 1981).
was adorned and enriched with swimming pools, statues, and
paintings. Naturally, there was also a nymphaeum, a place of
the Lares, together with the Agatodemon (the good snake) (Fig. meditation, where water was the dominant element.
20) as opposed to the Kakodemon (the evil snake). The Agato- Some of the houses uncovered in Pompeii are especially sig-
demon was represented by the Greeks with a crowned head nificant: the House of the Faun takes its name from a small
and a tail with a lotus flower. In the lararium of the thermopo- bronze statue of a dancing faun. The house occupies an entire
lium, Mercurius, god of commerce and profit, and Dionysus, block and was the largest and most luxurious villa in the Pompeii
god of wine, are represented together with the Lares (Fig. 21). of the Samnite era. In addition to numerous valuable paintings, it
This design was so practical that the Romans did not change contained a floor mosaic representing Alexander the Great de-
it for hundreds of years. The only changes they made involved feating the Persian king Darius at the peak of the Battle of Issus
simple additions to the domus to increase the service rooms. (333 BC), now visible in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale of
FIGURE 24. Fresco in the Villa of the Mysteries showing the second part
of the great painting.
FIGURE 27. Fourth style. Fresco showing mythological scenes in the tri-
clinium of the House of the Vettii.
FIGURE 26. Second style. Frescoed door demonstrating trompe l’oeil. The lime-
containing amphorae testify to the work in progress to repair the damage caused by
the earthquake of AD 64 to the vestibulum of the house of C.J. Polibius.
years of this city, the paintings are also more numerous. Typical
of this period is the House of the Vettii (Fig. 27) (2).
All four styles are in total harmony with the common idea
of placing illustrations on masonry, with an imaginary depth
that is the basis for future drawings in perspective. Apart from
any stylistic classification, there are also numerous paintings
of popular subjects depicting the environment and the social
customs, including, in particular, the paintings of the Lares,
scenes of sex in the lupanarii and thermae, scenes in inns, and
depictions of fights in the amphitheatrum.
Among Pompeians was diffused the habit to represent with
splendid masks characters sometimes human and sometimes myth-
ological. These were found in numerous frescoes, which, unlike
Christian painting, were never painted on walls of churches or
temples but mainly in private houses and villas (Figs. 28 and 29).
Pompeii, one among the best-preserved ancient cities, today
represents a rich field of study and investigation for scientists. FIGURE 28. Fresco on a wall of the oecus in the House of the Golden
The excavations were initiated under the Bourbon king and Bracelet showing a mask.
are still at the height of their course; scientists tend to believe
that only 30% of the city has been unearthed. This city, to- urbanists, volcanologists, geologists, paleopathologists, and
gether with other cities of the Mount Vesuvius area, represents other experts. Buried, together with other cities, between Au-
one of the most famous models for historians, archaeologists, gust 24 and 25, AD 79, Pompeii remained sealed under the
ished world in all its past splendor, with its artwork openly
divulging the details of its public life, the secrets of its private
life, and even the mysteries of its religious rites (22).
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