1997 CRC Press LLC

NecroSearch Revisited:
Further Multidisciplinary
Approaches to the Detection
of Clandestine Graves

DIANE L. FRANCE
TOM J. GRIFFIN
JACK G. SWANBURG
JOHN W. LINDEMANN
G. CLARK DAVENPORT
VICKEY TRAMMELL
CECILIA T. TRAVIS
BORIS KONDRATIEFF
AL NELSON
KIM CASTELLANO
DICK HOPKINS

TOM ADAIR

Introduction

NecroSearch International, Inc. is a nonprot, volunteer organization dedicated to investigat-
ing the methods and technology involved in the location of clandestine graves and the recovery
of the remains and evidence in and around the gravesite. To implement this investigation, the
relationships between buried pig carcasses and their surroundings as well as the applicability
of various techniques in quantifying the changes in the immediately environment surrounding
are being studied. The primary purpose of this article is to update the scientic community
on research conducted at the research site, and to cite successes and difculties with techniques
used at suspected and actual crime scenes. For additional information, please consult a
previous article (France et al. 1992).
The project is an interdisciplinary one involving law enforcement agencies, private busi-
nesses, and academicians in an attempt to pool information traditionally obtained separately.
The aim is NOT to state that a specic site is indeed the location of a buried body. Instead,
a compilation of all of the techniques indicates a given spot or number of spots that would
be the most likely to be the site of a clandestine grave. In addition, these techniques may also
help determine time since burial and provide evidence that may tie a suspect to a burial site.
As many as practical of the different techniques for site location are being attempted at the
test area. Some of the techniques are suspected of being time-sensitive in that they may be of
value only for a limited period of time. A specic sequence may be found to be needed (going
from least destructive to most). Some of the results (both present and future) may prove to
be unique to our altitude, soil, etc., so other groups are encouraged to try our approach for
their environmental conditions.

32
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Currently the NecroSearch team consists of experts in crime scene and laboratory analysis,
aerial photography, thermal imagery, geology and pedology, geophysics, geochemistry, petrol-
ogy, meteorology, botany, entomology, wildlife biology, criminal psychology, serology, pho-
tography, archaeology, forensic anthropology, and scent-detection dog handling.

Background

Few studies in the literature concentrate on multidisciplinary methods used for the location
of buried human remains. Studies by Boyd (1979), Imaiuzma (1974), McLaughlin (1974),
and Bass and Birkby (1978, which also offers the rationale behind proper excavation tech-
niques) offer overviews of some of the techniques also used in NecroSearch research. Killam
(1990) offers a comprehensive survey in search techniques, and Hunter (1994) recently
reviewed various techniques for the location of clandestine graves in the United Kingdom.
Although no group has undertaken a study of as many multidisciplinary techniques as
presented in the NecroSearch research, many articles address individual methods for location
of clandestine graves. Davenport et al. (1988, 1990) discuss the ways in which geoscientists
work with law enforcement, while Hoving (1986) describes the use of a small ground-pene-
trating radar (GPR) unit for locating buried bodies. Infrared detection of decomposing
remains has been tested by, among others, Dickinson (1977) and Rodriguez and Bass (1985).
Other studies have used pigs to research individual aspects of clandestine grave systems.
Haglund et al. (1989, 1990, 1991) and Haskell (personal communication 1990) have studied
the scavenging and scatter patterns of pig and human remains. Haskell, in addition, does
research on decay processes.
The role of insects and other arthropods in the decay process of human remains has been
reviewed by Nuorteva (1977) and Smith (1986). Studies using unembalmed cadavers or pigs
have elucidated a specic succession of arthropods and the resulting decompositional process
(Galloway et al. 1989; Payne et al. 1968; Rhine et al. 1988; Rodriguez and Bass 1983; Smith
1973; Schoenly et al. 1991; Shean et al. 1993). Rodriguez and Bass (1985) have addressed
entomological methods and their relationship to depth of burial and local climatic conditions.
Tolhurst and Reed (1984) present information in the training and use of dogs for locating
shallow graves.
In an effort to enhance a multidisciplinary approach, many techniques for clandestine
grave-site location are still being applied at the research area in Colorado, and additional
locations involving different environmental conditions will be initiated in the summer of
1995. These techniques have also been utilized at dozens of crime scenes.

Location

The primary research site is located on the Highlands Ranch Law Enforcement Training
Facility in Douglas County, CO, approximately 29 km (18 miles) south of Denver. Other
research facilities are planned for the mountains west of Denver. As part of a 0.47-km

2

(117
acre) law enforcement training facility, it offers an area of controlled access to the public,
though ofcers in training have used the area occasionally for SWAT-type missions. The
training facility occupies a west-owing drainage that feeds Plum Creek, a major tributary of
the South Platte River. Elevation at the site averages 1829 meters (6000 feet) above sea level.
The research site is on undeveloped ranch land that borders the western edge of Daniels Park,
one of the parks of the Denver Mountain Parks system. Topographically the country sur-
rounding the training facility consists of gently rolling, brush-covered uplands that change
into partially developed badlands and low mesa topography with increasing elevation. The
upper slopes of the badlands/mesa country support stands of conifer.
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To date, 18 gravesites (two do not contain pigs) have been studied at the research site.
Pigs are currently being used for two reasons. At present, human cadavers are unavailable for
studies of this kind in Colorado. Also, these pigs are similar to humans in their weight (70 kg
or 154 lbs on average, though smaller pigs have been recently included to simulate human
bodies of different sizes and ages), their fat-to-muscle ratio, and in the fact that their skin is
not heavily haired. Pigs have been considered to be biochemically and physiologically similar
enough to humans to be used in studies of patterns and rates of decay and scavenging. Of
equal importance, dog handlers have traditionally maintained that if a dog can detect pig
remains, it can also detect human remains.

Methods

Prior to the burial of the rst pig in September of 1988, baseline data consisting of black and
white aerial photographs, geophysical measurements, and geological and botanical observa-
tions were acquired for the overall research site. Before the burial of each additional pig,
baseline data in electromagnetics, ground penetrating radar, and surface botanical features
are acquired.
Near-eld and far-eld data gathering were performed prior to and after burial. The
denitions of near-eld and far-eld are dependent on the specic discipline, in that
near-eld refers to anything that is interacting within the burial system, while far-eld is
outside of the range of inuence of the burial system. For example, measurements of soil gas
may only be above background levels within a few centimeters of a burial, whereas arthropod
activity related to a burial may cover a much broader area.
Far-eld observations contemporaneous with burial for this study include botany, ento-
mology, geology/pedology, aerial photography, geophysics, thermal imagery, soil gas, scav-
enging patterns, and the use of decomposition-scenting dogs (see Table 1). Near-eld
observations contemporaneous with and after burial include all of the above. A disturbance
is a physical disruption associated with burial processes. A control site is undisturbed both
at the surface and subsurface, and therefore is remote from the burial site. A calibration pit
is a grave without an interred pig, while a grave contains a pig. Back dirt is excess soil deposited
near the perimeter of the grave or calibration pit. It is understood that there are disturbances
geographically close to the burial system but still identied as far-eld in that they are not
part of the burial process for example roads, animal burrows, building foundations, etc.

Aerial Photography

Aerial photography was performed far-eld, in an attempt to identify near-eld parameters
from the air. Aerial photographic surveying was performed on a periodic basis, consisting of
both visible spectrum color and black and white lm. A turbo-charged Cessna 205 aircraft
containing two Zeiss RMK/A 15023 aerial cameras and one KA-2

-inch aerial camera were
used. Film types used are Kodak Aerocolor negative type 2445, Kodak infrared color lm type
2443, and Kodak black and white XX lm type 2405. This provides standard 9 in.

"

9 in.
stereophoto coverage.

Geology

Geologic investigation at the Project Pig site determined the geologic character of the site,
to relate this character to the individual burial sites, to establish site recognition and evaluation
parameters, and to suggest lines of future geologic study and investigation.

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Table 1 Methods Used in the Detection of Clandestine Graves

Method Advantage Disadvantage

Aerial photography Least destructive
Provides great overall characterization of a site; access, culture,
drainage, topography
Large area covered
Preburial photos may be available from a variety of sources
Best results with large lm format (scale of readily available photography
may be too small)
May need to be performed at different times of growing season
Natural (trees, etc) and man-made (power lines, etc) may interfere with
interpretations
Requires trained personnel for interpretation
May be moisture dependant
Geology Relatively nondestructive
Determination of site stratication through core samples
Real time on site information about ground surface
Intrusive if core samples taken
Entire search area should be viewed
Botany Relatively nondestructive
Can be performed with photography and samples from area
Can be performed years later
Similar succession patterns for any disturbance within ecosystem not
limited to burial
Entomology Nondestructive
Aids in narrowing site location
Provides information about time since death
Requires limited area for searching
Best for relatively fresh grave
Different species for different geographical regions
Geophysics
Magnetics Relatively nondestructive
Nonintrusive
Equipment easily obtained
Rapid coverage of large area
Works over snow, fresh/salt water
Only for ferrous materials
Target could be missed if search grid too large
Data not in real time; values must be plotted and should be contoured
Magnetic interferences (natural and man-made) confuse readings
Electromagnetics Relatively nondestructive
Nonintrusive
Rapid coverage of large area
Equipment relatively easily obtained
For ferrous/nonferrous materials
Records conductivity
Works over/through snow
Subject to cultural (fences, etc) interferences
Target could be missed if search grid is too large
Difcult in rough terrain
Data not in real time; values must be plotted and should be contoured

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Ground penetrating radar Relatively nondestructive
Nonintrusive
Fairly rapid coverage of large area
Real time display
Works over/through snow, fresh water
Equipment relatively difcult to obtain
Most units require moderately smooth and level terrain
Self-potential Relatively nondestructive
Real-time information
Intrusive
No worthwhile information from our research
Soil gas Relatively nondestructive
Real-time information
Intrusive
Must be positioned relatively close to burial
Site soil, ground moisture, climate, depth of probe critical
Detection of decomposition product(s) time and temperature dependent
Metal detector Relatively nondestructive
Nonintrusive
Equipment easily obtained
Limited depth capability, detects only metal (ferrous/nonferrous)
objects, presumes metal objects on or with body
Field application often improperly conducted
Thermal imagery Nondestructive
Can examine large area
Hand-held or attached to vehicle (land or aircraft)
Real-time data
Videotaped for review
Requires little or no wind
Requires special equipment and knowledgable operators
Decomposition dogs Relatively nondestructive
Documented effectiveness even 170 years after burial
Effective over water
Most effective when air, ground moist
Dog may be trained for other uses and not properly trained for this type
of work; handler may overstate qualications
Naturalists Excellent for information concerning scavenging cases and
outdoor information
Ability to recognize animal scavenging may be altered by climatic
conditions
Tracking easiest in snow, mud, soft sand, or dust
Archaeology Experienced in mapping, data collection, preservation of
information from excavated materials, and is therefore
extremely valuable for building court cases.
Both destructive and intrusive
Though data collection can be modied to meet most time demands,
can be relatively slow
Forensic physical anthropologists On-site interpretation of remains
Locations of skeletal/body elements
Not all forensic physical anthropologists are trained in excavation
techniques
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Literature research and far-eld studies were performed to establish the geologic character
and stratigraphic setting of the project site. This involved denition of rock types, establish-
ment of the age relationships among the rock types, and the evaluation of the effect of rock
type on subsequent soil formation. Far-eld studies also involved relating the physical character
(geomorphology) of the project area to the distribution of underlying rock types (stratigraphy).
The near-eld studies on the sites and the related far-eld studies focused on the deni-
tion of soil proles at specic burial sites, road cuts, and other excavations; the relationship
of these soil proles to the parent rock units; and how soil composition and character affect
the recovery of a soil prole to a normal state. All burial sites have been and continue to
be monitored and photographed to document the recovery of the soil proles.
This program involved photographing of each burial site on a monthly basis. In addition,
soil samples were collected to monitor soil disintegration as a reference to actual disturbance
recovery at the burial sites.

Botany

As part of the far-eld study of vegetation, percent area cover for bare soil (back dirt), litter
and herbaceous vegetation were estimated, and a total species list was prepared listing the
plants found within the training facility.
Near-eld study of vegetation included listing the plants growing on each grave, calibra-
tion pit, and back dirt area. For the near-eld study, a 1-m by 0.5-m rectangle of PVC pipe
was set at the approximate center of the test plot (grave, control pit, etc.) and vegetation was
analyzed from within that test plot. Far-eld study was tested in the same manner, with the
1-m by 0.5-m rectangle of PVC pipe set at various areas away from the test plots. The areas
for far-eld study are not the same for each test, but are taken approximately at random
within the training facility in the general vicinity of the test plots. Frequency of species was
determined by counting the number of rectangular plots on which a particular plant species
was found. For example, wheat grass was found on four disturbed plots (either a grave or
calibration pit) and on two undisturbed sites, while sunsedge was found on no disturbed sites
and on three undisturbed sites.
After the pigs were scavenged from sites #1, 2, and 5, members of the team decided to
cover the unscavenged grave sites with heavy chain link fencing to protect those graves from
further scavenging. Although vegetation on the grave is potentially altered, some plant growth
is allowed, and the fencing can be easily removed for near-eld investigations such as geo-
physical surveying.

Entomology

A control site was established to examine the airborne and surface insects. A BioQuip Malaise
trap was erected to monitor aerial-dispersing insects, and was cleaned of all insects 1, 2, 4, 7,
12, 15, 25, and 30 days after pigs were buried. In addition, this type of trap was erected directly
over burial site #1 and cleaned of all insects at the above schedule. Additionally, ve pit traps
were placed around the site to sample surface dispersing arthropods, and were monitored and
cleaned at the above schedule. At burials 12 and 13 (surface deposits), insects were collected
at the same intervals.

Geophysics

Three specic geophysical methods were selected for evaluation at the Pig site: magnetics
(MAG), electromagnetics (EM), and ground penetrating radar (GPR). The selection of these
methods was based on the direct experience of one of the authors (Davenport) in implement-
ing geophysical investigations on archaeological projects. The equipment utilized to date has
included an EG&G Geometrics G-856-AX proton precession magnetometer with gradiometer
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attachment, Geonics EM-31 and EM 38 ground conductivity meters, and a Geophysical Survey
Systems, Incorporated (GSSI) subsurface interfacing radar (SIR) Model SIR-3 with magnetic
data recording and color display capabilities. The GPR system has been evaluated using 80,
300, 500, and 900 megahertz (MHz) antennae. Self potential (SP) surveying has also been
utilized at the research site, but not as extensively as the other geophysical methods. The soil
gas (SG) surveying was performed utilizing a Photovas 10570 portable gas chromotograph,
while the SP surveying was done with a BBC high impedance voltmeter and Tinker and Rasor
electrodes. Geophysical surveying was performed in either lineal or grid arrays, with data
collection points spaced from 1 to 3 meters apart, except in the case of GPR surveying, which
produces a continuous record of data collection. Geophysical arrays were arranged to provide
data over undisturbed areas, buried pigs, and control pits.

Thermal Imagery

The initial thermal imaging was performed using a Xedar Model XS-420 infrared camera
system. Current surveys are conducted with FLIR (Forward Looking InfraRed) Systems, Inc.,
model #2000F with a truck mount, and ISI VideoTherm Model 94 and Model 96 portable
handheld infrared cameras. Fair-eld thermal imagery consisted of obtaining high quality
thermal images of steady-state and dynamic scenes by panning the camera across the terrain
of the research site, whereas near-eld information was obtained by aiming the camera toward
and xing it on each grave and calibration pit.

Soil Gas

Soil gas sampling of the far-eld consisted of determining background levels of methane and
other volatile organic compounds throughout research site. Near-eld studies were performed
by taking soil gas readings directly over graves and calibration pits.

Decomposition Dogs

Standard far-eld and near-eld investigations become less dened for work with scent-
detection dogs, as the dog denes those elds itself. The ability of the scent detection dogs to
locate the buried pigs was tested using standard search techniques. The dog was controlled
on a lead of usually 5 meters (15 feet) in length at all times, and worked on a zigzag pattern
downwind of the suspected area. The zigzag pattern was maintained for the dog until it alerted
to a scent, at which point the dog was allowed to work its own search pattern to the source.

Scavenging Patterns

Naturalists trained in animal tracking and familiar with the habits of indigenous species were
responsible for identifying scat and other animal sign. This information was used to develop
scavenging patterns related to the burial sites. Patterns of bone modication related to scav-
enging were studied.
Standard far-eld and near-eld investigations also became blurred in studies of scav-
enging, as those terms are dened by where the scavenged remains, scat, and the agents of
scavenging (coyotes, dogs, rodents, etc.) are found.

Results

Aerial Photography

Grave sites are revealed by a number of factors in the air photographs taken at the research site.
These factors include changes in growth patterns and characteristics of near-eld vegetation,
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anomalous soil marks associated with excavational boundaries, and settlement of snow within
some grave surface depressions. Low sun angle oblique photographs tend to emphasize texture
of the ground surface, and the associated long shadows can reveal minute topographic relief.

Thermal Imagery

Aerial photography has been combined with infrared photography (forward-looking infrared,
or FLIR) to search for buried bodies. While the FLIR system offers the best possible resolution
and clarity, it requires a mount only offered by a helicopter or a specially equipped truck.
The use of infrared should not be limited to detecting those heat-related changes asso-
ciated with decomposition. Infrared is a valuable tool in detecting compaction or density
differences between the disturbed and undisturbed ground and so can be useful in detecting
gravesites years after heat-generating decomposition has ceased.

Geology

At the research site, short-term (less than 5 years) geological effects are enhanced by climatic
conditions. The climatic conditions that typify Colorados eastern plains offer extreme con-
sequences affecting both the soil character and the rate and nature of soil recovery over the
graves. Climatic conditions during late spring, summer, and fall, and often into early winter tend
to be dry. The dry conditions are inhibiting plant reestablishment over the graves and retard
breakdown of the disturbed clay rich host soil horizon. Lack of moisture largely neutralizes
mechanical breakdown of ll material that is characteristic of periodic freeze/thaw conditions.
The moist climatic conditions of winter, spring, and early summer enhance rapid break-
down of clay soils. Excavation boundaries tend to become masked, ll material becomes
generally more ne-grained, and the compaction of the ll material to the original surface
grade is facilitated.
Excavations made during dry climatic conditions persist with little change throughout
the dry season. Moisture enhances grave site recovery and plant establishment.

Botany

The consequences of digging a grave and burying a body in a natural area are the same as
any type of disturbance that destroys the existing vegetation: secondary succession is set into
motion. After 5 years of following the regrowth of vegetation on pig graves, several general
observations can be made. Undisturbed plots contained the greatest species diversity and
supported both weedy plants as well as wild owers. After disturbance by digging, the
plots supported a community with very little species diversity, often a monoculture of

Alyssum
minus

(in this area of Colorado). Slowly, other species are invading from the surrounding
undisturbed areas, but no plots had attained the original species mix by May of 1994. There
is no difference in the revegetation pattern between the holes that still contain pigs and the
holes that do not contain pigs.
The graves and calibration pits continue to revegetate, though the mix of plants on the
disturbed areas is noticeably different than on the undisturbed areas. Vegetation on the
disturbed areas depends on several factors, including which plants are nearby and supplying
seeds to the disturbed ground and where in the landscape the digging was done (in drainage
areas or on high ground). For example, the pig at Site 6 was placed on top of the ground in
a drainage ditch, and dirt from another area was deposited over it. Even though the pig was
taken by scavengers, the disturbed area is revegetating differently than the rest of the sites,
both because the seeds in the foreign soil are different from the indigenous plants, and because
the drainage ditch provides extra water for growth.
Although the percent cover for each site does not differ, the species covering each site are
different. After 5 years the grave sites are revegetating similarly to the calibration pits, and,
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though it is commonly believed that the presence of a decaying body will provide nutrition
to the plants covering a gravesite, at this point the presence of a decaying pig has not obviously
affected plant growth, though decomposition dogs used in the research and on search scenes
have indicated on some species of plants surrounding gravesites. (See section on decompo-
sition dogs.) The warmth provided by a decaying pig has not been seen to affect the plant
species which occupy a gravesite, though it is still hypothesized that this warmth exceeding
the temperature of the adjacent ground may encourage plants to stay active for a longer period
of time than the surrounding plant colonies during the period of heat-generating decay.
Vegetation analysis on the eight sites shows that:
1. Digging a grave will destroy existing vegetation and set succession in motion.
2. Pioneer or opportunistic plants will be the rst to grow on the disturbed area. At the
research site, the plants that have shown up on disturbed plots that have never shown
up on undisturbed plots are thistle (

Carduus

spp.), annual sunower (

Helianthus
annuus

), and common purslane (

Portulaca oleracea

).
3. Vegetation changes as the grave progresses through the serial stages of succession.
4. Presumably, the climax vegetation for the area will eventually grow on the graves and
calibration pits if they are not further disturbed. For lowland dry grass areas this
includes blue grama grass (

Bouteloua gracilis

), other grasses, and many wild owers.
The disturbed area (grave or calibration pit) will look different from the surrounding
area for many years (exceeding so far, the duration of this study).
5. Knowledge of the plants of an area can supply clues to the discovery of a grave,
particularly where the vegetation is largely otherwise undisturbed.

Entomology

There was no visible entomological indication of the buried pig, such as evidence of surface
stains from saponication/liquication ca. 30 days after burial. The blowy,

Calliphora vom-
itoria,

was trapped by the Malaise trap within 24 h of burial, and

Phormia regina

arrived 48 h
after burial. By day 15, signicant numbers (

p

= <0.05) of blowies were trapped over the
burial site as compared with control sites. No arthropods typically considered to be forensic
indicators were trapped by the pit traps.

Geophysics

The results of geophysical surveys applied to the location and delineation of clandestine graves
have been encouraging. Once suspected target areas are dened by other techniques, geophys-
ical surveys can be efciently run using portable equipment. MAG and EM surveys data are
gathered and presented in the eld via use of a portable computer. These data can be presented
in the form of contour maps or as individual proles. The GPR data are acquired in real time
format, i.e., the results are immediately available to investigators in the eld. Work at the Pig
site has demonstrated that SP surveying has very limited application in delineating clandestine
graves. The eld work is labor-intensive and the data interpretation is ambiguous. Of all of the
methods applied at the Pig site, the most useful have been determined to be MAG, EM, and GPR.
MAG surveys were performed on some of the planned graves sites prior to interment of
the pigs. Monitoring with MAG surveys after interment demonstrates that these surveys can
be used at this site to detect areas of excavation, even when metallics are not present. This
effect, a MAG anomaly, appears to be directly related to a reorientation of magnetic soil
particles upon backlling the graves. EM surveys have proven more useful than MAG, as the
ground conductivity changes over graves due to the increased porosity of the backll materials.
EM surveys can be utilized to determine changes in ground conductivity and to detect the
presence of ferrous and nonferrous metallics. When properly used and depending on the
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electrical properties of the soil, GPR surveys offer the investigator the most useful tool to
delineate graves. Soil changes and excavation patterns can be readily identied by trained
GPR operators. The addition of color monitoring to the normally black and white monitoring
capabilities of the GPR systems allows investigators to easily identify changes in soil horizons
over actual grave sites.
Perhaps the most important result of the geophysical surveying at the Pig site has been
the realization of the importance of constructing a calibration site to test any geophysical
method prior to application on an actual investigation. Any information concerning the type
and/or construction of the disposal facility should be used to construct a similar, albeit empty,
facility near the actual area to be investigated. The geophysicists can utilize this calibration
site to determine the following:
1. Response of different geophysical methods
2. Type and characteristics of the geophysical signal
3. Prole and data station separation(s)

Soil Gas

The soil gas surveying performed at the research site holds promise of providing a useful,
albeit labor intensive, technique to locate graves. Organic gases were detected within 3 meters
of two of the grave sites; however, the investigators had the privilege of knowing in advance
the locations of these sites. Soil gas surveying is best in soils with a low clay content (so as
not to clog the probes) and over unfrozen ground. Soil gas is not routinely utilized at crime
scenes by the NecroSearch team.

Decompostion Dogs

Based on experience with cases in this study and on opinions of other dog handlers, the
successful use of dogs seems to be most signicantly affected by weather conditions. There
appears to be a decrease in the dogs scenting ability at temperatures above approximately
29C (85F). Excessive heat apparently causes some discomfort to the dog which seems to
decrease its ability to locate a scent. When the temperature is extremely high, the dog may
still locate the scent; however in most cases it will need to be within approximately 1 m of a
buried source. Even if the temperature is high, the results will improve if the ground is moist.
Extremely low temperatures also seem to limit the dogs ability to detect the scent from a
distance, especially if the source is buried. If the source is buried in snow with temperatures
allowing only minimal melting, the dog must be within 1 meter to locate the source. If the
temperature is warm enough to allow for signicant melting, the dog can locate the source
from a greater distance. Additionally, if the source is buried in snow, or in the ground below
snow, and the temperature is below freezing, the dog may not locate the source at all. The
precise relationships between temperature, burial, and wind have not been tested.
Other factors which appear to affect the dogs work include air humidity, ground mois-
ture, and wind speed. Humidity seems to intensify the dogs ability to detect the source at a
distance. The ground should be moist, ideally to the depth of the source, or so dry that
desiccation cracks intercept the source (Major Glenn Rimbey, New Mexico State Penitentiary,
personal communication). Ultimately, if no wind is present, the dog will have difculty
detecting a scent except from an area within a meter of the source.
Based on experience at the research and other sites, the optimal conditions for the
successful use of cadaver dogs include temperatures between approximately 4 and 16C (40
to 60F), 20% or higher humidity, moist or very moist ground, and wind speed of at least
8 km (5 mi) per hour (there is no upper limit to wind speed, though the scent cone becomes
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narrower with higher wind speeds). Additionally, it has been hypothesized, but not tested,
that lower barometric pressure may increase the ability of the dogs to detect scents of all kinds
arising from the soil.
Also based on experience at the research site and other sites (including actual cases), the
trained decomposition dog will indicate the presence of decayed human scent when the source
is human blood, feces, urine, and other human compounds, as well as other materials that
have been handled or worn by humans, and so will give a seemingly false positive indication.
Due to this discovery the dog handlers involved in this research have reclassied their dogs
as decomposition dogs rather than cadaver dogs since a positive reaction from the dog
may not specically indicate a cadaver. Also, the dogs have marked on particular spots where
decomposing scent had been present but had since been moved either accidently or purposely.
Double-blind tests are being devised at present to rigorously test the dogs and handlers to
determine under what additional conditions false negatives are possible (that is, when the
dog does not indicate a body which is present).
Additional tests are being devised to determine the maximum time since death in which
dogs can be useful. Some cadaver dogs have indicated on archaeological remains dated to
around 1400 years before the present in an above-ground informal test. As expected, the dogs
are less likely to indicate on those pig burial sites with a longer time since burial interval.
In those situations, however, the dogs are more likely to indicate on certain plant species
(particularly shrubs and trees) surrounding the grave site, and in some cases the dogs have
actually tried to chew or bite at those shrubs close to the grave site (which is atypical behavior).

Scavenging

Animal tracks or scat identied in the research area include domestic dog, coyote, fox, rabbit,
deer, elk, skunk, raccoon, horse, cattle, porcupine, woodrat, and mouse.
Intensive, systematic searches within a 1 km radius of the site have recovered bones of
deer, cattle, horses, canids, and rabbits. Many fresh bone chips, teeth, and hair had been found
around several sites, indicating scavenging, but no large pig bones had been recovered within
that search radius of the pig burials in the earlier stages of the research. The absence of large
bones within the search radius suggested that the remains were carried a greater distance than
the approximately 0.2 km maximum reported by Haglund et al. (1989), though as Haglund
mentioned (personal communication), the ranges of coyotes vary considerably with differ-
ences in terrain and vegetation. Small VHF transmitters designed for wildlife radio tracking
were recently attached to various areas of several new pig carcasses before burial to trace the
location of the scavenged remains. The greatest distance to date for removal of portions of
the pig remains has been 300 meters (burial 13), but remains may be moved as little as a few
meters at each time, shallowly buried by the scavenger, and moved again later (as recorded
with the aid of the transmitters).
Birds (various hawks, turkey vultures, and other birds) are often the rst scavengers on
the scene of shallow burials or surface deposits and will visit the remains many times through-
out the scavenging process. Initial observations suggest that birds may take the epidermis of
the pigs in sheets leaving straight surgical-like cut marks on the remaining tissue. In future
experiments, this material will be preserved for microscopic examination and comparison
with true cut tissue.

Conclusions

Table 1 has been prepared based upon the experiences gained by both studies done at the
known (pig) burial sites and eld work on sites of suspected criminal burials.
1997 CRC Press LLC

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