geologic structures

geologic structures
up until now, we have focused our attention mostly on
at-lying rocks, i.e. sedimentary or volcanic layers
not all layers on Earth are at-lying: geologic structures
geologic structures
dynamically produced patterns or arrangements of
rock or sediment that result from forces acting
within the Earth
structures yield information about these forces
geologic structures
produced as rocks change shape or orientation from
applied stress -- force / area
structural geology is study of shapes, arrangements and
relationships among rocks and stresses that deform them
rocks, like the fence below, deform in response to stress
can bend or break
geologic structures
bending or breaking of rocks yield different structures
bending: folds breaking: faults
stress is force/area--hitting with a hammer
geologic structures -- key concepts
importance of area:
think of difference
between
standing on water bed
in high heels or sneakers
3 types of stress:
1) compression: pushed together
2) tension: pulled apart
3) shear stress: moved horizontally past each other
strain is change in shape or volume arising from stress
geologic structures -- key concepts
rock attens after
being hit with hammer
stress and resulting strain
1) compression: shortening
2) tension: stretching
3) shearing stress: shear strain
strain is change in shape or volume arising from stress
translation
(no change in shape)
rotation
(no change in shape)
distortion
(shape changes)
time 1 time 2
volume change
(dilation, contraction)
4 responses possible to stress
from: Davis and Reynolds, 1996
dilation translation
rotation distortion
another way to look at it:
geologic structures
geologic structures reect the type of stress applied
and its rate of application in addition to the phyiscal
properties of the rocks or sediments
how rocks respond to stress
rocks behave as elastic, brittle, or ductile bodies depending on
amount and rate of stress application
type of rock
temperature & pressure
elastic: rock returns
to orginal shape when
stress is removed
(think rubber band)
brittle: rock breaks
at yield point
(strength of rock overcome)
lower T and P
rock under compression (break)
ductile: rock ows
at yield point
(no continuous break)
higher T and P
rock under compression
(change in shape)
from where does stress come?
motions of tectonic plates on Earths surface
deformation primarily
occurs along
plate boundaries
factors that affect deformation of rock
lithostatic pressure: is weight of overlying rock
(lithos = rock)
heat: causes atomic bonds to weaken
--temperatures low at shallow depths (brittle)
--temperatures high at great depths (ductile)
time: allows stress to be applied slowly or quickly
--initial stress may not be enough, but
will be given enough time (sagging bookshelves)
--stress applied quickly (snap stick) (brittle)
--stress applied slowly (bend stick) (ductile)
composition: controls rock response to stress
--minerals, weaknesses in rock, uids in pores, etc.
to understand deformation
need to know orientations
of deformed rocks
orientation of geologic structures
deformation is easiest to see
in sedimentary rocks
i.e. layers are not at,
but are tilted or dipping
geologists measure orientation
of layers in outcrops
outcrop: where bedrock is
exposed at the surface
orientation of geologic structures
rock layers are planes - use 2 lines to dene plane in space
nd 2 lines that can be used and easily measured
1) strike: intersection of plane with horizontal plane (e.g. sea level)
--gives direction of plane relative to north
i.e. N60E
North
60
strike
2) dip: angle that plane
is inclined relative to
the horizontal plane
e.g. 45 to SE
45
Earths surface
dip
orientation of geologic structures
measure strike
with a compass
measure dip
with an inclinometer
map
cross-section
prole along vertical plane
--allows one to see
structure in subsurface--
NS strike
30 dip to W
30
orientation of geologic structures
plot strike and dip
of layer
on a geologic map
strike and dip symbol
types of geologic structures
folds
wavelike bends in layered rock
represent ductile deformation
form during compression
fold divided into two limbs
by its axial plane
limbs
hinge is where fold curves
hinge
types of geologic structures
folds
can arch upward or downward
anticline:
upward arching fold
syncline:
downward arching fold
types of geologic structures
folds
have different geometries
open folds: gently dipping limbs
isoclinal folds: parallel limbs
types of geologic structures
folds
have different geometries
overturned folds: limbs dip in same direction
recumbent folds: limbs are parallel and horizontal
types of geologic structures
folds
have different orientations
plunging folds:
hinge is not horizontal
from: http://www.stmarys.ca/academic/science/geology/structural/
folds
occur at all scales from < mm to mountains
from http://www.eos.duke.edu/geo41/geo41.htm
from: http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm
Appalachian Mountains
Arkansas
Ouachitas
types of geologic structures
domes and basins
domes:
layers dip away from
central point (look at symbols)
basins:
layers dip toward
central point (look at symbols)
outcrop patterns form rings
Ozark dome
bright pink area
in
Missouri and
Northern
Arkansas
geologic structures
folds -- anticlines and synclines -- produce characteristic
pattern, or superposition, of layers
note: 1 (oldest) - 5 (youngest) layers below
top or middle
(hinge)
of anticline
at surface
has oldest
age rocks
(3)
and limbs
at surface
have
youngest
(4)
top or middle
(hinge)
of syncline
at surface
has youngest
age rocks
(5)
and limbs
at surface
have oldest
(4)
1
2
3
4
5
faults
Back to geologic structures
bending or breaking of rocks yield different structures
breaking: faults (discuss now) bending: folds (already discussed)
how rocks respond to stress
rocks behave as elastic, brittle, or ductile bodies
brittle: rock breaks
at yield point
(strength of rock overcome)
lower T and P
FAULTS
rock under compression (break)
ductile: rock ows
at yield point
(no continuous break)
higher T and P
FOLDS rock under compression
(change in shape)
geologic structures
fractures: cracks in rocks
joint --
fracture along which no movement has occurred
very common;
do not reect much strain
geologic structures
joints: form perpendicular to tension direction
cracks open to form joints
joints control erosion and can make spectacular landscapes
water gets into the openings
Bryce Canyon
geologic structures
fractures: cracks in rocks
fault --
fracture along which movement has occurred;
considered active if motion
has occurred < 11,000 years
recognize by juxtaposition of
different types of rocks
or offset layers
faults: have noticeable movement across them
fault zones: can be wide with crushed rock in them
San Andreas Fault
Garlock Fault
Garlock
San Andreas
from: http://www.geo.duke.edu/geo42/st.html
faults: examples
large faults
faults: examples
offset ditch
along
San Andreas Fault
in 1975
faults: examples
same ditch
along
San Andreas Fault
in 1992
geologic structures
types of faults
use strike and dip to classify faults
dip-slip fault: slip parallel to dip (up or down plane)
strike-slip fault: slip parallel to strike (horizontal)
geologic structures
types of faults
dip-slip is not unique (up or down?)
strike-slip is not unique (left or right?)
need another description
can label opposite
sides of a
dip-slip fault
--imagine standing in
a hole along fault --
brown is block
above your head
--hanging wall--
pink is block below your feet --footwall--
hanging wall
footwall
types of faults: dip-slip
reverse fault
dip-slip fault with motion
of hanging wall up
the fault plane
normal fault
dip-slip fault with motion
of hanging wall down
the fault plane
types of faults: strike-slip
right lateral
stand on one side of fault
and look across at the other
to label the type of fault
strike-slip faults are vertical
cannot use hanging wall and footwall
(one side is not above the other)
left lateral
graben
downdropped
block
horst
high block
between
grabens
form during tensional stress (extension)
types of faults: normal (dip-slip)
extend crust (horizontal)
thin crust (vertical)
think pulling taffy
hanging wall
moves down
fault plane
normal faults
develop where crust is stretched by tensional stresses
form from high horsts with intervening low grabens
Basin and Range:
western US
normal faults: fault-block mountains
topography of Nevada
horst horst
graben
form during compressional stress (shortening)
types of faults: reverse (dip-slip)
shorten crust (horizontal)
thicken crust (vertical)
hanging wall
moves up
fault plane
thrust fault
reverse fault that
has a shallow dip
reverse fault
thrust faults are low angle reverse faults,
which have dips < 30
thrust faults
northern Rockies
thrust faults
normal vs. reverse faults: key concepts
original unfaulted rectangle
--has width AB--
(distance between X and Y)
normal faulted rectangle
--has width AB--
(distance between X and Y)
longer than original length AB
reverse faulted rectangle
--has width AB--
(distance between X and Y)
shorter than original length AB
normal vs. reverse faults: key concepts
motion of hanging wall down
fault plane leads to
omission of section, i.e.
younger layers over older
(gray layer is missing along
yellow line)
motion of hanging wall up
fault plane leads to
repetition of section, i.e.
older layers over younger
(gray layer is repeated along
yellow line)
form during shearing stress
types of faults: strike-slip
faults are vertical: no hanging wall or footwall
neither shortening or extension occurs
offset surface features such as streams and valleys
strike-slip fault: offset streams
from: http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~sieh/research from: Shelton
strike-slip fault: San Andreas
have both strike-slip (horizontal) and dip-slip (vertical) motion
types of faults: oblique-slip
footwall
hanging wall
oblique slip
footwall
hanging wall
oblique slip
geologic structures: importance for petroleum
form traps
--locations where petroleum accumulates
trap
in
anticline
gas and oil
migrate up
through
permeable
layers and
are trapped
by
impermeable
units
eroded anticline will not serve as trap
no impermeable cap to trap oil or gas
geologic structures: importance for petroleum
trap along
fault
traps along sedimentary features
key is having
impermeable unit
above
permeable unit