Medieval India

The period from the 8th to 12th century in political life in India is particularly dominated
by the presence of large number of states. The bigger ones tried to establish their
supremacy in northern India and the Deccan. The main contenders in this struggle for
supremacy were the Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. In the south the most
powerful kingdom to emerge during this period was that of the Cholas. The Cholas
brought about the political unification of large parts of the country but the general
political picture was that of fragmentation particularly in northern India. It was in this
period that India's contact with the new religion of Islam began. The contacts began late
in the 7th century through the Arab traders.
Later in the early 8th century the Arabs conquered Sind. In the 10th century the Turks
emerged as a powerful force in Central and West Asia and carved out kingdoms for
themselves. They conquered Persia but their lives were richly influenced by Persian
culture and tradition. The Turks first invaded India during the late 10th and early 11th
century and Punjab came under Turkish rule. Another series of Turkish invasions in the
late 12th and early 13th century led to the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi.
Within a few centauries after the rise of Islam in Arabia it became the second most
popular religion in India with followers in every part of the country.
The establishment of the Sultanate marked the beginning of a new phase in the history
of medieval India. Politically it led to the unification of northern India and parts of the
Deccan for almost a century. Its rulers almost from the time of the establishment of the
Sultanate succeeded in separating it from the country from which they had originally
come. The sultanate disintegrated towards the end of the 14th century leading to the
emergence of a number of kingdoms in different parts of the country. Some of these like
Bahmani and Vijaynagar kingdoms became very powerful. In society new social groups -
the Turks, the Persians, the Mongols and the Afghans besides the Arabs who had settled
in India. There were important changes in economic life also. Trade and crafts received a
stimulus and many new towns arose as centres of administration, trade and crafts. New
elements of technology were also introduced during this period.
Administration


The kingdom was divided into a central region directly ruled by the king and many areas
or fiefs were governed by feudal lords. The central region was divided into bhuktis or
rashtras which were under viceroys, vishayas under vishayapatis and finally villages
under grama patis. The village self-government weakened during this period due to the
domination of the feudal chiefs while at the same time it was best under the Cholas in
the south India.
The army consisted of royal retainers or the personal army of the king and the
contingents supplied by feudal lords. This was the main reason for the lack of unity in
the armies of the rulers of this period. The military service became the monopoly of
Rajputs.
Taxation during this period was heavier compared to earlier times. This was mainly due
to heavy expenditure over the royal householdand the court. There was also fighting all
around for suzerainty. The burden was laid on the general public.
There was no clear instructions for maintain justice. In the Bhuktis there was a
dandanayaka who was in charge of justice, police and prison. There is no mention of any
other officer. It is likely that most of the cases were settled by caste and village
panchayats.
Some feudal chiefs were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but
by assigning to them revenue-bearing villages. Others were defeated kings and their
supporters who continued to enjoy the revenues of limited areas. Some were tribal
chiefs.Some of them were village chiefs who had dominated the entire region.
There was a definite hierarchy among these chiefs. They constantly fought against each
other for supremacy.
Society


The caste system formed the basis of the society as in earlier periods but now the
kshatriyas and the Brahmins were given more privileges while more and more social and
religious disabilities were placed on the sudras and other lower castes. A large number of
sub castes such as potters, weavers, goldsmiths, musicians etc proliferated. They were
classified as jatis now. Most of the workers were classified as untouchables. Women
continued to be denied the right to education. The age of marriage for girls was further
lowered. They were kept in seclusion and their lives were regulated by the male relations
fathers, brothers and husbands. The practice of sati seems to have spread widely and
was made even obligatory at some places. The custom of sati was widespread in the
higher castes.
The attitude of higher classes became very rigid. They tended to isolate themselves
fromall scientific thought. Buddhism almost disappeared from the land of its origin.
There was a marked revival and expansion of Hindusim.There was a growing popularity
of Shiva and Vishnu cults. A number of popular movements arose around the worship of
these gods. In the eastern India, a new form of worship arose. This was the worship of
Sakti or female creator of the universe.
Economy


A very important development of the period was the rise of a self-sufficient village
economy where production was according to the local requirements with little attempts
at producing a surplus to be used for trade or exchange. This existing system led to
accepting the standard of minimum production since the incentive to improve production
was absent. As a result pressure on peasantry was increased and production stayed at a
subsistence level only.
The subsistence economy of the village led to decline in trade. Trade was further
hampered by the emergence of wide range of local weights and measures making long
distance trade more difficult. The unstable political conditions and internal fighting in
India only helped this process of decline in trade.
This decline in trade affected the growth of towns. In coastal areas and Bengal towns
however prospered because they continued to trade with West Asia and South East Asia.
The only prosperous class in north India during this period was feudal lords. But the
surplus wealth was not invested in trade or craft production. It was on the other hand
used for conspicuous consumption. The huge amounts were given to temples also thus
attracting outsiders.

Literature in Medieval Period


In the early medieval period in northern India, Sanskrit continued to be the language of
literature. This is the period of the works of two writers in Kashmir-Somadevas Katha-
sarit sagar and Kalhanas Rajataringini.Rajataringini is a work of great importance as
this is first historical work in India. Another famous work of this period is Gitagovinda by
Jayadeva.It is one of the finest poems in Sanskrit literature.
One of the earliest works in an early form of Hindi was Prithviraj Raso by Chandbardai.It
is a work on heroic deeds of Prithviraj Chauhan.
Another important Sanskrit work of this period is Bilhanas Vikramankadeva-Charita a
biography of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI.
This period also saw development in Dravidian languages.Nripatunga wrote a great work
of poetry in Kannada called the Kavirajamarga.Pampa wrote the Adipurana and
Vikramarjuna- Vijaya with the former dealing with the life of the first Jain tirthankara
and latter based on the Mahabharata.Ponna wrote the Shantipurana, a legendary history
of the 16th tirthankara.Another great Kannada writer was Ranna a contemporary of
Pampa and Ponna.
Two of the famous works are the Ajitapurana and Gadayuddha.Kamban wrote the Rama
a contemporary of Pampa and Ponna.Two of the famous works are the Ajitapurana and
Gadayuddha.Kamban wrote the Ramayanam in Tamil.This was the period of the
composition of the great hymns of the Alvars and the Nayanars. The hymns of the Alvars
are collected into the Nalayira- Divyanam in Tamil. This was the period of the
composition of the great hymns of the Alvars and the Nayanars. The hymns of the Alvars
are collected into the Nalayira- Divya Prabandham. Some of the Nayanar works are the
Thiruvasagam,the Thirumanairam and Thiruttondattogai.
The Delhi Sultanate saw great advancement in the growth of Indian languages and
literature.Braj Bhasha and Khari Boli began to be used in literary compositions.The
famous Rajasthani ballad Alha Udal and the Vishaldeo Raso belong to this period.Mulla
Daud wrote the oldest poem in Awadhi language called Chandayana.
Persian was the court language of the Sultanate.A very notable contribution of the Turks
was in the field of historical literature in Persian.There were many historians in this
period.Ziauddin Barani wrote the Tarikh-i- Firozshahi which gives a detailed account of
Khaljis and Tughlaqs. He also wrote a work on political theory called the Fatawa-i-
Jahandari.
The most outstanding literary figure in this period was Amir Khusrau.He was a
poet,historian,mystic and composer of music. He was also a disciple of Nizamuddin
Auliya.He wrote the Ashiqa,the Nuh Siphir ,the QiranalSadayan,the Khazain-ul- Futuh
and several works of poetry.
The regional kingdoms provided a great stimulus to regional languages and
literature.There were two main forms of Hindi in this period- Bhojpuri and Awadhi.Kabir
wrote in Bhojpuri and his dohas or couplets have become a part of the folklore.Malik
Muhammad Jayasi wrote the Padmavat in Awadhi.The famous Ramacharitmanas by
Tulsidas was also written in Awadhi in this period.Qutban a disciple of the sufi saint
Shaikh Burhan wrote the Mrigavati. In Bengali the Ramayana by Krittivasa and the
hundreds of lyrics by the famous poet Chandidas were written under the patronage of
the rulers. With Chaitanya the tradition of writing devotional songs began.Narasi Mehta
wrote devotional songs in Gujarati and Namdev and Eknath in Marathi.
Under king Krishnadeva Raya,telugu literature reached new heights.He was Telugu and
Sanskrit writer.He wrote the Vishnuchittiya.The other famous poets in his court were
Allasani Peddana who wrote the Manucharita.Dhurjati wrote the Kalahasti Mahatamya. In
Mughal India,Babbar was one of the pioneers of Turkish poetry and also author of
biography in Turkish Babar nama.Gulbadan Begum sister of Humayun wrote the
Humayun Nama.Jahangir wrote his autobiography the Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri.Aurangzeb also
was a prolific writer and the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was a notable
Urdu poet.
Hindi literature made a significant progress during Akbars reign.Tulsidas ,Keshavdas
wrote on themes of love.Rahims dohas or couplets are extremely popular to this
day.This was a period of many writings in Persian language.Abu Fazl wrote the Ain-i-
Akbari and the Akbar Nama.Akbar had started a whole department for translation of
works like Mahabharata,the Ramayana the Atharva veda,the Bhagvad Gita and the
Panchtantra.Some of the historians of this period were Abdul Hamid Lahori,Khafi
Khan,Muhammad Kazim amd Sujan Rai Bandhari.
One of the most significant developments during the medieval period was the birth of
the Urdu language. This new language soon developed one of the richest literatures in
the world.It produced great poets like Wali, Mir Dard,Mir Taqi Mir,Nazir
Akbarabadi,Asadullah Khan Ghalib etc.Urdu prose also developed early in the 18th
century when the translation of most of the historical works from Persian and Sanskrit
into Urdu began.At the same time many original works in Urdu were written like
Muhammad Hussain Azads Darbar-i- Akbari.The Urdu novel was one of the earliest to
develop in the Indian languages.

Importance of Sher Shah Suri and Sur Dynasty


Surs had founded the Second Afghan Empire in India. They introduced a new concept of
sovereignty and effected a reorientation of a political institution.
But the importance of Surs lies principally in having produced SherShah who by virtue of
his conquests and administrative reforms earned for himself a place of honor among the
rulers and empire-builders of India. His administrative machinery with slight
modifications was adopted by Akbar and his successors as the basis of their government.
Shershah was the first Muslim sovereign who placed before himself the ideal of
promoting public welfare without distinction of caste or creed. Secondly he sought to
organize the Afghans in such a manner that their defects might gradually wear off and
their sovereignty might acquire permanence. He wanted to strengthen the defence of the
frontiers so effectively that the restoration of the Mughals by invasion from without or by
rebellion within should become possible.
Sher Shahs government was as autocratic as that of Balban or Alauddin but he got it
approved by the Afghan assembly itself. Thus his despotism rested on a democratic
foundation. Besides his versatile genius and indefatigable industry enabled him not only
to lay down the general policy of all departments but also to superintend and control its
execution in detail in day to day administration. He seems to have begun with the last
rung of the administrative ladder the village and had worked up to the pargana and the
sarkar level but failed to find time for touching up the provincial and central government.
But he could not make much headway in provincial or central government.
Sher Shahs land revenue policy protected the interests both of the peasant and
the landlord. He tried to prevent exploitation of the peasant but at the same time he did
not completely abolish the traditional rights of the muqaddams and the assignees.He
seems to have been conscious of the evils of the jagirdari system and yet he could not
dispense with it everywhere lest it might cause discontent among the Afghan leaders.
Merits of Sher Shah lies in introducing a permanent schedule of rates defining the
mutual rights and obligations of the peasant and the state through patta and qabuliyat
adopting measurement as the normal method of assessment and in harmonious
adjustment of the interests of all parties concerned.
To improve means of communication in theEmpire,old roads were repaired and new
ones laid out. At intervals of four miles sarais were built which soon became the nuclei of
new market towns. Sher Shah made separate provision for supplying food and water to
Hindu and Muslim wayfarers. Sher Shah planned these roads to connect the capital with
the various provinces of the empire so that in case of necessity troops might be rapidly
rushed to the affected region. The sarais served as convenient camping grounds for the
military forces especially when a market town grew up around it. The sarais was used as
dak-chaukis where harkaras and mounted news carriers were posted for carrying news
to the next sarais both up and down the road.
The Afghans dominated politics from 1451 to 1555 and during this period they did a
number of remarkable things. They put an end to the anarchy which had come in the
wake of the weak rule of the later Tughlaqs and the Sayyads and strove to build up a
strong centralised government.
Independent kingdoms of Malwa, Jaunpur and Bengal had ended and nobles of the
central region were made amenable to discipline and obedience.
The Afghans introduced a new ideal of government and instead of autocratic domination
of the nobles they tried to govern in collaboration with them. In cooperation with the
Hindus they tried to found a government based on national solidarity. They were patrons
of men of learning and piety.
They made administration of justice more efficient and improved the lot of the
peasantry. In establishing internal peace and security they made the people shoulder a
part of the responsibility which made them self-reliant and imparted stability to the
government.

Art and Architectural in Medieval India

The coming of the Turks inaugurated a new erain the history of Indian architecture, the Turks
brought with them architectural ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. They came into
contact with the traditions that had already been developed in India. The interaction of these two
traditions resulted in a new synthesis of architectural styles. The rulers of the Sultanate were great
patrons of architecture and under them the process of synthesis started. It continued with many
regional variations in the different kingdoms. During the Mughal period the flowering of this
synthesis took place and some of the greatest monuments of India were built. Based on the
interaction of the two traditions a unique Indian style of architecture was developed in this period.
Main features of Islamic architecture
The Mosque consisted of a large rectangular open courtyard surrounded by arcades on all four
sides. The mehrab which faces Mecca indicates the direction to the prayer. The call to the worship
was made from a tall tower or minaret. In some mosques there were many minerats. Another
characteristic feature was the arch in the gateway and other places. The dome was another
prominent feature of the mosque and the mausoleum. The chief decorative element was
sculpturing the building with geometrical designs and lettering in calligraphic style. Some of these
features were new to Indian architecture. The ancient Indian buildings were decorated with
beautiful carving and sculpture while the Muslim buildings were marked by simplicity and lack of
adornment. When the new buildings began to be erected the two styles were gradually synthesized
into a new and unique style.
Composite culture in Medieval India

Culturally medieval period marks the beginningof new stage in the growth of India's
composite culture. It saw the introduction of new features in art and architecture of India
and their diffusion to all parts of the country. The architecture that developed during this
period was the result of the synthesis of the traditions of Central Asia and Persia with the
pre-existing Indian styles. During the 15th and 16th centauries distinctive styles of art
and architecture also developed in the regional kingdoms which had emerged with the
disintegration of the Sultanate.
During this time notable advances were made in the development of languages and
literature. Two new languages-Arabic and Persian became a part of India's linguistic
heritage. Historical writings for the first time became an important component of Indian
literature. Under the influence of Persian, new forms of literature such as the ghazal
were introduced. The period saw two great religious movements. The Bhakti movement
spread throughout the country.
It disapproved religious narrow-mindedness, superstitions and observance of formal
rituals. The Bhakti saints condemned caste inequalities and laid stress on human
brotherhood. The other was Sufi movement. The Sufis or the Muslim mystics preached
the message of love and human brotherhood. These two movements played a leading
role in combating religious exclusiveness and narrow -mindedness and in bringing the
people of all communities together. Sikhism began to emerge as a new religion based on
the teachings of Guru Nanak and other saints. The growth of a composite culture
reached its highest point under the Great Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries. The
Mughals built an empire which once again brought about the political unification of a
large part of the country.
Akbar the greatest Mughal Emperor followed the policy of Sulhkul (peace with all).
Some of the finest specimen of Indian architecture and literature belong to this period. A
new significant art form was painting which flourished under the patronage of the
Mughal court. Influenced by the Persian traditions the Mughal painting developed into a
distinct Indian style. It later spread to other parts of the country in various regional
styles. Another significant development was the emergence of a new language Urdu
which became the lingua franca of the people of the towns in many parts of the country.

Architecture under the Sultanate


The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the local designers and craftsmen who were
among the most skilful in the world. The new fusion that started to take place avoided
the extreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavish decoration of the earlier
Indian architecture. Among the first buildings to be erected were the mosques at Delhi
and Ajmer by Qutbddin Aibak. The mosque built in Delhi was called the Quwwatul Islam
mosque. It measured about 70x30 meters. The central arch of this mosque which is
decorated with beautiful sculptured calligraphy still stands and is about 17 meters high
and about 7 metres wide. The successor of Qutbuddin Iltutmish was a great builder. He
further extended the mosque. He also completed the building of the Qutb Minar which
had been started by Qutbuddin and now stood in the extended courtyard of the
mosque.
This is a tower rising to a height of about 70 meters and is one of the most renowned
monuments of India. The next important buildings belong to the reign of Alauddin Khalji.
He enlarged the Quwwatul Islam mosque still further and built a gateway to the
enclosure of the mosque, the Alai Darwaza. Decorative element was introduced to
beautify the building. He also started building a minar which was designed to be double
the height of Qutb Minar but the project remained unfulfilled. The Tughlaqs concentrated
on the building of new cities in Delhi like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah and Ferozabad. A
number of buildings was erected which differed in their style from the earlier buildings.
Massive and strong structures like the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and the walls of
Tughlaqabad were built. The buildings of the Tughlaq period were significant from
the point of view of the development of architecture. They were not beautiful but
massive and very impressive.
Mughal Architecture


The process of synthesis was completed under the Mughals and the new architecture
which had started taking shape with the establishment of the Sultanate reached the
pinnacle of glory. Babar and Humayun the first two Mughal kings erected a number of
buildings with the help of Persian architects and these now in ruins are not very
impressive. Humayun had to flee the country in the face of the rising power of the
Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri. There was a short Afghan rule before Humayun recovered
the Indian territories for the Mughals. The most important buildings is the mausoleum of
Sher Shah at Sasaram. It is well-proportioned building and stands in the middle of a
tank.
The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. The first important building of
Akbar's reign is Humayun's tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent tomb the Persian influence
is very strong particularly in the construction of the dome. Indian builders used stone
and marble. The two significant features of the Mughal architecture are the large
gateways and the placement of the building in the midst of the large park. The tomb
provided many architectural ideas for the building of the Taj Mahal later. Akbar also built
the forts of Agra and Lahore. He built his palace within the Agra fort. Many new buildings
were constructed in the fort and old ones altered by his successors. For the first time
living beings -elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets.
The crowning achievement of the reign of Akbar was the building of his new capital at
Fatehpur Sikri about 40 kms from Agra. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri have been built
in a variety of styles making it one of the most magnificent capitals in the world. It had a
circumference of over 10 kms. The arch of the Buland Darwaza is about 41 meters high
and is perhaps the most important gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti built
in white marble is exquisite in its beauty. Another notable building is the Ibadat Khana or
the House of Worship where learned people belonging to various religions gathered
together and discussed questions of philosophy and theology in the presence of
Emperor. Then there is the Panch Mahal a five storeyed building modelled on the
Buddhist viharas.
During the reign of Jahangir the mausoleum of Akbar was constructed at Sikandara. This
is a magnificent monument as after a long time minar became architecturally significant.
It has beautiful arches and domes.
But the whole structure is inspired by the Buddhist viharas. Jahangir also extended the
palace buildings in the Agra fort and built the beautiful tomb of Itmad-ud-daula the
father of NurJahan. The tomb was built in marble and is notable for its beautiful coloured
inlay work. NurJahan built a beautiful mausoleum for her husband at Shahdara near
Lahore.
The greatest of the Mughal builders was Shah Jahan. His reign marks the highest
development of Muhgal architecture. Some of the finest monuments of our country were
built during his reign. Under him there was an exceedingly liberal use of marble, delicate
decorative designs, variety of arches and beautiful minarets. The list of buildings built by
ShahJahan is long with city of Shahjahanbad, Redfort, Jama Masjid, TajMahal and many
others. The most magnificent of Shah Jahan's buildings is the Taj Mahal built in memory
of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It represents India's culture at its best and has been aptly
described as the dream in marble. It is remarkably well conceived and all its parts the
gateways, central dome, elegant minars, the delicate decoration, the inlay work in
coloured marbles an precious stones, the lovely gardens surrounding it and the fountains
in front have been perfectly executed. The only notable buildings of the reign of
Aurangzeb the last of the Mughals are the Badshahi mosque at Lahore and the Moti
Masjid at Delhi. The period after him is one of the general decline. The new style of
architecture had a significant influence on the construction of Hindu temples and the
secular buildings of the Rajputs during this period.
Mughal Architecture


The process of synthesis was completed under the Mughals and the new architecture
which had started taking shape with the establishment of the Sultanate reached the
pinnacle of glory. Babar and Humayun the first two Mughal kings erected a number of
buildings with the help of Persian architects and these now in ruins are not very
impressive. Humayun had to flee the country in the face of the rising power of the
Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri. There was a short Afghan rule before Humayun recovered
the Indian territories for the Mughals. The most important buildings is the mausoleum of
Sher Shah at Sasaram. It is well-proportioned building and stands in the middle of a
tank.
The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. The first important building of
Akbar's reign is Humayun's tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent tomb the Persian influence
is very strong particularly in the construction of the dome. Indian builders used stone
and marble. The two significant features of the Mughal architecture are the large
gateways and the placement of the building in the midst of the large park. The tomb
provided many architectural ideas for the building of the Taj Mahal later. Akbar also built
the forts of Agra and Lahore. He built his palace within the Agra fort. Many new buildings
were constructed in the fort and old ones altered by his successors. For the first time
living beings -elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets.
The crowning achievement of the reign of Akbar was the building of his new capital at
Fatehpur Sikri about 40 kms from Agra. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri have been built
in a variety of styles making it one of the most magnificent capitals in the world. It had a
circumference of over 10 kms. The arch of the Buland Darwaza is about 41 meters high
and is perhaps the most important gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti built
in white marble is exquisite in its beauty. Another notable building is the Ibadat Khana or
the House of Worship where learned people belonging to various religions gathered
together and discussed questions of philosophy and theology in the presence of
Emperor. Then there is the Panch Mahal a five storeyed building modelled on the
Buddhist viharas.
During the reign of Jahangir the mausoleum of Akbar was constructed at Sikandara. This
is a magnificent monument as after a long time minar became architecturally significant.
It has beautiful arches and domes.
But the whole structure is inspired by the Buddhist viharas. Jahangir also extended the
palace buildings in the Agra fort and built the beautiful tomb of Itmad-ud-daula the
father of NurJahan. The tomb was built in marble and is notable for its beautiful coloured
inlay work. NurJahan built a beautiful mausoleum for her husband at Shahdara near
Lahore.
The greatest of the Mughal builders was Shah Jahan. His reign marks the highest
development of Muhgal architecture. Some of the finest monuments of our country were
built during his reign. Under him there was an exceedingly liberal use of marble, delicate
decorative designs, variety of arches and beautiful minarets. The list of buildings built by
ShahJahan is long with city of Shahjahanbad, Redfort, Jama Masjid, TajMahal and many
others. The most magnificent of Shah Jahan's buildings is the Taj Mahal built in memory
of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It represents India's culture at its best and has been aptly
described as the dream in marble. It is remarkably well conceived and all its parts the
gateways, central dome, elegant minars, the delicate decoration, the inlay work in
coloured marbles an precious stones, the lovely gardens surrounding it and the fountains
in front have been perfectly executed. The only notable buildings of the reign of
Aurangzeb the last of the Mughals are the Badshahi mosque at Lahore and the Moti
Masjid at Delhi. The period after him is one of the general decline. The new style of
architecture had a significant influence on the construction of Hindu temples and the
secular buildings of the Rajputs during this period.
Mughal Paintings


The great era of in the art of painting was ushered by the Mughals. the great painter
Behzad. They came into contact with their counterparts in India and under Akbar the
synthesis of two styles was encouraged. He gathered together a number of painters from
Persia, Kashmir and Gujarat. The Ain-i-Akhbari mentions a number of artists-Abdus
Samad, Mir Saiyid Ali, Miskin, Daswant, Basawan, Mukand and many others. They
illustrated manuscripts like the Dastan-i-Amir Hamza and Babarnama. Individual pieces
were also painted. By the end of Akbar's reign an independent Mughal style of painting
had been developed. Jahangir was a poet and patron of painting. Under him the
Mughal School of painting was fully developed and made remarkable progress.
The painting was no longer confined to book illumination. Portrait painting and depiction
of subjects drawn from life and nature became popular. Some of the finest painters in
this period were Nadir, Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar, Goverdhan, Mansur and Farrukh
Beg. The competence and skill of the Indian artists are evident from the incident which
Sir Thomas Roe who came to the court of Jahangir mentions. The artists of Jahangir's
court made several copies of a painting which Roe had presented to the emperor on the
same day. The copies were so perfect that Roe found it difficult to spot the original.
In the course of few decades fine works of paintings were created. The development
continued under Shah Jahan. Dara Shikoh son of Shah Jahan was a great patron of
paintings. With Aurangzeb the art declined in the Mughal courts. With the withdrawal of
court patronage many artists went to different parts of the country andinfluenced the
development of new schools of painting. Two of the most important schools of painting
that emerged were the Rajasthani and the Pahari schools. The subjects of the paintings
of these schools were drawn from the epics, myths and legends and love themes.
Music in Medieval India


The medieval period witnessed development inMusic in India. Music was not a part of the
original Islamic tradition but it developed under the influence of the Sufis and became a
part of court life. Many new forms and instruments were developed. Mir Khusrau who
had contributed to literature and historical writings is believed to have invented some of
these musical instruments. He developed the early form of the popular musical style
known as Qawwali. Khayal one of the important forms of Indian classical music is also
believed to be his contribution. The legendary figures of Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa
and his queen Rupmati were accomplished musicians and also introduced many new
ragas. The most notable figure in music in Medieval India as Tansen the court musician
of Akbar. His attainments in music have become a legend.
The patronage of music continued at the courts of rulers in the 18th century and the
traditions evolved through the centuries were kept alive. The contributions of the Bhakti
and Sufi saints in the development and promotion of music is very important. The
growth of Indian classical music has been a major force of India's cultural unity. Apart
from Hindu elements some of the greatest masters of music have been Muslims. The
Kitab-i- Nauras a collection of songs in praise of Hindu deities and Muslim saints was
written by a 17th century ruler Ibrahim Adil Shah II. Both in vocal and instrumental
music two main classical styles evolved -Hindustani and Carnatic. Some of the greatest
figures in Carnatic music were Purandaradasa, Thyagraja, Muthuswami, Dikshitar and
Syamasastri.

Babur(1526-30)
Originally Babar was the ruler of Farghana.In the first Battle of Panipat fought on
21April, 1526 between Babur and Lodhi Emperor Ibrahim Lodhi in which victory of Babur
over the Lodhi laid the foundation of Mughal Empire in India.In 1527 Babur defeated
Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanwa.Afghans under Muhmmad Lodhi were defeated by
Babur at the Battle of Ghagara in 1529.Babur died at Agra in 1530 but according to his
will his body was taken to Kabul and buried there.Babur was a prolific writer as well as
poet has written his autobiography Tuzuk-i- Baburi in Chaghatay Turki.

Humayun(1530-56)
Humayun was the eldest son of Babur .Sher Shah Suri an ambitious ruler of Bengal had
fought Humayun in the Battle of Chausa in 1539 in which Humayun was defeated and
Mughal force was almost destroyed. In the beginning Humayun was helped by the ruler
of Amarkot Rana Virsal where Hamida Banu gave birth to Akbar in 1542. Humayun
finally got shelter in the court of Emperor Shah Tahmasp of Persia. Humayun
reconquered his Indian empire with the help of Shah of Iran in 1555 by defeating
Afghans. He died in 1556. Humayun was passionately devoted to the study of
astronomy, loved painting and wrote Persian poetry.
Akbar (1556-1605)
Akbar was born at Amarkot in 1542.At the age of 14 he became the emperor after the
death of his father Humayun.Bairam Khan was the regent up to 1560. In 1556 second
Battle of Panipat was fought between the Hemu and Mughals which Muhgals won under
the generalship of Bairam Khan.Raja Bharmal the Kuchchhwaha King of Amber married
his eldest daughter to Akbar and subsequently Raja Bhagwan Das and Man Singh were
inducted into the Imperial Mughal service. Almost all Rajput states were subjugated and
they submitted to Akbar but the Rana of Mewar continued to defy Mughal suzerainty.
In the battle of Haldighati in 1576, Rana Pratap was defeated by the Mughals under
Man Singh.In 1562 Akbar discontinued the practice of enslaving the defeated soldiers in
the battles. In 1563 pilgrimage tax was abolished. In 1564 the discriminatory jaziya tax
was abolished. In 1575 Ibadatkhana was built at Fetahpur Sekri for religious discussions.
Initially only Sunni were allowed later all religious groups such as Shias, Hindus,
Christians and Zorastrians were allowed to participate. In 1579 Akbar read the Khutba
composed by Faizi in his own name. In September 1579 Mahzar was proclaimed by
Akbar which made him the Imam-i-Adil.In 1582 Din-i-Illahi or Tauhid-i-IIahi was started
by Akbar which is considered by some historians a new religion started by Akbar.Akbar
died in 1605.He was buried at Sikandra.
Jahangir (1605-27)
Prince Salim ascended the throne in 1695.He assumed the title of Jahangir.He issued 12
ordinances after becoming emperor. In 1611 he married Mehrunnissa who was later on
called Nur Jahan, her father Gyas Beg was given the title of Itmaduddaulah. During
Jahangirs time relations with Rajput of Mewar improved andAmar Singh submitted in
1615 to theMughal.The practice of enrolling Marathas into the Mughal army and nobility
was started.




In 1606 Jahangirs son Khusrau revolted but defeated and imprisoned. Guru Arjun Dev
5th Guru of Sikhs was beheaded on the charge of blessing Khusaru.In 1625 Mahabat
Khan imprisoned Jahangir and Nurjahan.Jahangir wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian.
During his time painting reached to its zenith in Mughal court.Jahangir died in 1627 at
Bhimbar in Kashmir. He is buried at Dilkush garden in Lahore.

Shah Jahan (1627-58)

Prince Khurram succeeded Jahangir andadopted the title of Shah Jahan in 1627. In 1607
Jahangir had granted him a Mansab of 800 zat. In 1632 Portuguese were defeated by
him near Hugli.In 1612 Shahjahan married Anjumand Bano Begum who later became
famous as Mumtaz Mahal.In 1636 Ahmadnagar was annexed by Shahjahan.His reign is
described by French travelor Bernier and Taverier and theItalian traveler Manucci.


In 1638 Ali Mardan Khan the Persian governor of Khandhar surrendered the port to
the Mughal government of Kabul. Bundelas under Jujhar Singh rebelled during the
Shahjahan reign.In the end of his reign there was a bloody war of succession among his
sons in which Aurangzeb become successful due to Shahjahan; favour to Dara Shikoh to
the throne.Aurangzeb imprisoned Shahjahan at Agra Fort and he died in captivity in
1666.He was buried besides his wifes grave in Taj Mahal.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. During his long reign the Mughal Empire reached
its territorial climax. At its height it stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the
south and from the Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east. But much of the
Aurangzebs time was spent in trying to put down revolts in different parts of the
empire.Aurangzeb sent his army to the Deccan to curtail the rising Maratha power and to
prevent them from overpowering the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda.
Mansabdari System in Mughal Empire
Akbar organized the nobility and his army by means of the Mansabdari system. Every
officer was assigned a rank valued in terms of a certain number of mounted soldiers. The
ranks normally given to top officers and nobles were valued from 10 to 5000 later raised
to 7000.The ranks were divided into two: zat and sawar.Zat means personal where by
the status and salary of the individual was fixed. Out of this salary in addition to meeting
his own personal expenses, he had to maintain a stipulated quota of horses, elephants,
camels, mules and carts.
The other rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawar) a mansabdar was required
to maintain. For every sawar, a mansabdar was paid at a rate of Rs 240 per annum over
and above his salary. A person was required to maintain as many sawars as his zat rank
was placed in the first category of that rank; if he maintained less than half then in the
third category. Thus there were three categories in every rank.No one could have a
higher quota of sawars than his zat rank.The mansab was not hereditary.
The sawar rank was distinguished by two special features: For every 10 cavalrymen the
mansabdar had to maintain 20 horses and a provision was made that the contingents of
the nobles should be mixed ones that is drawn from all the groups- Mughal, Pathan,
Hindustani and Rajput.This was intended to weaken the spirit of tribal and ethnic
exclusiveness. The mansabdars were assigned a jagir in lieu of cash payment. Although
modifications in the system were made from time to time this remained the basic
structure as long as the Empire held together. The number of mansabdars rose from
2069 at the time of Jahangirs accession in 1605 to 8000 in 1637 during Shah Jahans
reign and to 11,546 during the latter half of the Aurangzebs reign.
Land Revenue System in Mughal Empire
Initially Akbar adopted Sher Shahs system. But in 1580 Akbar instituted a new system
called Dahsala.Under this the average produce of different crops and their average prices
prevailing over the last 10 years were calculated and 1/3rd the average produce fixed in
rupees per bigha was demanded as the states share.
Later a further improvement was made. Not only were local prices taken into
account,parganas which were the largest fiscal and administration having the same type
of productivity were grouped into separate assessment circles. Thus the peasant was
required to pay on the basis of local produce as well as local prices. This system
continued till the end of the 17th century.
Central Administration in Mughal Empire
In Islam the real sovereign of the world in Allah and Khalifh is his representative on the
earth. Muslim rulers in India prior to Akbar recognized the authority of Khalifa but the
institution of Kingship as mentioned by Abul Fazl in Aziz-i- Akbari that the Padshah or
Shahansha is the vice-regent of god on earth,Farr-i-Izadi has given new dimension to
the theory Kingship in India.
Emperor- The form of Mughal government was despotic,monarchy,the emperor was the
head of the executive,legislature,judiciary and the Army,the only limits on the autocracy
of the King were the mobility and the Ulema.
Vakil- Vakil was the representative of king and hence exercises all powers on behalf and
in the name of king.Bairam Khan was the Vakil during Akbars time. Wazir or Diwan- In
his capacity as Diman-i-kulk he was the head of the revenue dept when there was no
vakil,he acted as the PM as well and hence called the wazir. Mir Bakshi- Head of the
military dept and also the pay master general after the introduction of the mansabdari
system.
Sudr us Sadar- Head of the ecclesiastical dept regulation of religion and charitable works
was his prime concern. Khan-i- Saman- Head of Royal household and karkhans. Qazi-ul-
Quzat- Head of the justice dept.
Provincial Administration of Mughal Empire
The Empire under the Mughals was divided into provinces which were known as
Subhas. In thebeginning Akbars reign total number of subhas were 12 later on at the
time of his death it were 15.During Shah Jahan s time there were 19 subhas.During the
Aurangzebs reign Mughal Empire had 21 subhas. Some of the important officials were:
Subedar or Sipalibalar- He was the governor, his function were the maintenance of law
and order, enforcement of imperial decrees and administration of criminal justice in the
subha.He was appointed by the Emperor. Diwan-He was in charge of revenue
administration of the province. Bakshi-Discharged the duties as Mir Bakshi at the central
level. Qazi, sadr, Muhtasib were other official in the provinces.
Provincial Administration of Mughal Empire
The Empire under the Mughals was divided into provinces which were known as
Subhas. In thebeginning Akbars reign total number of subhas were 12 later on at the
time of his death it were 15.During Shah Jahan s time there were 19 subhas.During the
Aurangzebs reign Mughal Empire had 21 subhas. Some of the important officials were:
Subedar or Sipalibalar- He was the governor, his function were the maintenance of law
and order, enforcement of imperial decrees and administration of criminal justice in the
subha.He was appointed by the Emperor. Diwan-He was in charge of revenue
administration of the province. Bakshi-Discharged the duties as Mir Bakshi at the central
level. Qazi, sadr, Muhtasib were other official in the provinces.

Local Administration
The Subhas were further divided into sarkars which was headed by Shiqdar.Sarkar was
divided into Parganas which was a group of villages. Village was the lowest unit of
administration and Patwari and Qanuongo were the financial officials. Mahals were the
group of villages combined for fiscal purposes.
Aurangzebs Deccan Policy
Aurangzebs Deccan policy was influenced partly by imperial interests and partly by
thereligious considerations.
In Deccan Aurangzeb failed to assess thesituation realistically hence unable to take
actions.Shivaji had carved out an independent Maratha state in the territories north and
southof Konkan. To contain the Marathas Aurangzeb invaded Bijapur under Sikandar Adil
Shah and annexed it in 1686.This brought an end to Adil Shahi dynasty. Bijapur became
the seat of the Mughal provincial governor.
Aurangzeb ordered attack against Abul Hassan Qutub Shah of Golconda. In 1687 the
Mughal army entered the fort and Golconda was annexed to Mughal Empire. After the
downfall of Bijapur and Golconda Aurangzeb concentrated all his forces against the
Marathas.
In 1689 Sambhaji was taken captive and executed and his son Sahu was captured.
Aurangzeb gave Sahu the mansab of 7000 and treated him well. But he misjudged the
strength of Marathas. The Marathas recovered themselves and commenced a peoples
war which exhausted Aurangzebs treasury and compelled him to be on the defensive.
The war booty from Golconda and Bijapur was insufficient to cover the cost of the last
phase of the Deccan wars. The reputation of the Mughal army was undermined by
continuous rebellions and attacks from the Marathas in the Deccan. Aurangzebs death in
1707 finally brought to an end on the Deccan. What caused the real breakdown of the
Mughal Empire was his faulty Deccan policy.
Aurangzebs Deccan policy can be divided into four phases
Phase-I (1658-68)

It was led by Jai Singh.The Mughals failed to lay siege on Bijapur in 1665 and Jai Singh
died in 1667.
Phase-II (1668-84)

It was unsuccessful because of a tripartite alliance between Golconda,Shivaji and Bijapur
in which Madanna and Akanna played a crucial role.


Phase-III

This phase saw the capture of Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687).
Phase-IV

In this phase Sambhaji the son and successor of Shivaji was captured and executed.
Economy in Mughal Empire
Agriculture has been mainstay of economy in India since time immemorial. During
Mughal time also it was not only the largest source of income to state but it was also the
source of livelihood to the large majority of people in India. Main crops that were grown
were cereals, millets, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, chilli, indigo and betel.
Tobacco and potato were introduced by Portuguese in India during Jahangirs reign.
Ajmer was famous for the best quality of sugar cane. Gujarat and Agra was famous for
indigo cultivation.Babur introduced many central Asian fruits to India. During Akbars
reign Firoz Shahs Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time. In the reign of Shah
Jahan,Nahr-i-Bihisht was built by opening the canal at Khizrabad for irrigation
purposes.
The Muslim ruling class preferred to settle in the towns and cities. The artistic life style of
Mughal ruling clan encouraged handicrafts, art and architecture and trade in India. The
merchants and trader class was divided into big business magnates owing hundreds of
ships, rich merchants and traders and petty shopkeepers. Hundi system was developed
by shroffs for carrying out large transactions. Trade both intra country and outside India
grew tremendously during the Mughal period particularly because of the following
factors:
The political and economic unification of India under the Mughal rule and establishment
of law and order over extensive areas created the favorable environment for trade and
commerce. The improvement of transport and communications by
the Mughals.Encouragement given by the Mughals to the monetization of economy.
Arrival of European traders from the beginning of 17th century onwards and the growth
of the European trade. Decca was the famous centre of muslin and textiles. Agra,
Fatehpur Sikri and Lahore were the main centers of silk weaving. Surat, Cambay, Braoch
in Gujarat was the main ports for foreign trade.
Mughal Coinage

The Mughals attached a great importance to the coinage as Akbar started to practice of
issuing coins and established royal mint with Abdus Samad the famous painter being the
head of it. The Mughal coinage was mainly based on the rupee and dam issued by Sher
Shah Suri.The rupee was the most famous of all Mughal coins.
Muhar was the standard gold coin of about 170-175 grain and it was very popular. Jalali
was a silver coin in square shape issued by Akbar. Nisar,Nur Afshan and Khair qasul
were the smaller silver coins issued by Jahangir. Daun was the copper coin used by the
common people in day to day transactions. The copper Daun also known as falus, sikah
falus, Nisfi, damra and damri.
Literature in Mughal Empire
The Mughal period saw great developments in the field of literature. Many Mughal
emperors and members of the royal family were great men of letters. Babar the first
Mughal emperor was one of the pioneers of Turkish poetry and also the author of a very
valuable autobiography in Turkish BabarNama which was later translated into
Persian.Gulbadan Begum sister of Humayun wrote the Humayun Nama.Jahangir the
great connoisseur of painting wrote his autobiography the Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri.Aurangzeb
also was a prolific writer and the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was a notable
Urdu poet.
Hindi literature made significant progress during Akbars reign.Tulsidas and the Surdas
wrote in this period.Keshavdas a great poet wrote on themes of love.Rahims dohas or
couplets are extremely popular. It was also in Akbars time that the great Sanskrit work
on styles of writing, the Alankarashekhara by Keshava Misra appeared. This was the
period of many notable writings in the Persian language.Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari
and Akbar Nama.Abul Fazls brother Faizi was a great poet of Persian and was
responsible for the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian.Akbar had started a
whole dept for translation of works like Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Atharva Veda,
the Bhagvad Gita and the Panchatantra.
Many important historical works were produced under the emperors after Akbar.Some
of the important historians were Abdul Hamid Lahori,Khafi Khan,Muhammad Kazim and
Sujan Rai Bhandari.Literature in modern Indian languages also continued to grow.
The famous book of Bihari called the Satsai in Hindi belongs to this period. One of the
most significant developments during the medieval period wasthe birth of the Urdu
language. This new language soon developed one of the richest literatures as a modern
Indian language. It produced great poets like Wali,Mir Dard,Mir Taqi Mir,Nazir
Akbarabadi,Asadullah Khan Ghalib.
Many original prose works in Urdu were written like Muhammad Hussain Azads Darbar-i-
Akbari.The Urdu novel was one of the earliest development in the Indian languages.
Urdu became the language of the urban people of northern India and the Deccan.
Education under the Mughals
Under the Mughal rule special attention was given to education. During the Akbars reign
important changes were introduced in thesyllabus of education through the efforts of
Shah Fathullah Shirazi.Islamic schools were attached to mosques, Khanqah of the Sufis
and tombs. Special buildings were also constructed for imparting education. Their
expenses were met from endowments.
During the Mughal period the principal centres of learning were at
Lahore,Delhi,Ajmer,Sialkot,Multan,Ahmadabad,Allahabad,Lucknow,Murshidabad,Dacca.M
any scholars were attracted to these institutions from Persia and Central Asia. Students
received education free of cost. Famous scholars received fixed stipends from the royal
treasury.
Provisions were made for the teaching of Persian; the official language of the
government in the Maktabs.Nizamiyah system of education became popular during the
later days of the Mughals. The aim of this system was to create such ability in the
scholar so that he is able to acquire perfection in any branch of learning through self-
study and personal efforts. While Muslims received education in Maktabs,Hindus had
their pathsalas for imparting religious instructions.
Mughal Society


Society in Mughal times was organized on a feudal basis and the head of the social
system was Emperor. He enjoyed an unparallel status. He was the ultimate authority in
everything. Next in rank were the nobility along the zamindars.The Mughal nobles
monopolized most of the jobs in the country. Socially and economically the Mughal
nobility formed a privileged class. There were men of every type and nationality among
the Mughal nobles. Clan or family links were the most important considerations for
recruitment and admission to the aristocratic class of the society.Zamindars or the
chieftains also constituted the nobility. They had their own armed forces and generally
lived in forts or garhis which was both a place of refuge and a status symbol. There was
a large class of merchants and traders. They had their own rights based on tradition and
protection of life and property. They also maintained a high standard of living.
During Mughal period the Indian society was in the process of developing into a
common society for the religious groups of Hindus and Muslims.Inter-mixing and
adaptation of each others culture was fairly common. Among the prevalent social
practices the purdah system was one of that but it was practiced more by the women of
upper classes. The child marriage was prevalent. Though polygamy was prevalent in
upper sections of society the common people followed monogamy.
Dowry system was common in Hindu society. The sati was prevalent though Akbar tried
to discourage sati by issuing orders but he could not forbid it altogether.Aurangzeb was
the only Mughal who issued definite orders in 1664 forbidding sati. The Muslim society
was also divided based on the place of origination. The widow remarriage was prevalent
in the society. Economically Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance.
The Hindu society was divided into four castes. The coming of Muslims and their
constant condemnation of the caste system made the system more rigid. The Hindu
society in order to strengthen itself recasted the Smritis and tried to bring back from the
Islamic fold those Muslims who were converts from Hinduism.
It was a common practice to maintain a large contingent of slaves both males and
females. The prisoners of war were generally the main constituent of this system. They
were supposed to perform every task free of cost. But they were not subject to torture.
The lower class comprised of the cultivators,artisans,small traders, shop-keepers
,household servants, slaves etc.Most of them were condemned to live a hard life. Their
lives were simple and their belongings were meagre.
Mughal Army
The Mughal government was military in origin and it retained its military character. The
emperor was the head of the army and its commander-in-chief. All the govt officials
were enrolled in the army and were commanders of a specified number of horsemen.
The Mughal force consisted of five branches of infantry, cavalry, fire-arms, elephants and
war boats. The cavalry was the most important and was regarded as the flower of the
army. Infantry was the largest branch of the army but it was ill paid and rugged branch.
The firearms men consisted of gunners and musketeers.
The Mughals had no navy of their own. They delegated the navel defense of the western
coast to the Abysinians and Sidis of Janjira. In lower Bengal the govt maintained a flotilla
of boats of various types. These boats were placed under a darogha and were equipped
with artillery. There was no regimental drill or discipline and no real training. The actual


number of troops was only a fraction of the normal strength as recorded in Mir Bakshis
register. There was no contract between the commander-in-chief and the individual
troops who looked upon the Mansabdars as their immediate chiefs. The pay of the troops
was generally in arrears.
During the time of the later Mughals sometimes their salaries for three years or more
were not paid. Originally the strength of the Mughal army depended upon the mobility of
the cavalry. This mobility was lost in the hills and deserts of Rajputana and
Maharashtra.During the later days of Aurangzebs reign it became a prey to Marathas
and in the 18th century it proved hopeless against the European trained battalions.
Decline of Mughal Empire
Aurangzebs death in 1706 set off the rapid decline of the Mughal Empire. His successors
were weak and increasingly became mere toolsin the hands of the nobles. Taking
advantage of this the Rajputs, Sikhs and the Afghans openly defied the authority of
Mughal emperor.
Even more disturbing was the fact that the assertion of independence had spread to
other parts of the empire. The governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Avadh established
independent kingdoms and the Marathas reorganized under a new system of
governmentthat of the Brahman ministers the Peshwas.They were gradually extending
their control towards north India.
At the time of foreign invasions such as those of Nadir Shah (1729) and Ahmad Shah
Abdali (1747-61) further weakened the empire. The rising power of the Marathas was
temporarily checked by their defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the third
battle of Panipat in 1761. The Mughals were now reduced to thearea around Delhi. They
continued to rule in name until 1857.Real political power was shifted to the hands of the
new kingdoms.
Causes of decline of Mughal Empire
Although the Mughal Empire began breaking upin the 18th century, the causes of its
decline can be traced back much earlier.Aurangzebs long reign of constant and
uninterrupted fighting was not only a big drain on the exchequer but it also led to the
negligence of administration. Politically he made number of mistakes which undermined
the strength of the Mughal Empire.
The empire was also met with financial troubles. There was neither enough money nor
jagirs to assign to various officers. This led to rivalry among the nobles for
the possessing the existing jagirs.They tried to extort the maximum income from their
jagirs at the cost of the peasantry. Attempts were made to transform existing offices and
jagirs into hereditary ones.
The officers invariably reduced their expenditure by not maintaining their full quota of
troops thus weakening the empires armed strength. The condition of the peasant had
also gradually worsened. Higher revenue demands, a greater level of exploitation by
jagirdars because of frequent transfers tried to extract as much as possible during their
tenure as Jagirdar.
The practice of farming the land revenue to thehighest bidder after the death of
Aurangzeb increased peasant discontentment. The rebellions of the Satnamis, Jats, and
the Sikhs were indicative of this. The Zamindars too became rebellious and withheld
revenue. The Mughal Empire might have continued to exist for a long time if its
administration and armed power had not broken down.
Short Question and Answers


1. What was Jalauddin Khilji before he came to power in 1290?
Warden of marches in the north-west

2. Who ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices in the Delhi sultanate?
The Khiljis

3. Who was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to put forward the view that
the state should be based on the willing support of the governed?
Iltutmish
4. Which ruler gave the idea that the state could not be a truly Islamic state?
Jalaluddin Khilji

5. How did Jalaluddin Khilji try to gain the goodwill of the nobility?
Tolerance and avoiding harsh punishment

6. Who was the Delhi Sultan to start the policy of giving harsh punishment even
to the wives and children of rebels?
Alauddin Khilji

7. When did Timur invade India?
1398 AD

8. Why did Turkish sultans want to annex Malwa and Gujarat?
These were fertile and trade routes near the sea

9. When did Alauddin Khiji launch an attack on Gujarat?
1299 against Rai Karan

10. Where did Alauddin captain Malik Kafur?
Cambay during the Gujarat Expedition

11. What was the first state against which Alauddin launched an attack?
Ranthambhor

12. Who was the famous poet who accompanied Alauddin in the Ranthambhore
campaign?
Amir Khusrau

13. The Padmini legend is associated with which place?
Chittor

14. Malik Kafur led campaign against which two places in south India?
Warangal and Malabar

15. Which was the Deccan state against which Muhammad bin Taghlaq had to
suffer reverses initially?
Warangal

16. Alauddin Khilji brought reforms in market control after which campaign?
Chittor Campaign

17. How many markets did Alauddin establish?
Three

18. Under which officer markets of Alauddin functioned?
Shahna

19. Which medieval historian wrote about Alauddins market control?
Ziauddin Barni

20. What was the price of a first grade horse fixed by Alauddin?
100-120 tanks

21. Who brought fine quality cloth to Delhi from various parts of the country?
The Multani traders

22. Why did Alauddin realise the land revenue in cash?
To pay his soldiers in cash

23. Who was the first Delhi Sultan to introduce the payment of soldiers in cash?
Alauddin Khilji

24. What was a major objective of Alauddins market control according to
Barauni?
To punish the traders

25. Who was the first Delhi sultan to insist that in the doab,land revenue would
be assessed on the basis of measurement of land?
Alauddin Khilji

26. Who was the Delhi Sultan who conversed with Muslim mystics along with
Hindu yogis?
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

27. Which ruler opened offices on the basis of merit?
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

28. Who was the famous sufi saint whom Muhammad Tughlaq threatened to
punish?
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya

29. Which was Muhammad Bin Tughlaqs first expedition?
Khorasan expedition

30. In which metal was the token currency introduced during Muhammad bin
Tughlaqs time?
Bronze

31. With whom did Muhammad tughlaq fight the battle of Jhelum?
Tarmashrin the Mongol leader

32. Where did peasant rebellion take place during Muhammad Bin Tughlaqs
reign?
Gangetic Doab

33. Where did Muhammad Bin Tughlaq live after leaving Delhi?
Swargadwari

34. Where was Swargadwari located?
Ganges near Kanauj

35. Who was the Delhi sultan to set up the department of diwan-i-amir-i-kohi?
Muhammad bin Tughlaq

36. Who succeeded Muhammad Bin Tughlaq on the throne of Delhi?
Firoz Shah Tughlaq

37.Firoz Shah Tughlaqs longest campain were against which states?
Gujarat

38. Which Sultan abolished the practice of torturing nobles?
Firoz Shah Tughlaq

39. Which sultan prohibited the practice of Muslim women going to worship at
the graves of saints?
Firoz Shah Tughlaq

40. Who were exempted from paying the jiziya during Firoz Shah Tughlaqs
reign?
Women,the disabled

41. Which sultan opened the employment bureau?
Firoz Shah Tughlaq

42. Which was the longest canal during Firoz Shah Tughlaqs period?
From Sutlej to Hansi

43. What were the new towns built by Firoz Shah Tughlaq?
Jodhpur,Jaunpur and Hissar

44. How many slaves did Firoz Tughlaq had?
1, 80,000

45. What did Amiran- i- sada mean?
Foreign nobles who were amirs of hundred villages.

46. Which medieval chronicler commented on the plague during Muhammad bin
Tughlaqs reign?
Isami

47. Which were the two groups that rose to prominence during Alauddins
reign? Afghans and Indian slaves

48. Who was the first Delhi Sultan first to introduce the practices of Dagh and
chehra?
Alauddin Khilji

49. Who was the First Delhi sultan to provide for a permanent standing army?
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

50. What was sarai-i- adl?
A separate bazaar dealing with cloth,sugar,herbs,dry fruits etc.

51. What was the rate of taxation in the pre-Islamic India?
1/6 of the produce

52. What was Kharaj? Islamic land tax

53. Which school of Islamic law was permitted in the Sultanate period?
Hanafi

54. Rani- Padmini was immortalized in the Padmavat by which poet?
Malik Mohammd Jaisi

55. Who was the ruler of Warangal when it was invaded by the Sultanate
forces?
Pratap Rudra Deva

56. When did the Turkish army first intrude into southern India?
In 1295 led by Alauddin Khilji

57. What was the most well known architectural project of Nur Jahan?
White marble mausoleum she built near Agra for her father Itimad ud-Daula

58. Where was Shaikh Salim buried?
Jami Mosque

59. Where did Akbar make 14 pilgrimages on foot ?
To the dargah of Muinuddin Chisthi

60. How long did Akbar live in Fatehpur Sikri?
15 years

61. Who has given an account of the Agra Fort?
Abul Fazl

62. When was the Agra fort completed?
1571

63. Where were the fort palaces built by Akbar?
Agra,Lahore and Allahabad

64. Who was the most renowned figure in the Muslim orthodox and revivalist
movement of the Mughal period?
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi

65. Who was considered to be the most influential writer on the
Dharmashastras during the medieval period?
Raghunandan of Navadwipa

66. Who was the saint poet born in Gujarat lived mostly in Rajasthan and
preached a non-sectarian path?
Dadu

67. Who was the Sikh Guru who completed the compilation of Adi Granth ?
Guru Arjan Das

68. Which Mughal Emperor was an accomplished veena player?
Aurangzeb

69. From which Mughal Emperors reign did Hindi poets begin to be attached to
the Mughal court?
Akbar

70. Which provincial style of painting combined the themes of western India or
Jain school of painting with the Mughal style?
The Rajasthani style

71. Who introduced European paintings at Akbars court?
Portuguese priests

72. Who were Jaswant and Dasawan?
Two famous painters in Akbars court

73. Moti Masjid is built in which stone?
Marble

74. Who was Abu Fazls brother who helped in the translation department?
Faizi

75. Who was the great artist of portrait painting in Mughal court?
Mansur