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9. THE VERB


The verb is defined as a principal part of speech in the English morphological
system that expresses actions, processes and states.


9.1. Classification of verbs

According to various criteria, verbs fall under several classifications:

According to form:

simple verbs: go, come, stay etc.

derivatives:

en + noun to endanger, to encourage, to encode, to enchain etc.
be + noun to befriend,
noun + ify to calcify, to stonify, to electrify, to codify etc.
adj + -ise/-ize to familiarise, to militarise, to standardise etc.
adjective + -en to tighten, to frighten, to golden etc.

compounds: to spotlight, to weekend

conversions:

noun > verb: paper to paper; comb to comb, etc
adjective > verb: clean to clean, clear to clear, and other types of conversion;

verbs obtained by other means (clipping, acronyms, blending, back derivation etc.)
by conversion, become verbs:

radar - to radar, laser - to laser, photo (graph) to photo
verbal phrases

to take care of, to make use of, to make up ones mind

According to their morphological structure:

simple verbs (without an adverbial particle): stay, put, write, work etc.
with an adverbial particle/phrasal verbs = phrasal verbs, e.g.put on, take off, get
on, get down, look out etc.
with an obligatory preposition /prepositional verbs, e.g. to look at, to look after, to
look for etc.

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with an adverbial particle + an obligatory preposition = adverbial/prepositional
verbs: to look forward to, to get along with etc.

In point of meaning verbs are usually classified as follows:

verbs having full meaning = notional verbs e.g. to work, to go, to stay etc.
verbs whose meaning is somewhat reduced but they have important grammatical
functions e.g.
link / copulative verbs: be, seen, appear etc.
auxiliary verbs: do, be, have; can, could; shall, should etc.

For practical purposes, certain linguists (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 105) take auxiliary
verbs proper and modal verbs together and call them auxiliaries.

According to other linguists (Leech & Svartik, 1994: 146) verbs fall under 6 classes when
the criterion refers to the part of a clause following the verb phrase depending on the
verb for its basic structure. The standard example of the verb find is given, which can be
found in the following different contexts, e.g.

I found her in the library
I found her a new job
I found her to be a very competent person.

The six basic verb patterns in English are:

9.1.1. Link verb with subject complement (SVC)

e.g. She is a doctor.

A link verb, also called a copular verb or a copula can be followed by a complement
consisting of a noun phrase, an adjective etc. The verb BE is currently used as a link verb.
Other verbs used as link verbs are: appear, feel, remain, seem, keep, look (=appear),
stay, make, smell, sound, taste, turn, lie, get, grow (=become), become, e.g.

She never appears sorry at somebody elses misfortune;
When she lies awake at night her thoughts instantly turn to her lost child;
This festival will remain a cherished tradition of our community;
His going to a new club does not seem a good idea to any of his supporters.

Link verbs can also be followed by a noun/objective phrase as in the examples above or
by a nominal clause, e.g.

The result was that nobody knew what was actually going on.
What they worry about is whether to stay here or more elsewhere.
Home is where you were born.

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- the complement of a link verb can also be a deverbal adjective, i.e. a present or past
participle (amusing, horrifying, interesting, infuriating, bored or amused, horrified,
interested, infuriated etc.).

Some of the audience were bored.
The book was rather boring;
Her lectures in Indian culture were very interesting
The woman was infuriating/infuriated.

- the verb TO BE can occur sometimes between the link verb and the complement, e.g.

She seemed (to be) the cleverest girl I have ever seen.
There does not seem to be any trouble with her car.
All of us seem (to be) very happy now.

9.1.2. Verbs with one object (SVO)

These are:

ordinary transitive verbs; they can take one object under the form of a noun phrase, e.g.
I just finished the book.
Where did you hear that story?
Nobody believed me.
I want to know who telephoned the dentist.
His arrest caused great sensation in town.
phrasal verbs, i.e. verb + adverbial particle + object
She looked the word up in the dictionary
She looked up the word in the dictionary
She looked it up in the dictionary.
prepositional verbs, i.e. verb + preposition + object
They come across a monster, got scared and ran.
Nobody looked after the kids now.
phrasalprepositional verbs; i.e. verb + adverbial particle + preposition + object
I am looking forward to your letter
Peter was no longer able to get along with any of his friends.
- a TO infinitive, e.g. of the verbs that can take a TO infinitive as an object, the most
frequent are: afford, ask, dislike, forget, hate, help, hope, learn, live, need, offer, prefer,
promise, refuse, remember, try, want etc.
They agreed to leave on the spot.
The manager decided to fire me.
Nobody liked to work with him.
- bare infinitives with modal auxiliaries, e.g.
She can speak English well.
We cannot leave by the 6:30 train.
She should tell her parents about her marriage.

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- an ing form, e.g.

The most frequent verbs that take an - ing - form as an object are: admit, (cant) bear,
confess, deny, finish, forget, hate, (cant) help, keep, like, love, (not) mind, prefer,
remember, (cant) stand, enjoy, dislike, avoid, stop.*

*Stop can also take a TO infinitive as an object but the meaning is then different,
e.g.

She stopped talking (= she ceased to talk)
She stopped (talking) to talk to her neighbour (=she ceased the first action in order
to perform the second).
She enjoys working in a team.
a THAT clause, e.g.
The most frequent verbs which take a that clause are: admit, announce, bet, claim,
complain, confess, declare, deny, explain, guarantee, insist, mention, object, etc.
They agreed (that) the global climate is changing.
We discovered (that) nobody wanted to accept our invitation to the end of term
party.
Mary thought (that) her brother was home already.
a THAT clause with putative SHOULD or a subjunctive verb. THAT is not omitted
in these constructions; the most usual verbs that take this construction are: ask,
command, decide, demand, insist, intend, move, prefer, propose, recommend,
require, urge, order, request, suggest, e.g.
The manager ordered that the goals department should be closed down.
They suggest that the car should be sold as soon as possible.
We insisted that results should be announced the following day.
a WH clause some verbs take a finite clause introduced by a wh-word: how, why,
where, who, whether, (or if) etc. The most frequent verbs with a wh-clause as object
are: ask, care, decide, depend, discover, doubt, explain, forget, hear, mind, prove,
realize, remember, know, see, tell, think, wonder etc.
They decided who to choose as supervisor.
We do not know where to put this piano.
Peter remembered what to do next.
9.1.3. Verb + object + infinitive

See the Accusative with the Infinitive, section 2.7.4.2.

verb + object + ing form

See the Accusative with the Present Participle, section 2.7.4.3.

- verbs with two objects.

See the Dative/Accusative, the place of the DO and IO, section 2.7.3.


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- these verbs can also be followed by object + THAT clause; frequent verbs are:
advise, assure, bet, convince, inform, persuade, promise, remind, show, teach, warn,
write etc.
She convinced me that she was right.
We promised the child that he would soon get his present.
Peter wrote his mother that he wanted to leave for France.
9.1.4. Verb + object + wh-clause (finite or non-finite)
We used to ask him what he was going to do.
When she told us what she wanted to buy we all agreed.
Mrs Williams has taught her students how to write an essay.
9.1.5. Verbs + object + object complement
The verbs that take this construction are called complex transitive verbs, e.g. call, find,
consider, appoint, elect, imagine, make, name, suppose, think, vote etc.
They elected John Smith president
The president appointed Mr Johnson secretary of the committee.
We considered him (to be) the best player of the team
The complement is more likely to be an adjective with verbs like declare, find, judge,
keep, leave, make, wash etc.
They found the newly elected president fit for the job.
They kept their houses dirty.
We washed our clothes clean.
9.1.6. Verbs without object or complement
Verbs without object or complement are called intransitive. Intransitive verbs can be
followed by adverbials;
They ran fast.
In America people seldom walk to their office.
I dream every night.
NOTE: Intransitive verbs may sometimes become transitive, e.g. to run a horse in a
race, to walk somebody, to walk the dog etc.
2. Some of these verbs may have internal objects, i.e. a direct object that belongs to the
same root or is a synonym of it, e.g.
to live a (long) live
to dream a (nice) dream
to fight a (just) fight
to walk a (long) way

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10. THE GRAMMATICAL
CATEGORIES OF THE VERB


The verb in English has the following grammatical categories:

aspect (indefinite/continuous and perfective/imperfective);
voice (active, passive, reflexive),
mood (finite forms, e.g. indicative, conditional, subjunctive, imperative and non-finite,
e.g. infinitive, gerund, present participle, past participle);
tense (present, present perfect, past tense, past perfect, future, future perfect)
number (singular and plural), which is marked by the subject number;
person (first, second, third persons, singular and plural);


10.1. Aspect

It can be defined as a grammatical category characteristic of the verb, which shows
how the action rendered by the verb is expressed, i.e. as durative or non-durative,
terminated or not. The most recent terms used are: the continuous aspect that usually
expresses an action that is in progress at a certain moment in the present, past or future
time, and the indefinite aspect that usually expresses an action that is habitual,
repetitive in the present, past or future; e.g.

I am smoking (=the action is being performed at the time of speaking in the
present);
I smoke (=I am in the habit of smoking but I am not doing the action at the time of
speaking in the present);
Mary is playing the piano (=right now);
Mary plays the piano (=she knows how to play that instrument in principle);

A classification of the verbs according to their aspectual potential is not within the
interest of the present work. But we can proceed in a reverse way, i.e. to enumerate the
classes of verbs that are not commonly used in the continuous aspect.

Verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 156,
158)

The continuous tenses are chiefly used for deliberate actions. Some verbs are, therefore,
not normally used in the continuous form and have only one tense, the simple one. These
verbs can be grouped as follows:

Verbs of the senses (involuntary actions): feel, hear, see, smell; also noticeand
observe(= notice), and feel, look, taste used as link verbs; Verbs such as gaze, listen,

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look (at), observe(= watch), stare, watch etc. imply deliberate use of the senses, and can
be used in the continuous tenses, e.g.
"Watch!" " I am watching but I dont see anything unusual."
He is listening to a tape, but hes wearing earphones so nobody else hears it.
Verbs expressing feelings and emotions, e.g. admire, adore, appreciate, care
for (= like), desire, detest, dislike, fear, hate, like, loathe, love, mind, respect, value,
want, wish etc.
But the continuous can be used with some of these verbs, when they have a certain
meaning, e.g. admiremeaning look at with admiration, appreciatemeaning increase in
value, carefor meaning look after etc, e.g.
Hes enjoying his holiday in the Arctic.
Im minding my own business.
How are you liking/do you like your new job?
Verbs of mental activity, e.g. agree, appreciate(=understand), assume, believe,
expect, feel (=think), feel sure/certain, forget, know, mean, perceive, realize, recall,
recognize, recollect, remember, see (=understand), suppose, think (=have an opinion),
trust (=believe/have confidence in), understand. But the continuous form can be used
with appreciatemeaning to increase in value.
Verbs of possession: belong, owe, own, possess:
How much do I owe you?
Auxiliaries, except beand havein certain uses.
appear (=seem), concern, consist, contain, hold (=contain), keep (=continue),
matter, seem, signify, sound (=seem/appear):
It concerns us all.
This box contains explosives.
But appear meaning to come before the public can be used in the continuous form.

In the continuous form the verbs feel, look, smell and taste have slightly different
meanings or certain restrictions of use, e.g.

FEEL

Feel, when followed by an adjective indicating the subjects emotions or physical or
mental condition, e.g. angry/pleased, happy/sad, hot/cold, tense/relaxed,
nervous/confident, e.g.
How do you feel/are you feeling? I feel/am feeling better.
Similarly, feel = try to find something by touching, e.g.
He was feeling for the keyhole in the dark.
In the dark room Mary was feeling the table top to find her car keys;
But feel is not used in the continuous form when it means sense, e.g.
Dont you feel the house shaking?
when it means think:
I feel you are wrong;
and when it is used as a link verb:
The water feels cold;
The childs hands felt cold and shaky;

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The other verbs which are not normally used in the continuous aspect can be used so
when they have meanings different from those mentioned above, or when they take
adverbial particles or prepositions that change their meanings.

10.2. Voice

It is defined as a grammatical relationship between subject predicate object.

10.2.1. The active voice

The active voice shows that the grammatical subject performs an action that may reflect
(transitive verbs) on an object or not (intransitive verbs) see Classification of verbs
(section 9.1)
Mary reads / is reading a book.
Shakespeare wrote some of his famous plays after 1600.

10.2.2. The passive voice

The Passive voice shows that the action is reflected on the grammatical subject (in the
Nominative), although, logically, it should be in the Accusative.

The logical subject may become a by-phrase (the agent) or may be left out altogether.
Transitive verbs are predominantly used in the passive voice, e.g.
The novel was written (by Henry James) in the 19
th
century.
The proposal was sent to the Committee that very day.

10.3. Mood

The mood is the verb form that shows MODALITY, i.e. the speakers attitude
towards the action. For practical reasons moods are defined as
The Indicative, Conditional, Subjunctive and Imperative moods are also
called finite forms of the verb.

the Indicative Mood which shows that the speaker regards/ considers the
construction/action/statement as a real fact, e.g.
She wrote the letter yesterday.
I remember the date of our marriage.
the Conditional Mood which shows that the speaker regards the action as
something s/he desires to happen/achieve, as a conditional fact, e.g.
If the weather is fine we would go for a walk.
I would like to leave immediately.
She couldnt have come to the party unless she was invited.
the Subjunctive Mood which shows that the speaker regards the action as
something uncertain, possible, probable, as a fact contrary to reality etc. In point of
form the past and perfect subjunctive are identical with the past tense and the past
perfect of the Indicative Mood, e.g.

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He works day and night as if he were a madman;
It is high time we went home;
If he invited us to his birthday party, we would take him a very nice present;
the Imperative Mood which shows an order, a request, a demand, a piece of advice
etc., e.g.
Stop talking!
Go home!
Dont cross the street!

The non-finite forms include:

the infinitive (long infinitive or bare infinitive), e.g. (to) go, (to) stay, (to) remain etc.
the present participle (=-ing form), e.g. working, stopping, going etc.
the gerund (=-ing form), writing, amazing, regarding etc.
the past participle: amazed, bored, interested, annoyed, tried studied, worked,
learned etc.

NOTE: the present participle and the gerund called with one term the ing form are
identical in form but different in uses.

10.4. Tense

The tense is a grammatical category that refers to the order of events in time, as it is
perceived by the user.

There are tenses that refer to the present, past or future. To show futurity, English has
developed a variety of means rather than tenses (see under Future).


11. AUXILIARY VERBS
Definition: the auxiliary verb is one used in forming tenses, moods and voices of
other verbs
For reasons of simplicity it is preferable to consider auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries
(=modal verbs) together under the same title. Auxiliary verbs (auxiliaries proper as well
as modals) will be treated rather eclectically for reasons hard to explain in a few words.
The user will find some verbs treated monographically, but with comparisons to other
modals when a better and more comprehensive understanding requires it.
On the other hand, for instance, the author found it impossible to treat must
monographically because the interferences with other means of expressing obligation,
negative obligation, interdiction, absence of obligation etc. are so numerous and complex
that treating the subject monographically as well as functionally seemed the best choice.
The other modals or semi-modals also require an eclectic approach.

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Ultimately, the main scope is to make all auxiliaries as clear as possible. This
clarification is possible up to a certain point, from which onwards more details, more
discriminations, more shades of meaning would only make things difficult to learn and
completely user unfriendly. After all, learners must discover certain things by themselves,
compare and contrast, invent, innovate etc. and, strange as it may sound, all these
processes DO HAPPEN all the time, although users may not be aware of them.
The following verbs are included in this class:

Main auxiliaries to be
to have
to do
Modal auxiliaries - can
- could
- may
- might
- must
ought to
will
would
shall
should
(to) need
(to) dare
(to be) used to

Each of the verbs in the above table will be considered separately.


11.1. TO BE

Form : main forms: be was/were been

This verb can be used as:
an auxiliary verb;
a modal/modal equivalent verb;
an ordinary verb;

Present Tense

Affirmative
I am / Im we are / were
You are / youre you are / youre
he is / hes they are / theyre
she is / shes

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it is / its

Negative
I am not / Im not
you are not / youre not / you arent
he/she/it is not / he/she/its not / he/she/it isnt
we are not / were not / we arent
you are not / youre not / you arent
they are not / theyre not / they arent

Interrogative
am I ? are we ?
are you ? are you ?
is he/she/it ? are they ?

Negative Interrogative
am I not ? / arent I ?
are you not ? / arent you ?
is he/she/it not? / isnt he/she/it ?
are we not ? / arent we ?
are you not ? / arent you ?
are they not ? / arent they ?

The forms of the verb to be are the same in all instances, i.e. as an auxiliary, modal
equivalent or ordinary verb.

The verb to be is not normally used in a continuous form, except in the passive and with
certain adjectives

11.1.1. TO BE as an auxiliary verb

It is used:

to form the continuous aspect, i.e. the verb to be in a certain tense + Vb-ing.
to form the passive, i.e. the verb to be in a certain tense + Vb-ed (III
rd
form for irregular
verbs)

11.1.2. TO BE as a modal equivalent

TO BE + vb-long infinitive is used:

to convey orders or instructions
to convey a plan.

TO BE + Vb-long infinitive used to convey orders or instructions:


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- to be to is a modal equivalent of the verbs MUST, and is extremely useful to give
instructions in an impersonal way (the third person) , e.g.
The students are to stay in class till the principal comes (=the principals orders not
the speakers).
John is to write his homework before his parents come home (=John has this
obligation).

While in the second person the speaker conveys instructions issued by someone else, e.g.

Compare:

Finish your paper today, John! (=the speakers orders)
with

You are to finish your paper today, John! (=the speaker conveys the orders issued
by someone else)
or
Speak to the manager! (=the speakers order)
with
You are to speak to the manager (=the speaker conveys the orders issued by
someone else).

TO BE TO is also very useful in indirect speech to express indirect commands, e.g.

He says: Dont leave this room!
He said that we/you/etc are not to leave the room (of course the forms He ordered
us/you/etc not to leave the room
or
He ordered that we/you/etc. should not leave the room are also possible).

When there is a clause in front of the imperative the easiest way to render it is to use a
TO BE TO construction, e.g.

He said: When the movie begins, come and tell me.
He said that when the movie began, I was to (go and) tell him.
or
He said: If you finish before 10 a.m. take the 11
30
train.
He said that if I finished before 10 a.m. I was to take the 11
30
train.

11.1.3. TO BE as an ordinary verb

It denotes existence, e.g.

BE + noun/adjective denotes existence, or gives information about a person or thing, e.g.


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John is a doctor;
Mary is a teacher;
The Danube is a river in Europe;
The children are in the courtyard;
The movie was interesting;
The book was expensive;

BE + adjective (and a human subject) can express a physical or mental condition,
e.g. to be hungry/thirsty/hot/cold/calm/silent/late/ early/happy/unhappy/busy/right
/wrong/cross/etc.

John is hungry/thirsty.
Mary is hot/cold.
The students are silent/late/early.
They were right.

NOTE: (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 118-119) With certain adjectives, e.g. quiet/noisy,
good) bad, wise/foolish, it is possible to use the continuous form of BE, e.g. Tom is
being foolish, to imply that the subject is showing this quality at this time. Compare Tom
is being foolish, which means Tom is talking or acting foolishly now, with Tom is
foolish, which means that Tom always acts and talks foolishly. Similarly, The children
are being quiet means they are playing quietly now, but The children are quiet might
mean that they usually play quietly.

Other adjectives that can be used similarly are: annoying, cautious/ rash, clever/stupid,
difficult, economical, extravagant, formal, funny, generous/mean, helpful/unhelpful,
informal, irritating, mysterious, optimistic, pessimistic, polite/rude, selfish/unselfish
etc.

noun/it + BE + adjective referring to weather, e.g.

It is cloud.
The sky is blue/cloudy.
It is rain.
It/The weather is hot/cold/fine/sunn.
The day was dry and sunn.

BE is used for age (both animate & inanimate)

Mary is 20 (years old).
John will be 15 next month.
I was 30 last year.

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How old is John? He is 20.
How old are you ? I'm 30.
How old is this city ? It is over 2000 years old.

NOTE: Speakers have a choice, they can say, when speaking about humans/animals:

I am 20, without any other words added or I am 20 years old, the adjective old being
compulsory;
*
I am 20 years is unacceptable.

When giving the age of an object the words years old are obligatory, e.g.The form
*
It is
50 is unacceptable.

BE is used to express size and weight of both animate and inanimate nouns , e.g.

How tall is John ? He is 1.80 meters / 6 feet (tall).
How tall are you ? I'm 1.60 meters.
What is your weight ? I am 60 kilos.
How high is the plane now? It is about 30000 feet / 10000 meters.

NOTE: The units, i.e. meter, foot, kilo etc. should be used; sometimes, as when
expressing weight, I am 60 without kilos, may also be interpreted as age.
CAUTION: in other languages than English the verb TO HAVE is used to express age
of humans or things as well as size and weight and therefore learners of English should
be careful not to apply their native tongue model to English.
BE is used to express time (the subject is IT)
Traditionally, with the prepositions PAST and TO, e.g.
It is 20 past 9 (am/pm).
It is half past 10 (am/pm).
It is 20 to 9 (am/pm).
It is 10 (oclock) (sharp).
What time is it?
or What is the time?
Particularly on airports, railway stations etc. when giving the scheduled time for
departures or arrivals of the various means of transportation.
It is 10.20 (It is ten twenty)
It is 11.30 (It is eleven thirty).
BE is used to express distances e.g.
It is for away/close.
Their house is 2 kilometers away.
It is 60 km from here to your place.
BE is used for prices, e.g.
How much is the wine? (or How much does the wine cost?)
It is 2 (or It cost 2.).

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How much is this book? (=How much does this book cost?)
It is 4 (or I cost 4.).

11.1.4. Expletive THERE + IS/are, was/were etc.

This construction is very much used in English; when be is used to mean EXIST/
HAPPEN/TAKE PLACE; the formal subject is THERE, but the real one is the noun
following the verb; the verb, singular or plural, agrees with the noun following the
verbal form, i.e. if the noun is singular (or uncountable), the verb must be in the singular;
if the noun is in the plural, the verb must be in the plural, e.g.
There is a book on the table.
There is some coffee left in the pot.
There are ten books on the table.
There are some people waiting outside.
The construction with an expletive there as a formal subject can be used with other
verbs + be, e.g. seem + be, appear + be, e.g.
There seems to be something wrong here.
There appeared to have been several accidents in the same place over the years.
The expletive there is not stressed, unlike there used as an adverb; compare
Theres a student who must come in the afternoon (He is the one looking out of
the window)
with
Theres a student who must come in the afternoon (This student exists)

Learners should be careful not to confuse it is/was with there is/was
It + is/was + adjective , while
There is/was + noun , e.g.
It is rainy
There is (a lot of) rain.
It is slippery
There is a lot of ice on the pavement
The constructions can be used of distance and time, e.g.
It is a long way to Bucharest
There is another kilometer to go before we get to Marys place.
It is far from here to the mountains.
There is a long way to ride on camels if you want to see the pyramids.

11.2. TO HAVE

This verb can be used as:
an auxiliary verb;
a modal/modal equivalent verb;
an ordinary verb;
These functions will be dealt with separately.

11.2.1. TO HAVE as an auxiliary verb

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It helps to make up the perfect tenses according to the following structure:
Subject + HAVE (in the present, past, future tenses/conditional + Verb-past participle
(see present perfect, past perfect, future perfect, perfect conditional).
As a present and past perfect tense auxiliary (have/has/had) it helps to make up the
interrogative, negative and negative interrogative forms of the respective tenses.
11.2.2. TO HAVE as a modal/modal equivalent.
Form: it is conjugated as a regular verb (with do/does/did) followed by a long infinitive
(to have to).

In order to make things easier for the user, TO HAVE TO (modal equivalent of MUST)
is treated in Modal Verbs, MUST.
OTHER uses of the verb HAVE:
TO HAVE + OBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE
This is an extremely useful construction employed to express more neatly structures like:
I employed someone to do something for me. Instead of saying I employed someone
to mend my shoes we say I had my shoes mended OR, instead of J ohn employed
someone to redecorate his house, we say John had his house re-decorated. This
construction is shorter, leaving out the personal object, which, in such constructions, is
irrelevant. If the person who has performed that action in the benefit of the subject must
be mentioned, the speaker will need to say:
I employed John Smith to re-decorated my house, or replace the verb HAVE, e.g. I
re-decorated my house (which is something else)
This HAVE + object + past participle can be used in the negative or interrogative forms
as well, e.g.
Do you have your car washed every week?
Did John have his shoes mended?
I have my house re-decorated once in 5 years.
He did not have his car washed last week.
The verb GET can be used instead of HAVE; the construction with GET seems more
colloquial.
The same construction, i.e. have + object + past participle, can be used as a colloquial
alternative of a passive construction; sometimes the idea of misfortune or accident may
be involved, e.g.
John bought a new car last Monday but it was stolen the same day.
becomes:
John had his car stolen the same day he had bought it.
They had a bad car crash and Toms right arm was badly broken in the accident.

17
becomes:
Tom had his right arm badly broken in the car accident.

HAVE + object + present participle (for details see under Accusative + present
participle, section 2.7.4.3).
This is a special case of the construction Object/Accusative + present participle having
the general meanings as a result of the subjects efforts the object will perform the
action expressed by the present participle or the subject persuades/encourages/teaches
the object to perform the action expressed by the present participle; the present
participles can be verbs expressing a mental or physical activity; the verbs in section
10.1.1 (that cannot be used in the continuous aspect).
Examples:
Their new teacher had them speaking English in two months (=the teacher taught
them English in two months).
My mother has me cleaning my room every day (=she persuades/obliges me to
clean my room every day).
Could you have your students rehearsing the play all over again? (=are you able to
persuade them to rehearse the play all over again?).
The president has all ministers working 12 hours a day because of the snowstorm
(= he obliged his ministers to work 12 hours because of the snowstorm).
The psychologist had me travelling by plane in less than a week (=the psychologist
persuaded me to travel by plane in less than a week).
There is yet another meaning of the same construction, the action expressed by the
present participle will/would happen to the subject in the main clause when the latter is
associated with an if clause or a time clause, e.g. If you give all-night parties, youll
have all your neighbours complaining (=this will happen if the condition is fulfilled).
If Mary does not finish her work in time, shell have her employer taking drastic
measures against her (=this will happen if the condition is not fulfilled)
When the time came, she had her parents leaving for Bucharest again (=she
persuaded her parents to go to B.)
When the children became too noisy, the teacher had the work groups splitting up
and working alone (=she decided that the children should work alone).
As with the previous meanings there is a displeasing aspect about this one as well.
Analyse the examples above, as well as:
If he does not get there in time hell have his employer firing him (=this will
happen).
In the first person alone, (I wont have) the meaning is I dont/wont allow/permit the
object to perform the action expressed by the present participle e.g.
I wont have him bringing all his friends for dinner (=I wont allow this).
I wont have my six-year old daughter using my best high-heeled shoes (= I wont
allow that).

11.2.3. TO HAVE as an ordinary verb
Form a regular verb (see the tenses of the indicative mood).

18
In British English it is quite usual to resort to another form to show possession, e.g.

Present Tense
Affirmative Interrogative Negative
I have got Have I got ? I havent got
You have got Have you got? You havent got
He/she/it has got Has he/she/it got ? He/she/it hasnt got

Past Tense
Affirmative Interrogative Negative
I had got Had I got? I hadnt got, etc.
In consequence, there are two forms that can be used alternatively, with the same
meaning, depending on the variety of English the learner chose to use, e.g.
Do you have another English book?
Yes, I do / No, I dont;
Have you got another English book?
Yes, I have / No, I havent;
When it expresses possession, have cannot be used in the continuous form, e.g.
I have a valuable piece of jewelry.
He has a nice coat.
They have a son and a daughter.
The same aspectual restriction applies when HAVE means to suffer (from) pain/an
illness/a disability etc.
Mother has a severe form of hepatitis (= she is suffering from a severe form ..)
Ive had this headache since morning (= Ive been suffering from ..).
She had a bad injury but she is well now (= she is suffering from a bad injury).
The verb get (Ive got and got) can replace the verb have in the second and third
examples.
The verb to have can also be used to mean: conceive, give, give birth, entertain,
encounter, experience, enjoy, hold, hold in a certain relationship, invite, receive, take
etc. (a meal/ food/breakfast/lunch/dinner/etc. drink, eat; a bath/a shower; a lesson)
Mary had breakfast at 8.
We had a meeting yesterday.
She had the child a month before she expected it.
Tom has difficulties with his new job;
We had a very bad time at their party.
We had a pleasant trip in the mountains.
We have my sisters kids for lunch.
Mary had a great idea, which all those present readily accepted.
I have a sister and two brothers.
We had a letter from our brother last week.
John and Mary had 2 tickets for the show tonight from their actor friend.




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11.3. TO DO

This verb can be used as:

an auxiliary verb
an ordinary verb

11.3.1. TO DO as an auxiliary verb

Used as an auxiliary verb, DO helps in the construction of interrogative, negative and
interrogative negative forms of the present and past tenses indefinite.

b) It is possible to use do/does and did in the affirmative of the present and past tenses
indefinite when the user wants to put special emphasis on the construction (= when the
interlocutor doubts the speakers words and the latter insists to be believed), e.g.
You dont like chocolate cake.
"I do like it, but now I simply dont feel like eating anymore".
"You didnt come to meet me this morning".
"I did come, but you werent there".
c) The form DO can be used in affirmative imperative forms, to show insistence on the
part of the speaker, e.g.
Do sit down! instead of Sit down!'
Do let him come with me!'
Do come, quickly!'
DO/does/did are used to avoid repetition of a previous ordinary verb, in several
instances, e.g.
d
1
in short answers, to avoid the repetition of the main verb, e.g.
Do you speak English? Yes, I do / No, I dont.
Does he like travelling by train?
Yes, he does / No, he doesnt.
Did they enjoy themselves at the party?
Yes, they did / No, they didnt.
Did the train come on time?
Yes, it did / No, it didnt.
d
2
in question tags (for present and past tenses indefinite) in the interrogative
affirmative or interrogative-negative, depending on the first term of the construction.
First term Question tag
Affirmative Negative-interrogative
He likes chocolate cakes, doesnt he ?
You speak Chinese, dont you ?
They came by train, didnt they ?
Negative Affirmative-interrogative
Tom doesnt play the piano, does he ?
They dont talk too much, do they ?
You didnt come by train, did you ?


20
NOTE:
the subject of the question tag must always be a pronoun irrespective of the subject in
the main term of the structure;
the negative-interrogative is usually in the contracted form, but not necessarily so;
for other tenses, the functioning is similar, but the verb in the question tag is any other
of the auxiliaries or modals used in the main term, e.g.
You have finished your homework, havent you?
She can speak 3 foreign languages, cant she?
He should have taken the 4
30
train, shouldnt he?
You had finished before they arrived, hadnt you?
You havent taken your aspirin, have you?
She hasnt told you about her marriage, has she?
He couldnt leave last night, could he?
the question tag is not a question in its own right; it is just an enforcement of the
previous statement and is usually uttered with falling intonation. Sometimes, it is
pronounced with rising intonation, the speaker actually asking for approval or
disapproval. This use is only possible in spoken language and not in writing.
d
3
in short agreements and disagreements with remarks
Remark Agreement
He speaks English well. Yes, he does
John wrote her a long letter. Yes, he did.
He doesnt speak English well. No, he doesnt.
They said they would come No, they didnt
on Tuesday but they didnt.
Remark Disagreement
He speaks English well. No, he doesnt
John wrote her a long letter. No, he didnt
He doesnt speak English well. Yes, he does.
They said they would come on Yes, they did.
Tuesday but they didnt come.

NOTE:

the subject is always a pronoun;
the auxiliary is in the same form as the verb in the remark if the speaker utters an
agreement (=affirmative + affirmative OR negative + negative) and in opposite
forms, if he wants to show disagreement (negative + affirmative OR affirmative +
negative);
for other tenses the respective auxiliaries are used with the same logic, e.g.
He has finished. Yes, he has or
No, he hasnt
Her English is superb. Yes, it is.
No, it isnt. etc.




21
11.3.2. TO DO as an ordinary verb
As a notional verb DO/DID/DONE, is an irregular verb. It can also be used in the
continuous aspect. As an ordinary verb, DO has a large variety of meanings:
perform, carry out, achieve, complete
Theres a lot of work to do
produce, make
I did a translation from French.
bestow, grant; have a specified effect
She did me a favour and I cant forget that.

work for a living, be occupied with:
What does she do for a living?
study
This semester we did women novelists.
My sister does mathematics at the university.
deal with, put in order:
Your hair needs doing.
get on:
How are you doing?
The patients are doing fine.
traverse a certain distance:
I did the crossing at a stretch.
cook:
It is done in 15 minutes, etc.

NOTE: HOW DO YOU DO is not a question and it never requires an answer. It is said
by both parties after an introduction, when the names of the two persons are known or
made known by a third party, e.g.
Mutual acquaintance/Hostess: Mr Johnson, may I introduce Mr Blake? Mr
Blake, Mr Johnson. Both Mr. Johnson and Mr Blake say HOW DO YOU DO (= a
formal greeting). In other languages, in a similar situation, the two persons that are being
introduced might say something like (Im) happy to meet you, Its a pleasure to meet
you etc. Everything, though, is a cultural matter and students should ask for more
details.

HOW ARE YOU? is a formal question requiring a formal answer. The English native
does not expect more than Im all right, thank you. How are you? OR Im fine, thank
you, and how are you? Any details concerning ones health, mood etc. would, if
anything, put the interlocutor in an awkward position.

HOW ARE YOU FEELING? is a real question used by the speaker to inquire about
ones health and expects an answer to this effect, e.g.

Doctor to patient: How are you feeling today?
Patient to doctor: Im feeling better/worse, thank you.


22
Mary to Emily: Emily, are you feeling all right?
Emily to Mary: Actually, Im a little dizzy.

How is feeling your brother after the accident?



23
12. MODAL AUXILIARIES OR MODAL VERBS


These verbs have the following characteristics:
they do not have a TO infinitive;
they do not have aspectual form;
they do not take an s in the present, III
rd
person singular;
the negative, interrogative and interrogative negative forms are made up like those
of the verb TO BE;
they are followed by a verb in the short infinitive;
they are defective, i.e. they do not have all the moods and tenses; modal equivalents
are used to express the same functions when the actual modal verb does not have that
form.

12.1. CAN
can for present tense and future (for all persons)
could for past tense and conditional.

Forms:

Negative: cannot / cant
could not / couldnt
Negative interrogative:
can I not / cant I ?
could I not / couldnt I ?

Can/Could can express:
Permission (section 12.1.1)
Probability (section 12.1.2)
Possibility (section 12.1.3)
Ability (section 12.1.4)
Polite request etc. (section 12.1.5)
Negative deduction (section 12.1.6)

12.1.1. Permission

Modal equivalents: to allow/to permit (= give permission); to be allowed/permitted (=
grant permission); to have permission;
Examples with explanations: In the 1
st
person, singular and plural, (I, we), the verb
can/could expresses permission in the present or past tenses, e.g.

I can stay at home if I feel like it (=I am allowed to..)
We can take fathers car when we have to go to the countryside (=we are allowed to
..).
When we were children, we could take our dog with us in the restaurant. (=we were
allowed to..)

24
As a student I could attend only the courses I liked (=I was allowed to.)

In the 2
nd
and the 3
rd
persons the speaker gives permission to the subject to perform a
certain action. It is an informal alternative to may and has a slightly different meaning:

You can use the other computer has two possible meanings, e.g. I allow you to
use the other computer or The boss/regulations allows/allow you to use the other
computer. In many instances this difference is irrelevant and the speaker -
interlocutor communication is not hindered. However, if the speaker needs to be
more specific, he may choose to say:
You may use the other computer when the only meaning is I allow you to use the
other computer.
He can phone his office (=he has permission to call his office) informal
He can take my car (=I allow him to use my car) informal
An accused person can appeal (=an accused person has the legal right to appeal)
informal.

The use of may is possible, it is more formal/the speaker is giving permission/the subject
has the right to..

He may phone his office and reverse the charges
or
He may take my car
An accused person may appeal.

Could can be used, particularly in the second person, when there is no idea of condition

You should write your article for tomorrow. You can/could use my books.
You could take my umbrella.
You could stay with us overnight.

NOTE: could is the past equivalent of can in the sequence of tenses, i.e. when the verb
in the main clause is in the past tense, e.g.

The boss said that John could phone his office.
John said that I could take his car.

Could and was/were allowed to compared.

Could expresses general permission in the past (=be allowed to) , e.g.

In weekends we could go on trips around our town.

If the speaker means one action in particular, the modal equivalent is preferred, e.g.

Last week I felt very tired so I was allowed to take a short vacation.

25
He got a ticket for speeding and he has not been allowed to drive ever since.

The Negative Cannot/Cant/Could not/Couldnt are used to express the opposite of
permission (=interdiction)

You cant park here (=I do not give you permission or The authorities do not allow
parking here).
We left the dog with some friends because we couldnt take it on our bus trip.

12.1.2. Probability

Probability could, alternative to may/might, can be used as an equivalent to show a
certain degree of probability for the action to take/have taken place.

Where is your sister ? She may/might/could still be travelling from B to C.
Do you believe your husband will be back tonight? Well, yes, he may/might/could
be back before 8.

Followed by a perfect infinitive, could shows probability in the past, e.g.

"I didnt tell him about your marriage."
"He may/might/could have heard it/learned about it from somebody else."

12.1.3. Possibility

CAN means it is (not) possible or circumstances (do not) permit that a certain action
should take place, i.e. the adequate/correct/necessary conditions are (not) met for the
(non) performance of a certain action, e.g.

You can race the horse all along the track (=permission or the track is in good
condition/the horse has recovered etc. and the action can be performed)
Can you get to the 100
th
floor of that building in 10 minutes? (=ability or is there a
fast way, e.g. elevator, to take you up?).
We cant cross the forest because of the heavy rain (=it is impossible/no conditions
to perform the action).

What (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 129) is called occasional possibility, when the
modal can shows that the respective action is possible to be opposite to what is
standard/usual/ etc, e.g.

John can be very nasty when he is cross (=generally he is not nasty, not even when
he is cross, but, occasionally he is nasty); the equivalent is
John is sometimes nasty when he is cross.
Mumps can be a dangerous disease (=it is not usually so, but occasionally it may
put peoples lives in jeopardy).


26
Could is the past equivalent, e.g.

My former husband could be very impolite (=he was usually polite, but sometimes
he was not).

12.1.4. Ability

The modal equivalent is TO BE ABLE TO and serves to express physical or mental
ability in all tenses.

In the present and past tenses can/could and am/are/is//was/were able can be used
alternatively with/without change of meaning (see below), e.g.

Can you speak English?
Yes, I can/No, I cant.
Can you/are you able to swim?
Yes, I can/No, I cant.

NOTE: the CAN forms are the more usual.

but Since 1995/her car accident she has not been able to walk anymore, is the only
possible form.
Her mother told me that since her accident Mary had not been able to walk anymore.
For ability + a particular action in the past was/were able is used, e.g.
The car hit the other vehicle with force, but the car passengers were able to get out
of the car before the explosion.
Although Peter was only 8, he was able to drive the car.
His family frequently moved from one country to another, following the father who
was a diplomat and John was able to speak 5 languages before he was 10.
Negative ability is expressed by cannot, cant, could not, couldnt or the negative forms
of TO BE ABLE TO in the appropriate tenses.
He cant speak Chinese at all.
She couldnt either read or write before she was 10 years old.
She wasnt able either to read or write before she was 10.
Could/couldnt + perfect infinitive is used to express past ability when the action was
not performed, or speculations about a past action, e.g.
She could have told you the whole story (=but she didnt).
While all the guests were still there, her necklace simply disappeared. The police
were wondering who could have taken it.
We could have lent you the car, but you never asked!
They could have sold the car at a high price but one member of the group was
against selling it.
Could used with a present meaning carries the idea of condition, e.g.
Could you swim across the lake? (if it were necessary)
I could lend you my car (if you asked)


27
12.1.5. Polite request
Could? or Couldnt? in the interrogative only can be used to introduce a polite request,
e.g.

Could you post these letters for me (, please)?
Could you lend me your grammar book?
Could you call me tonight (, please)?
or slightly more familiar, e.g.

Couldnt you post these letters for me?
Couldnt you lend me your grammar book?
Couldnt you call me tonight?
Couldnt you come before 10 am?

Irritation can appear in the speakers words, e.g.

You could have written! (=I am irritated that you did not write although you had the
opportunity) = You should have written !

Was were able + present infinitive and Could + perfect infinitive compared:

They were able to cross the forest (=and they did)
They could have crossed the forest (=they didnt although they had the
chance/opportunity/occasion/etc).
He was able to finish his work (=and he did)
He could have finished his work (=but he didnt, for reasons we are not interested
in).

6. Cant/Couldnt followed by a short infinitive shows negative deduction in the
present, e.g.

Child to mother: "Mum, Im hungry !"
Mother to child: "You cant be hungry ! Youve just eaten."

"She cant/couldnt be at home because Ive just called her at her office! Someone
else must be inside."

12.1.6. Negative deduction

Couldnt + perfect infinitive shows negative deduction in the past, e.g.

He couldnt have finished the paper because he only had one hour to write.
They couldnt have caught the train because they left home at the time when the
train was supposed to leave.



28
12.2. MAY/MIGHT

May for present and future (for all persons)

Might for past tense (with restrictions for permission) and conditional.

Forms:
Negative: may not
might not / mightnt
Negative-interrogative:
may I not ?
might I not ? / mightnt I ?
May/might can express:

Permission
Probability

12.2.1. Permission

May/Might can express permission when the modal equivalent is to allow/to permit
(=give permission); to be allowed to/to be permitted to (=grant permission); to have
permission to.

Examples with explanations:

In the 1
st
person may in the affirmative is less usual than can/be allowed to , e.g.

I may borrow mothers car if I need it. (=slightly unusual form)
I can/am allowed to borrow mothers car if I need it (=usual construction).
In the interrogative form it is worth comparing

Can I use your phone?
Could I use your phone?
May I use your phone?
Might I use your phone?

All four questions (a, b, c, d) ask for permission but in slightly different ways, e.g.

is very familiar, i.e. informal, to be used especially among friends and the speaker
does not expect a negative answer; this way of asking for permission is more like a
linguistic tic;
is a familiar but polite way of asking for permission; it is probably the most frequently
used form given its ambivalent meaning: politeness and a certain degree of
familiarity, neither too formal nor too informal;

29
is a formal, polite way of asking for permission, to be used in formal circumstances;
the speaker acknowledges the social status, age etc. difference between his
interlocutor and himself.
is a highly formal, implicitly very polite, way of asking for permission; the speaker is
not sure if permission is granted to him by the formally distant interlocutor; the
speaker may use this form of asking for permission when he is not sure at all about
the answer. Might is, however, rather rarely used to ask for permission.

In the 2
nd
and 3
rd
persons may is used when the speaker is giving permission

Permission in the past is expressed by any of the existing modal equivalents, e.g.

Yesterday we were allowed/permitted to leave school before the end of the program
He was allowed/permitted to borrow his fathers car last night.

Direct speech:

Teacher to student: You may choose another subject if you do not know the
answer to the one you have already drawn.
Indirect speech:

The teacher told us that we were allowed/permitted to have another subject if we
did not know the answer to the one we had already drawn.

The negative form may not is a strong form of refusing/denying permission and, it would
be normally replaced by a milder expression, e.g. Id rather you didnt, Im afraid

Examples:

Can I have that that book, please ?
Yes you can.
Of course you can
No, you cant

May/Might I use your new car ?
(Of course, you may , but
Im afraid you cant /Im afraid not !
or
Id rather you didnt the speaker hesitating to use No, you may not which,
seems rather harsh/impolite to native speakers.

12.2.2. Probability

May/Might are also used to express probability (in certain grammars it is called
possibility), i.e. a lower or higher probability that an action should take place in the

30
present and future. Both may and might can be used as explained, the difference between
the two being the following:

may expresses an action that is quite likely to happen in the present or near future while

might makes this probability seem more remote, e.g.

My husband may come back this Tuesday (=I am quite positive that he will come
back this Tuesday, lets say 50% yes 50% no the percentage is, obviously,
chosen completely at random), while
My husband might come back this Tuesday (=I am less certain that he will come
back this Tuesday, although the probability is not completely excluded; if we
used percentages, equally at random, but in keeping with the logic, it would be
20% yes 80% no).

Thus, it is the speakers own decision if he chooses to use may or might in such a
sentence because one form or the other depends completely on what he thinks about the
action in discussion. Might, however, is the past equivalent of both may and might, i.e.

My husband may/might come back this Tuesday,

becomes, in indirect speech:

Mary said that her husband might come back that Tuesday.

Other examples:

The librarian may/might lend your two books instead of one, as usual.
Lets hurry. Mary may/might be waiting for us at the station.
John may/might become an outstanding student.
He may not/might not like the car he got as a birthday present from his parents.
I may/might not be able to finish the book in time.
If you invite him to the party, he might come.
He was quite sure he might have to buy another pair of shoes.

12.2.3. Probability in the interrogative

It is usually expressed by to be likely in the adequate form, although, sometimes might?
is possible; there are also alternative constructions like: do you thing/believe/suppose ?
etc.

Examples:

Is he likely to come back soon ? OR
Do you think he will come back soon ?
Are you likely to finish your work in time ?

31
Do you think/believe/suppose you will (be able to) finish your work in time ?

May/Might expressing probability can also be followed by a perfect infinitive in order
to express speculations about past actions. These speculations can be expressed in other
ways as well, but the may/might + perfect infinitive constructions are more economical
and shorter, e.g.

Mary may/might have finished (=It is possible that Mary has finished)
=Perhaps/Maybe Mary has finished.

(Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 132) underline the distinction between may and might +
perfect infinitive, in the sense that might, not may, must be used when the uncertainty
no longer exists:

You shouldnt have drunk the wine: it may/might have been drugged the words it may
have been drugged would indicate that we are still uncertain whether it was drugged or
not. It might have been drugged could have the same meaning but could also mean that
we know it wasnt drugged. OR
might, not may, is also used when the matter was never put to the test, as in:

Perhaps we should have taken another road. It might have been quicker.

May/might are used instead of will/would in conditional sentences, by all persons (see
under Conditional, section 5.3.1.1.b, 5.3.1.2.b, 5.3.1.3.b).


12.3. MUST

For present tense, and, by extension future time.

No form for other tenses

Forms:

Negative: must not/mustnt

Negative interrogative: must I not ?
mustnt I ?

For all the other tenses and moods the modal equivalent is used, e.g. to have to + Vb.-
bare infinitive (it can be also explained as to have + Vb.-long infinitive).

Must can express:
Obligation
Very insistent/advice
Casual/emphatic invitation

32
Positive deduction (the antonym of the negative deduction with cant/couldnt +
infinitive)

12.3.1. Obligation

Unlike with the verbs can/could, may/might which are treated mostly monographically
with unavoidable comparisons, must requires a comparative contrastive approach with
other verbs expressing obligation.

MUST the modal equivalents are: to be to (see section 11.1.2), to have to and various
other phrases expressing obligation, which will not be dealt with separately. Some of the
latter are: to be obliged to, to be forced to, to have the obligation to, to be compulsory
to/that etc.

As the modal must can be used only for present obligation, the modal equivalents are
used to express obligation in other tenses., e.g.

Mother had to buy a lot of things yesterday;
They will have to accept the ministers invitation;
I have had to do all the work alone. Do you like it?

In the present, however, there are alternative forms (must and modal equivalents)
which have developed slightly different meanings, particularly in British English.

12.3.1.1. Positive obligation in the present

The differences explained below are more important in British English than in other
varieties of English, (in particular American English) in which the modal equivalents are
more largely and indiscriminately used to express obligation in all tenses, present tenses
included, while must is used in its other senses.

Second and third persons, singular & plural:

MUST expresses and obligation imposed by the speaker and, consequently, this type of
obligation is somewhat impolite and severe (nuances are to be considered);

TO HAVE TO expresses on obligation imposed by rules, regulations, laws, external
circumstances and, therefore, even if the obligation is severe it is not impolite because the
speakers will is not implied;

SHOULD ( = ought to) = expresses a milder obligation that originates in the status of the
subject; it shows an obligation that seems reasonable to the speaker; a correct or sensible
action; the speaker reminds the subject of some mild obligation; very frequently the
should construction also expresses advice and sometimes it is difficult to tell the exact
difference between all these meanings; in current use only the larger spoken or written
context could more precisely define which of the meanings the user had in mind;

33
sometimes this clear-cut delimitation is not even necessary. The examples below may,
therefore, have the intended meaning and also others, if the reader chooses to include
them in another context.

You must not leave the house can be a harsh interdiction, but if we take it as mothers
words addressed to her 4 year-old child, it is no longer so.

You must finish your job before you are allowed to get a vacation (=harsh,
employer to employee)
When you work under James, you must obey him unconditionally (=it is either the
speakers orders/wish or James insists to be obeyed unconditionally) (=it is
either, but you can also say):
When you work under James, you have to obey him unconditionally (=the
regulation/rules impose this obligation)
or
When you work under James, you should/ought to obey him unconditionally (=this
is a piece of advice; a sensible action to do, an obligation that originates in the
status of the subject etc).

The last 3 examples are different only in the use of the modal; they are all correct and
only a much larger context could make it clear what the user actually wanted to say, or
what he really had in mind. Then, if the constructions with must and have to convey the
message that the action will be, almost certainly, fulfilled, the should/ought to
construction may leave us with the idea that the subject is not, actually, obeying James
but he should (=advice) do so.

Other examples:

All present must stay in this room till the police come (=speakers orders)
All present are to stay in this room till the police come (=the polices orders, the
speaker only conveys the message)
All present should stay in this room till the police come (=speakers advice etc)

In the third person must and should can be used alternatively, usually in formal notices
announcements, the should construction expresses the obligation more gently, e.g.

Students must/should hand in their endofterm papers before the 20
th
of the
month;

In the first person (the same present tense where both forms must/have to are
possible) the differences are:

must expresses an urgent or important obligation;
have to expresses a current/usual obligation


34
The train leaves at 6.30. It is 6 now; I must leave now if I want to catch the train (=
urgent obligation)
or
I have to go to school every day (habit)
I must buy a new pair of shoes/boots. (= it is important because the old ones are in a
bad state)
I have to finish that translation soon (= it is not urgent yet but it is an obligation to
be fulfilled)
We must have a party when our friends from England come (= the interlocutors are
quite sure that the party will be organized)
but
We should/ought to have a party (= it is not certain that we will have a party).

NOTE: the characteristics of must/have to/should (=ought to) compared in all persons:

with must/have to, the speaker/listener usually gets the impression that the obligation is
being or will be fulfilled;
with should/ought to we do not get the impression that the obligation is being or will be
fulfilled; quite often, the reverse is the case.

Very frequently the passive form of the verb to suppose (=be supposed), used in certain
contexts can express a certain type of obligation, e.g.

usually mild, suggestive, and rather impersonal: suppose in the passive can be used in any
tense.

IMPORTANT NOTE: not all passive forms of suppose express obligations, but
supposition, according to the first meaning of the verb, e.g.

Students are supposed to hand in their endof-them papers by next Tuesday
(=students are obliged to)
They are supposed to join the party as soon as they finish/have finished preparing
the food ( = it is assumed that/we suppose that hey will join us).

Sometimes the two distinct meanings are not so clearly separated and only a larger
context would settle the best suited meaning, e.g. She is supposed to be back home before
10 oclock . Suppose in the passive can also be followed by the perfect infinitive in
order to show supposition in the past, e.g. it may express the subjects obligation to be
home at a certain hour or the speaker makes the supposition that the subject will be back
at a certain hour.

She is/was supposed to have known the laws of the country when she made up her
mind to emigrate there (=unfulfilled obligation in the past)
You are/were supposed to have been in time for the meeting (= unfulfilled
obligation in the past) but

35
The Vikings are supposed to have discovered the American continent before other
Europeans (= supposition).
The prisoners are supposed to have escaped in the van that brought food to the
prisoners camp.

12.3.1.2. Prohibition formal interdiction
When possible, the gerund is used to express prohibition, e.g.
No smoking.
No trespassing.
No loitering.
No waiting.
No parking.
No fishing/hunting.
The disadvantage is that such constructions cannot be followed by an object or clause;
prohibitions involving an object are usually expressed by a negative imperative, e.g.
Do not touch these wires!
Do not feed the animals!
Do not tread on grass!
Do not use the eraser!
Do not touch with metal!
Do not wipe! (although it has no object).
Do not stand while the vehicle is moving!
Do not lean out of the window!
Do not press/iron!etc.

Prohibitions in sense but not in form are the following imperatives
Cross only by the footbridge!
Write only in ink/pencil!
Wash only in lukewarm water etc.

Negative forms:

Special attention should be paid to the negative differences in the present as they can
assume different meanings or shades of meanings. There are mainly two distinct
meanings, interdiction and absence of obligation

Interdiction: it is expressed by must not/mustnt and it can be paraphrased by: it is
forbidden; you, they etc. are forbidden to perform a certain action, i.e. the idea that
something dangerous/bad can happen if the subject insists on performing that action. The
speakers participation is also implied, occasionally making this construction impolite
and harsh. When, however, a mother forbids her child to perform a certain action, the
impolite character disappears, e.g.


36
Child to mother: 'Mummy, can I eat from the dogs bowl?'
Mother to child: You mustnt to that!
Dont do that! Just try! etc. (=not impolite but severe interdiction)
but You must never ask a woman how old she is.
You must study for your exam.
Parents must keep their children off the road.
If you want to keep your dog healthy, you must walk it 3 times a day.

In all these instances there is the idea that if the reverse action happens, something
wrong, unacceptable, dangerous etc. might occur.

12.3.1.3. Absence of obligation
To show this, the verb/s need/to need
*
should be used in these negative form.
NOTE
*
There is an ever stronger overlapping in use between the modal need (which has
all the characteristics of the modal verbs mentioned in section 12) and the notional verb
TO NEED, and, consequently, absence of obligation in the present and past tenses can be
expressed both by the modal need not OR do/does/did not need to .. The modal
NEED is formally correct but in practice the notional TO NEED is frequently used. The
slight differences in use will be explained step by step in the examples to come.

Uses:
in negative structures both forms are used, with the following shades of meanings, e.g.
need not usually expresses the speakers authority or advice, e.g. (II
nd
and III
rd
persons)

You need not take a taxi. The station is not far from here.
You neednt type your paper but you must write it legibly.
irrespective of person (1
st
, 2
nd
, 3
rd)
and tense, external authority is expressed by to have
to in the affirmative or negative, e.g.

Mother doesnt have to wear a uniform at her job;
When I finish writing my essay I wont have to write another one this year;
Ever since mobile phones have bean in use people dont have to waste their time
looking for a telephone booth;
I dont have to type my courses because there is a person among the attendants
who does it for me.
The parents do not have to drive their children to school because there is a school
bus that collects all the kids on the way.

Neednt + perfect infinitive is used to express an unnecessary action which was
nevertheless performed. The user should be aware that the notional verb, to need, in the
negative can never be used in this way, e.g.

You neednt have bought a new washing machine because the old one was still in
good condition (=but he had bought it, wasting money).
He neednt have bought two identical cars (=but he had bought them).

37
They neednt have had such a large house built because their family consists of
three members only (=but the subject had built the house unnecessarily and
without any obligation).
Did not need/have to expresses no obligation and no action performed, e.g.
She didnt need/have to take a taxi because the station was not far (= no obligation
and she did not take a taxi.
I didnt need/have to dress his wound because it had already healed (= no
obligation, no action)

12.3.2. Very insistent/emphatic advice
It can be expressed both in the affirmative and the negative, although the affirmative is
the more usual; the subject is usually the 2
nd
person (singular/plural) but the 3
rd
person
(singular/plural) is not avoided. In the third person, though, it sounds more like external
authority than emphatic advice, e.g.

Friend to friend: 'You must leave that guy; he is rude, vulgar and uneducated.'
(=more likely to be interpreted as an emphatic piece of advice from friend to
friend).
Granny to 10-year old granddaughter: 'When you grow up you must see Paris; it is
one of the most famous cities of the world.'
They must stay put on that cliff till the (mountain) rescue team come. (=emphatic
advice).

In the negative form, it is difficult to distinguish between negative advice and
interdiction, the context being very important, e.g.
You mustnt step down from that cliff till the (mountain) rescue team come
(=ambiguous, either insistent negative advice or interdiction).
You mustnt drive 20 hours at a stretch because you may have an accident.

Mustnt + perfect infinitive expresses a speculation about a past action which was,
nevertheless performed. (=negative obligation in the past which was performed).

She mustnt have told him the truth (=but she did).
They mustnt have taken the other road, as nobody ever tried it (=but they did).
She mustnt have put on so much makeup; she looked like a clown (=but she did
and she looked like a clown).

12.3.3. Casual invitation/action
It is an action which is by no means prearranged or obligatory.

We must give a party to celebrate Marys graduation.

Positive deduction only in the positive form must + infinitive/perfect infinitive
expresses positive deduction; its antonymic form is can/could + infinitive/perfect
infinitive. Examples:


38
Child to mother: 'Mummy, Im not hungry yet.'
Mother to child: 'You must be hungry, you havent eaten anything all day.'
She must be home by now; it is 7
00
pm and her job ends at 5
00
pm;
John must be very happy now that his wife has delivered and both mother and baby
are all right.

Must + perfect infinitive expresses a positive deduction in the past, e.g.

They must have left before we got there because the house was empty and the cars
were no longer in front of the building.
She must have had someone to help her because she couldnt have carried the huge
box all alone.

12.4. WILL

12.4.1. Polite request
A polite request (=willing or able to do something: will/would (=willingness) and
can/could (= ability).

Will you shut the door (, please)? (=Please, shut the door)/would you shut the door?
Will/would you (please) lend me your Oxford dictionary (=Please lend me your
Oxford dictionary or Can/could you (please) lend me your Oxford dictionary?
(=The forms with would you/could you wouldnt you/couldnt you? are more
polite and frequently preferred by the user.
Can/could you meet me tomorrow at 8 a.m.?,
Will/would you help me repair my car?

A negative interrogative form sounds more persuasive.

Wont you come in and take a seat?
Couldnt you (possibly) buy a pound of apples for me?
Couldnt you ask your parents to lend me their truck?

12.4.2. Volition

Among other means of expressing variable degrees of volition, will/would in the
affirmative or negative are just a part. According to the strength of volition (Leech &
Svartvik, 1994: 425) distinguish 4 increasing types: willingness, wish, intention and
insistence; will/would are used to express willingness and insistence, e.g.

Will you let me drive your new car? (=are you willing to drive your new car?).
Yes, I will if you promise not to drive too fast. (=yes, I am willing if you promise
not to drive too fast).
An Englishman will tell you the way if you ask him. (=an Englishman is always
willing to tell you the way).

39
Will you accept my invitation for the party if I promise you not to invite your
boss?

NOTE the examples may be interpreted in different ways.

Wont/Wouldnt express refusal or negative willingness, e.g.

She wont listen to me (=she refuses/does not want to take my advice).
I tried to convince my old father to give up smoking but he wouldnt listen to me
(=he refused to take my advice).
If you will play the piano 12 hours a day it is no wonder you feel tired. (=will is
strongly stressed).
I wont give in! (=typical example of negative insistence) .

12.4.3. Prediction

Prediction - assumption
- positive deduction

Occasionally positive deduction, called by some linguists PREDICTION can also be
expressed by WILL. This prediction may be in the present or future (Leech, 1994: 148).

That will be my wife (= I am expecting a call from my wife and the call that is
getting in at about the same time makes the speaker assume/presume that it is his
wife calling).

A special type of prediction, assimilated to characteristic behaviour/or something that
statistically is very likely to happen some time in the future, e.g.

Accidents will happen.
Children will be children.
A fight dog will attack if provoked by another dog.
A policeman will always answer a call for help.
He will be expecting your call.

It can express habit in the present. Usually the present tense indefinite is preferred when
the speaker wants to emphasize the characteristics of the performer rather than the action
performed (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 206).

An Englishman will usually show you the way in the street (=this is characteristic of
an Englishman OR an Englishman is always willing to show you the way).
A child will always want to play in the open.

12.4.4. Invitation
Will for INVITATION (= will you?).


40
Will you have an apple? (= Have an apple).
Will you join us for dinner tonight (= Im inviting you to join us for dinner tonight)
Will you travel in our car? (= Im inviting you to travel with us in our car).

12.4.5. Will as an auxiliary verb

to express a future activity
in conditional clauses type I
to express future Ill answer it
future tense indefinite
future tense continuous
future perfect indefinite
future perfect continuous

12.5. WOULD

Would is used to express:

- request
- (un) willingness in the past, e.g.

We told him not to eat in bed, but he would do it (he insists on eating in bed).
The teacher forbade her students to take the books home, but they would do it (=
they still took the books home although other students needed those books).
She was told not to wear highheeled shoes when she went on trips, but she
wouldnt listen.

12.5.1. Invitation

Would for INVITATION polite form of inviting someone to do, go, come etc
something.

Would you like to come to my party? (= invitation under a question form) = Im
inviting you to come to my party.
Would you (like to) come to our place at the countryside and spend a week there?
(= Please come to our place at the countryside and spend a week there).
Would you like a piece of cake?

THE FUTURE IN THE PAST see the Sequence of Tenses.

In conditional clauses types II and III, (see The Conditional, section 15.3.1.1, 15.3.1.2,
15.3.1.3)

The auxiliary would is used in the second term of a sentence in which the first term
contains the verb wish; the structure is


41
Subject 1 + wish + Subject 2 + would + infinitive when the subject in the second clause
is different from the subject in the first clause (S1 S2). For general use of the would +
infinitive construction, see under the verb WISH, section 16.1.3.

12.5.2. Advice

ADVICE the structure would + infinitive/perfect infinitive
can have this meaning when used alone or as a part of a
conditional construction; it is one of the uses of the
conditional proper, e.g.
(If I were you), I would start a business on my own.
I would never sell the car at such a low price.
(If I were in his shoes) I would continue my studies, graduate first and only then see
if I can get a job.
If I were you I would never wear green.
I would have tried to convince him to accept my invitation.
Had I been you, I would have gone by phone.

NOTE direct advice is usually given in the first person singular; it is both logical and
clear.

12.5.3. Polite request

Polite requests (also see under will for polite requests,
section 12.4.1)
There is a large variety of forms to express a request, more or less polite; among them
would you?/could you are the most usual, being (at the same time) polite and slightly
familiar; please should be added, e.g.

Would you give me that book, please?
Would you please help me with my mathematics?
Would you shut the door, please?

12.5.4. Past routine/or frequentative would
(see under used to, section 12.10.2)


12.6. SHALL in the first persons, singular and plural

It is used to ask about someones wishes, to introduce offers, suggestions, etc.

Shall I/we?

Suggestions:
Shall we go on a trip this weekend?
Shall I lend you this book?

42
Shall we rehearse the final scene again?
Shall we start now?

Offers:
Shall I write it down for you?
Shall I carry it upstairs?
Shall we bring another dictionary?
Shall we help you repair the car?

Requests for advice
Which shall I take with me?
Which participant shall we choose to carry the flag?
What colour shall I make my hair?
What transportation shall I choose to get there in time?

Requests for orders
Where shall we place it?
When shall we re-organise the filing?
How shall I cook it?
When shall I tell him about his son?

Shall in the, 2
nd
and 3
rd
persons, singular and plural:

Shall meaning obligation is restricted to official regulations and other formal documents,
e.g. (Leech, 1994: 165)

The Societys nominating committee SHALL nominate one person for the office of
President (formal style).
Members shall enter their names in the book provided (club/ organization rules).
Participants shall pass through all the gates in a certain order (ski regulations).

In conditional clauses, instead of WILL when a suggestion is intended, e.g.

If the weather is fine, shall he go on a trip?

In the second person shall is used to express the speaker intention, e.g.

You shall have a sweet.
You shall get one of my books.

These two uses are oldfashioned and rather formal.

It is used in questions tags after imperative equivalents with LET, in the first person,
singular and plural:

Lets go, shall we?

43
Lets invite John too, shall we?
Lets rehearse everything again, shall we?
Lets drive faster, shall we?


12.7. SHOULD

Advice

You should mind your own business.
They should be more careful.

Suggestion

Should we ask for more money for the project?

A pathetical action (formal style):

If an attack on a large scale should take place, the tanks are ready to intervene (=
but it is very unlikely that an attack should occur).

Putative should when it is used neutrally, to represent something as a neutral idea
rather than as a fact ( = putative)
that should (see section 12.7.5)

The auxiliaries should and ought to can express probability as weaker equivalents of
must (positive deduction).

My parents should/ought to be back by now. (=they probably are but Im not sure).
They should/ought to be about to finish (=probably but I dont know for sure).
I should/ought to get my book back tomorrow (=I think so but Im sure).

12.7.1. Formal notices

In formal notices to express an obligation (gentler than must).

All the candidates should have their ID cards or passports with them.
When the bell rings, all passengers should queue up to get on the train.
If not otherwise told, patients should take the medicine after having had lunch.

Should + perfect infinitive expresses and unfulfilled obligation or a sensible action that
was not performed, e.g.

You should have told him the truth. (=but you didnt).
They should have driven more carefully on ice (=but they drove fast and had an
accident).

44
At least two exits should have been left unlocked, just in case.

12.7.2. Assumptions

Assumptions about present or past actions, in the affirmative or negative, e.g.

John should be home by now (=I assume that he is home)
Our car should have been repaired by now (=I expect so).

They should take a taxi ( = I presume so)

Compared to assumptions expressed by will the should constructions are less
confident (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 149) although, sometimes they are alternatively
possible, depending on the speakers message, e.g.

Tom should know when they come (=I expect Tom to know..),
but Tom (wi)ll know when they come (=Im sure Tom knows when they come).
They should have arrived by now,
and They will have arrived by now, depending on the speakers being more or less sure
about their action.

Assumptions about present and/or future actions can also be expressed by should or
will constructions, with slight differences between the two, e.g.

We should/will have quite enough drink for the party.
We should/will get more food for all the patients in the asylum.
They shouldnt/wont have significant difficulties in winning the match.

In purpose clauses and after in case and least .

12.7.3. That . should constructions

In grammar books whose practical character is less prominent, that should
constructions are extensively explained as analytical forms of the subjunctive mood.
Here, though, the author will only make an inventory of the that should constructions,
comparing and contrasting them when necessary with other possible constructions.

The thatshould construction is used after verbs, adjectives or nouns (as an
alternative form to the infinitive, gerund or thatclause). It is also used after certain
phrases etc. which will be listed below.

that should after certain verbs is used as an alternative to gerund or infinitive
constructions. That should constructions are either slightly different in meaning, or
the only forms possible. A list of the most important verbs getting thatshould
construction as an alternative to others will be given, and examples and comments where
necessary, e.g. advise, agree, arrange, ask, beg, command, decide, decree, demand,

45
determine, insist, order, propose, recommend, request, stipulate, suggest, urge, vote; to
be anxious, to be determined etc.

that ... should

NOTE The use of thatshould construction is more common in British English than
in American English where the synthetic subjunctive is usually preferred, e.g.

typical of British English: They suggested that Mary should be left home with her
parents.
typical of American English: They suggested that Mary BE left home with her parents.

or The manager insists that his employees should be always in time for work.,
and The manager insists that his employees BE always in time for work.

The typical American form is also possible in British English, but it is more formal and
usually employed in written language.

12.7.4. That ... should after verbs

Verbs that take a that should construction alternatively with others, compared:

ADVISE

We advised that they should repair the car at once
We advised that the car should be repaired at once by
We advised repairing the car at once.
We advised the car to be repaired at once.

tells you who is to repair the car
passive the only construction possible
gerund alternative general meaning, the who to repair the car is not possible.

AGREE (ON)

They agreed that the tourists should visit the newly discovered cave.
They agreed that the newly discovered cave should be visited (by the tourists).
*They agreed visiting the cave (unacceptable).
They agreed to visit the cave (meaning changed)
They agreed on the tourists visiting the cave.

ARRANGE
*
(and also: command, decide, demand, order, propose, recommend,
request, suggest, beg, urge).

The manager arranged that the new employees should start work as soon as
possible.

46
The manager arranged that work should start as soon as possible.
The manager arranged starting work as soon as possible.
The manager arranged to start work as soon as possible.
The manager arranged (for the employees) to start work as soon as possible.

ASK

The students asked that the new professor should deliver the course in English.
The students asked that the course should be delivered in English (by the new
professor).
The students asked to deliver the course in English (meaning changed).
The students asked the professor to deliver the course in English.

DECREE

The Government decreed that immigrants should renew their visas every six
months.
The Government decreed that immigrants visas should be renewed every six
months.

DETERMINE

John determined that his son should study fine arts.
John determined that fine arts should be studied.
John determined to study fine arts.
John determined to let his son study fine arts.
John determined his son to study fine arts.

INSIST ON/THAT

Mother insisted that her son should quit smoking.
Mother insisted on her sons quitting smoking.
Mother insisted on quitting smoking.
Mother insisted on her son to quit smoking.
Mother insisted to quit smoking.

STIPULATE

The board stipulated that the best candidates should be granted scholarships.
The board stipulated that scholarships should be granted to the best candidates.
The board stipulated for the best candidates to be granted scholarships.

VOTE

The committee voted that young assistants should have a 12-hour programme a
week.

47
The committee voted a 12-hour programme for the young assistants.
The committee voted to have a 12-hour programme a week.
The committee voted having a 12-hour programme a week.
The committee voted for the young assistants to have a 12-hour programme a week.


12.7.5. Adjectives + that ... should

The same construction is also used after certain adjectives: it + is / was + adjective +
that should; the most frequent adjectives that require this construction are advisable,
appropriate, better, desirable, essential, fitting, imperative, important, natural,
necessary, urgent, vital; (only) fair, just, right.

It is used as an alternative to a for + infinitive construction.

Examples:

It is advisable that he should see a doctor.
or
It is advisable for him to see a doctor.

It is not appropriate that leaders should be dishonest.
It is not appropriate for leaders to be dishonest.

It is better that the newly married should have a house of their own.
It is better for the newly married to have a house of their own.

It was desirable that he should stay indoors.
It was desirable for him to stay indoors.

It was essential that my parents should move to Paris.
It was essential for my parents to move to Paris.

It is imperative that our company should hire a computer specialist.
It is imperative for our company to hire a computer specialist.

It was only fair that outstanding workers should get a higher salary.
It was only fair for outstanding workers to get a higher salary.

Certain adjectives like: absurd, amazing, annoying, anxious, ludicrous, odd, ridiculous,
strange, surprising, can be followed alternatively by a that should construction or
by that + present/past tense, e.g.

TO BE ANXIOUS

He was anxious that his students should take all the exams.

48
He was anxious for his students to take all the exams.
He was anxious to take all the exam.

Readers should notice the changing of meanings that occur when the construction is
altered.


It is absurd that late comers to the Conference should be asked to pay such a large
participation fee.
It is absurd that late comers to the Conference are asked to pay such a large
participation fee.

It is not surprising that neighbours should be irritated when you keep the radio so
loud.
It is not surprising that neighbours are so irritated when you keep the radio so
loud.

The perfect infinitive is used when referring to past events, e.g.

It is odd that she should have said such a ridiculous thing about her brother.
It is odd that she said such a ridiculous thing about her brother.

It is strange that they should have arrived so late when they left so early.
It is strange that they arrived so late when they left so early.

12.7.6. Nouns + that ... should

Nouns can also be followed by a that should construction: condition, demand,
directive, intention, order, proposal, recommendation, request, suggestion etc.

The condition that tourists should leave their footwear at the entrance is habitual
when visiting mosques.
The proposal that the whole group should go on a trip next weekend was welcomed
with enthusiasm.
Our suggestion that the students should have two exams a day was rejected by the
board.


12.8. DARE

DARE, the modal verb is constantly confused with the notional verb TO DARE, and
currently both forms are used in the negative and interrogative, the forms of the ordinary
verb being by for more frequently encountered than the forms of the semi-modals.

The modern dared for past tense is used almost exclusively, although the irregular durst
may be accidentally encountered in literature, particularly in poetry.

49

Form: the present and past are conjugated with do/does/did and it has no form in the
continuous aspect (probably reminiscent of the modal).

Modern grammar writers advise their learners to stick to the regular forms of the ordinary
verb, TO DARE and learn by heart some of the idiomatic uses of the modal, e.g.


12.9. DARESAY

(used only with the first person singular) with its two distinct meanings:

- I suppose

I daresay theyll be here by tomorrow.
I daresay shell accept my offer.
I daresay well finish by tomorrow.
I daresay Betty will deliver in a week.

- I accept what you say (but it doesnt make any difference)

- I grant that much (but it does not make any difference)

Pupil to teacher: 'But I missed the last class!'
Teacher to pupil: 'I daresay you did, but it is your obligation to inquire about your
homework!'

Patient to doctor: 'I find it very difficult to quit smoking!'
Doctor to patient: 'I daresay you do, but youll have to quit it nevertheless.'

In order to express the speakers indignation, the modal form is used in all persons,
except the first, in the interrogative, present and past tenses , e.g. with the meaning
venture (to), have the courage of, impudence (to)

How dare(d) you question my decision.
How dare(d) you complain about your parents ?!
How dare(d) he leave home without telling me ?!
How dare(d) they take my car without asking my permission ?

or, the famous

How dare you ? pure and simple.

As an ordinary verb TO DARE can be a transitive verb, meaning to challenge, to
defy (a person)


50
Mother to the child: 'Why did you throw away the dogs bowl ?'
Child to the mother: 'John dare me !'

Why did you hit that man in the face.
Well, the tall man standing there dared me ! (to hit that man in the face).
They dared me to sell everything. I did so and I set off on this expedition to the
North Pole.

It is an irresponsible thing to dare somebody to do something that is beyond his/her
physical or mental abilities.

Synonyms could be used, and are usually employed in the above examples: to
encourage, to push, to urge, etc.

12.10. USED TO

The modal used to is employed only in the past tense. It is rarely used in the
interrogative or negative for which other constructions are preferred (interrogative or
negative verbs +usually, always).

Used to + short infinitive is used to express:

a discontinued habit in the past
a habit in the past OR past routine (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 151)

12.10.1. A discontinued habit in the past

It can be explained in other words as an action that was habitual in the past but is no
longer performed in the present, e.g.

When I was a student I used to go to the cinema every week (=the implication is
that I dont do it anymore).
NOTE:

The contrast between past and present is essential in this use of the modals.
The used to construction is preferred, but there are also other constructions that convey
the same meaning, although they are not so elegant as the former, e.g.

As I was told, my aunt used to carry an umbrella all the time , or
As I was told, my aunt usually/always carried an umbrella
or
As I was told, my aunt carried an umbrella all the time

Other examples:


51
Do you remember John Carpenter, our room mate in the first year ? He used to be
our spokesman (but he isnt any more)
Our friends used to live in Paris (= Now they live in Lyon).

12.10.2. A habit in the past/past routine

No contrast between past and present is implied; the speaker simply makes a
description of a pattern/action that was performed in the past. A succession of actions is
very often related by the speaker. In this construction the modal used to is very often
replaced by would, particularly in a series of actions.

Examples:

I had a very pleasant vacation last year. My parents took me in the mountains and
we lived in a tent which we placed far from the other campers. We used
to/WOULD get up early, have a quick breakfast and then go for a walk. We used
to/WOULD pick mushrooms which father used to/WOULD cook in butter. After
lunch everybody used to/WOULD take a nap and afterwards we used
to/WOULD prepare for night..

NOTE
1. Readers should remember that USED TO has no present tense form. For present habits
or routines other constructions are used:

the simple present tense, e.g.

Peter goes to school every day at 8 in the morning
She plays the piano twice a day.
I smoke a lot.

the simple present + usually / always.

Peter usually/usually goes to school..
She usually/always plays the piano.
I usually/always smoke a lot.

will + short infinitive, when the speaker wishes to emphasize the characteristics of the
performer rather than the action performed. It is chiefly used in general statements, e.g.

An Englishman will usually show you the way in the street (=it is normal for an
Englishman to act in this way) (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 206).

2. It is important not to confuse the modal used to + infinitive with the passive
construction to be used to + noun/ or an ing form; in the former case TO is the
particle of the next infinitive while in the latter TO is a preposition that can only be
followed by a noun/-ing form.

52

Examples:

Modal: She used to wear red hats;
Passive construction: Mary is used to hard work;
Mary is used to working hard;

Modal: I used to smoke when I was young.
Passive construction: I am used to hot weather;
I am used to staying up late;

TO BE ACCUSTOMED TO = TO BE USED TO

The two synonyms can be used interchangeably but TO BE USE - USED TO is more
frequent.

53


13. THE INDICATIVE MOOD


1,2 Present Tense - Indefinite
- Continuous
3,4 Present Perfect - Indefinite
- Continuous
5,6 Past Tense - Indefinite
- Continuous
7,8 Past Perfect - Indefinite
- Continuous
9,10 Future Tense - Indefinite
- Continuous
11,12 Future Perfect - Indefinite
- Continuous


13.1. THE PRESENT TENSE INDEFINITE

13.1.1. Form

S + bare infinitive + s (III
rd
person singular)

Affirmative
I learn
You learn
He, she, it learns
We learn
You learn
They learn

Negative
I do not learn / I dont learn
You do not learn / You dont learn
He, she, it does not learn / He, she, it doesnt learn
We do not learn / We dont learn
You do not learn / You dont learn
They do not learn / They dont learn

Interrogative
Do I learn?
Do you learn?
Does he, she, it learns?
Do we learn?

54
Do you learn?
Do they learn?

Interrogative - Negative
Do I not learn? / Dont I learn?
Do you not learn? / Dont you learn?
Does he, she, it learn? / Doesnt he, she, it learn?
Do we not learn? / Dont we learn?
Do you not learn? / Dont you learn?
Do they not learn? / Dont they learn?

NOTE on interrogation and negation with verbs

Interrogation in standard English is marked, orally by a rising intonation, and in writing
by an auxiliary verb placed before the subject.

Negation at verbal level is realized by placing the negative adverb NOT after the first
auxiliary.

Except the present tense and past tense indefinite all the other tenses in English are
formed with the help of one or more auxiliaries and the notional verb (see under each
tense). For the present tense and past tense indefinite the auxiliary DO/DOES//DID is
used.

NOTE: on the spelling of the Present Tense Indefinite affirmative (the same rule
applies to common nouns with a regular plural and certain proper names)

The inflectional suffix for the 3
rd
person, present tense indefinite is (e)s that is added to
verbs according to the following spelling rules:
-s -to verbs ending in any consonant except sibillants (s, ss, z, zz etc.), any vowel (except
o), -se, -ze, -ce, (d)ge, e.g. learn/learns, work/works, ski/skis, practice/s, organize/s,
engage/s, judge/judges, space/s.
es -to verbs ending in a sibillant , e.g. s, ss, z, zz, -(t)ch, sh, -x, and o: pass/es, buzz/ez,
watch/es, reach/es, box/es, push/es; go/goes, do/does
s to verbs ending in vowel + -y , e.g. stay/s, play/s obey/s etc.
es to verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant, when the final y changes to i, e.g.
carry/carries, try/tries, fry/fries etc.

13.1.2. Uses

The main uses of the present tense indefinite are to express:

habitual actions: e.g.

John smokes.
Hawks fly high.

55
Mary plays the piano
She rings me up every day.

general/universally valid truths, e.g.

Water boils at 100
0
C.
When heated ice turns to water.
In times of recession, prices go up.

actions that are relatively stable, for the moment:

We live in London.
Mary stays/lives with her parents.
John works in a factory.

planned future actions, particularly when they refer to a journey or when the future time
is mentioned, e.g.

We leave for Budapest at 9 next week, arrive in Vienna the same day, we stay there
overnight and visit sights the next day. Then we fly to London where we visit
museums and famous places.
Tomorrow is Wednesday/Christmas.
The day after tomorrow is December 15.

present tense indefinite is used in time clauses instead of a future tense, e.g.

Ill tell him when I see him.
Shell come back when she can.

present tense indefinite is used in conditional clauses type 1 (see under Conditional),
e.g.

If the rain stops, well go on a trip.
If you run, youll catch up with him.

with the meaning of a present perfect, the verbs to hear, to forget, to learn, and the
passive to be told, e.g.

I forget his name
I hear that he got married last week.
I learn that they are on the way to our place.
Mary is told that her project has been accepted.

usually in association with the present tense continuous to express a dramatic incident,
(= dramatic narrative), e.g.


56
When they get there and unlock the door they see a girl sitting at the desk in the
dark room. She seems very preoccupied and does not see the two men entering
the room.

NOTE:
the verb to say and other verbs of communication, e.g. advise, warn, tell etc., are used
in the present tense indefinite when we are asking or quoting from books, notices, or
recently received letters, e.g.

What does that notice say? It says: Do not wash in hot water.
What does the book say? It says: Boil for half hour.
Henry James says that novels should have a loose ending in order to make them
more exciting for the readers.
Shakespeare advises us not to borrow or lend.

it must be used instead of the present tense continuous with verbs which cannot be
used in the continuous form (see 10.1.1)

I hate to be told what to do all the time.
She remembers her childhood friends.
I think I am going to emigrate.
She hears the dogs barking.

- present tense indefinite is often used with adverbs or adverb phrases of frequency,
e.g. always, never, occasionally, often, sometimes, usually, every week/day/month/year,
on Mondays, on Sundays, twice a week/month/year etc.

She never smokes in the bedroom.
We always go to church on Sundays.
It rains a lot in summer and autumn.
How often do you go to the dentists?
This review is issued twice a month.

It is often used in newspaper headlines, e.g.

Police apprehended the serial killer.
Smoking kills more people than drugs.


13.2. THE PRESENT TENSE CONTINUOUS

13.2.1. Form

Subject + am/are/is + Verb ing

Affirmative

57
I am learning / Im learning
You are learning / Youre learning
He, she, it is learning / Hes, shes, its learning
We are learning / Were learning
You are learning / Youre learning
They are learning / Theyre learning

Negative
I am not learning / Im not learning
You are not learning / Youre not learning / You arent learning
He, she, it is not learning / Hes, shes, its not learning /
He, she, it, isnt learning
We are not learning / Were not learning / We arent learning
You are not learning / Youre not learning / You arent learning
They are not learning / Theyre not learning /
They arent learning

Interrogative
Am I learning?
Are you learning?
Is he, she, it learning?
Are we learning?
Are you learning?
Are they learning?

Interrogative - Negative
Am I not learning? / Arent I learning?
Are you not learning? / Arent you learning?
Is he, she, it not learning? / Isnt he, she, it learning?
Are we not learning? / Arent we learning?
Are you not learning? / Arent you learning?
Are they not learning? / Arent they learning?

13.2.2. Note on the spelling of the present participle

(and gerund, or otherwise called the ing form)

Verbs ending in a vowel, i.e.

1. in - e - the final -e is dropped before ing, e.g. love/loving, hate/hating,
make/making, become/becoming etc.
in -i the -ing is added after a hyphen, e.g. ski ing, or may be written as one work,
e.g. skiing;
in - ie the two vowels become -y before ing, e.g. die > dying, tie > tying, lie >
lying, etc.

58
in - o - these verbs get an -ing without any changes, e.g. do/does, go/goes, and all the
do/go compounds;

Exceptions:

- ee are preserved before ing, e.g. agree/agreeing, foresee/ foreseeing,
referee/refereeing etc.
- be/being
- ye, -ge, -oe are preserved before ing, e.g. dye/dyeing, eye/eyeing, singe/singeing
etc.
Verbs ending in -y; irrespective of the letter preceding a final y, -ing is added to such
verbs without any change, e.g. play/playing, stay/staying, try/trying, study/studying etc.

Verbs ending in a consonant:

monosyllabic verbs ending in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel double
the final consonant before adding ing, e.g. tap/tapping, run/running, hit/hitting,
star/starring, dig/digging, stop/stopping etc.
bisyllabic verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, which get
the stress on the second syllable double the final consonant before ing, e.g.
begin/beginning, prefer/ preferring, occur/occurring, admit/admitting,
omit/omitting etc.

NOTE:
if, under the conditions above, the stress falls on the first syllable, no doubling of the
final consonant before ing occurs, e.g. focus/focusing, budget/budgeting,
enter/entering, offer/offering etc.

the final consonant is doubled before ing in a few bisyllabic verbs although the stress
falls on the first syllable, e.g. kidnap/ kidnapping,handicap/handicapping
worship/worshipping etc.
verbs ending in ic double the final consonant as -ck before adding -ing, e.g.
panic/panicking, traffic/trafficking etc.

irrespective of the number of syllables or stress, verbs ending in a single l preceded
by a single vowel double the final consonant in British English but not in American
English.

British English American English
travel/travelling traveling
signal/signalling signaling
marvel/marvelling marveling
control/controlling controling




59
13.2.3. Uses

The present tense continuous is used:

to express an action going on at the moment of speaking, and can be used without a
time expression or with adverbs or adverb phrases like: (right/just) now, at this
moment etc:

John is taking a bath (right now).
Mary is playing the piano (at this moment).
It is raining.
It is getting dark.
or What are you doing there? Im washing my hair.

The verbs used in this way usually express actions that take some time to accomplish i.e.
durative verbs, e.g. eat, drink, write, go, come, short, speak, watch, look at, listen to etc.

to express an action that is not necessarily going on at the moment of speaking; the
time interval is perceived by the speaker as continuous over a longer interval and
there is also the idea that the action is not terminated, e.g.

She is reading a novel by Henry James (=these days, when she has time to read)
Mary is writing a detective story (=the action has not been finished yet)
John is preparing for the endof-term examination (=now or in a longer interval of
time)
Mary is attending a business course.
I am teaching geometry this year.

with state (live, stay, be etc) verbs to distinguish an action, limited in time from an
action that is longer in time, e.g.

I am living in Paris (=this year, for a while).
and
I live in Paris (=my permanent residence is there).
She is staying with her friends (=this month, this year etc.)
and
She stays with her parents (=she lives in her parents house permanently)

non-durative/point action verbs used in the continuous aspect express a repeated action
at the moment of speaking, e.g. knock, kick, jump, hit etc.

He is jumping (= repeated action at the moment of speaking)
Somebody is knocking on the door (= repeated knockings)

to show a definite arrangement in the near future (= immediate plans); it is always
associated with a future time expression e.g.

60

They are leaving tomorrow.
She is meeting Tom at the station at 7 oclock.
Are you doing anything this weekend?
Yes, Im playing bridge with the neighbours.

with a point in time to show that the action/begins before that time and continues after it,
e.g.

At 8 we are having breakfast (=we start eating before 8 and probably continue after
it). Compare with:
We have breakfast at 8. (=we start breakfast at 8)
At 6 p.m. I am writing my homework (=I start before 6 and continue after 6).

usually in association with the present tense indefinite to express a dramatic incident,
(=dramatic narrative), e.g.

When they get there and unlock the door, they see a girl sitting at the desk in the
room. She is writing a letter and does not seem to notice the two men entering
her room.

NOTE: the present tense indefinite and the present tense continuous are rarely used in
this way but their equivalents in the past (i.e. past tense indefinite and the past tense
continuous) are frequently associated, e.g. I was explaining the lesson when Peter
entered the room.

13.2.4. Adverbs of frequency in continuous tenses

Adverbs of frequency in continuous tenses (=always, never, occasionally, often,
sometimes, usually, frequently etc.) and equivalent phrases (= every
day/week/month/year, on Mondays, on Sundays, twice a week/month/year etc.) cannot
be used with continuous tenses as their meanings are opposed, i.e. the continuous tense
shows an action that is going on at a certain moment while the adverbs/phrases of
frequency insist on the repeated character of the action, banning the idea of continuity.

The adverb ALWAYS, however, can be as associated with a continuous tense when the
action annoys the speaker or seems unreasonable to him.

My husband goes to football matches every Sunday (=literal statement)
My husband always goes to football matches on Sunday (=literal statement)
My husband is always goes to football matches on Sunday (=not a literal
statement). This would imply that he does not necessarily go to football matches
every Sunday. The action occurs too often, though, in the speakers opinion and
this annoys him.

a repeated action seen as accidental, only in the first persons singular and plural, e.g.

61

Im always losing my keys.

always may be used with an apparently continuous action, which is uttered by the
speaker in a tone of approval, e.g. That girl is always reading can have two distinct
meanings, e.g. the action annoys the speaker or, on the contrary, it could be said in a
tone of approval, depending on the circumstances and the speakers perspective.

NOTE - there are several classes of verbs that cannot be used in a continuous form
(see section 10.1.1)


13.3. THE PAST TENSE INDEFINTE

The Past Tense Indefinite expresses a durative or point action that occupied some
time in the past; it can be used with or without past time expressions.

13.3.1. Form

Affirmative
I learned
You learned
He, she, it learned
We learned
You learned
They learned

Negative
I did not learn / I didnt learn
You did not learn / You didnt learn
He, she, it did not learn / He, she, it didnt learn
We did not learn / We didnt learn
You did not learn / You didnt learn
They did not learn / They didnt learn

Interrogative
Did I learn?
Did you learn?
Did he, she, it learn?
Did we learn?
Did you learn?
Did they learn?

Interrogative - Negative
Did I not learn? / Didnt I learn?
Did you not learn? / Didnt you learn?

62
Did he, she, it not learn? / Didnt he, she, it learn?
Did we not learn? / Didnt we learn?
Did you not learn? / Didnt you learn?
Did they not learn? / Didnt they learn?

13.3.2. Note on the spelling of the past tense of regular verbs

*Verbs ending in a vowel add -(e)d, depending on the final vowel, e.g.
practice/practiced, ski/skied, love/loved, hate/hated, die/died, tie/tied, singe/singed,
emerge/emerged, dye/dyed etc.

Verbs ending in -y
y preceded by a vowel no changes occur, e.g. stay/stayed, play/played, eye/eyed, etc.
y preceded by a consonant becomes i(e) before the ending (e)d, e.g. try/tried, cry/
cried, study/studied etc.

Verbs ending in a consonant:

The standard past tense form of regular forms ends in (e)d, e.g. learn/learned, work/
worked, book/booked, visit/visited, want/wanted etc.

* in verbs ending in t or d the past tense suffix is pronounced [id]

- monosyllabic verbs ending in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel double
the final consonant before adding ed, e.g. : tap/tapped, star/starred, stop/stopped etc.

- bisyllabic verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, which get
the stress on the second syllable double the final consonant before ed, e.g. etc.
prefer/preferred, occur/occurred, admit/admitted, omit/omitted

NOTE: - if, under the conditions above, the stress falls on the first syllable no
doubling of the final consonant before ing occurs, e.g. focus/focused,
budget/budgeted, enter/ entered, offer/offered etc.

- the final consonant is doubled before ed in a few bisyllabic verbs although the stress
falls on the first syllable e.g.kidnap/kidnapped, handicap/handicapped,
worship/worshipped etc.

- verbs ending in ic double the final consonant as ck before adding ed, e.g. panic/
panicked, traffic/trafficked etc.

- irrespective of the number of syllables or stress, verbs ending in a single l preceded
by a single vowel double the final consonant in British English and do not in American
English,



63
British English American English
travel/travelled traveled
signal/signalled signaled
marvel/marvelled marveled
control/controlled controled

The largest number of verbs in English have a regular form in the past tense indefinite,
but there are several scores of them which have an irregular past tense form (as well as
participle). The forms of these verbs are found in lists attached at the end of grammar
books (see annex 1) or in dictionaries as head words reporting the reader to the basic
form; examples of such verbs are:

Infinitive Past tense Past participle
to go went gone
to see saw seen
to cut cut cut
to show showed shown etc.

NOTE: the user should remember that the interrogative, negative-interrogative and
negative forms of such verbs require the use of the auxiliary did and the bare infinitive of
the notional verbs of this class, e.g.

Affirmative
I went
You went
He, she, it went
We went
You went
They went

Negative
I did not go / I didnt go
You did not go / You didnt go
He, she, it did not go / He, she, it didnt go
We did not go / We didnt go
You did not go / You didnt go
They did not go / They didnt go

Interrogative
Did I go?
Did you go?
Did he, she, it go?
Did we go?
Did you go?
Did they go?


64
Interrogative - Negative
Did I not go / Didnt I go?
Did you not go / Didnt you go?
Did he, she, it not go / Didnt he, she, it go?
Did we not go / Didnt we go?
Did you not go / Didnt you go?
Did they not go / Didnt they go?
a limited number of verbs can have double forms, regular and irregular, in the past tense
indefinite and/or past participle; the reader is advised to chose his form, as, in most
instances one form is preferred in British English and the other in American English.

13.3.3. Uses

The past tense indefinite is mainly used:

to express an action that occurred in the past, without connection to the present; it can
be used in questions or statements, with or without past time expressions, e.g.

Napoleon died in 1821.
Shakespeare wrote plays and sonnets.
When did you call him? I called him two days ago.

sometimes the idea of time is implied, e.g.

When did you buy your car? I bought it when I was in Germany.
How did you get your present job? I answered an advertisement published in a
local paper.

sometimes the time becomes definite as a result of a question and answer in the present
perfect, e.g.

Have you seen Basic Instinct? Yes, I have.
How did you like it? Actually, I didnt.

- the past tense indefinite is also used for past habit, when it can be replaced by
always/often/usually + past tense indefinite or a frequentative would + verb bare
infinitive construction, e.g.

When I was a student I went to movies every week.
or
When I was a student I always went to movies.
When I was a student I usually/frequently saw a lot of movies.
When I was a student I used to/would go to movies every week.
(see section 12.10.2 for more details in used to/would).


65
the past tense indefinite is currently associated with adverbs/ expressions of frequency,
e.g.

She seldom ate fish.
They never worked at night.
I often went to bed before 11 p.m.
Did you ever ride a horse?

the past tense indefinite is used with verbs that are not normally used in the
continuous aspect (see section 10.1.1)

I thought he was the best actor ever.
As we were walking down the street, we saw him running out of the shop on the
corner.
They seemed very unhappy.
She felt good when she was told she was the winner of the competitive.

the past tense indefinite (actually a past subjunctive) is used in conditional sentences
type 2 and after as if, as though, it is time, if only, wish, would sooner /rather.

the past tense indefinite is used as a past equivalent of the present tense indefinite in
the sequence of tenses (see section 14), or in the indirect speech when the reporting is
made in the past tense, e.g.

John said: I am very busy now.
John said he was very busy then.
John said: She works in the other office.
John said that she worked in the other office.


13.4. THE PAST TENSE CONTINUOUS

13.4.1. Form

The Past Tense Continuous is formed by the past tense of the verb TO BE + the present
participle of the notional verb (for the spelling of the present participle).

Affirmative
I was learning
You were learning
He, she, it was learning
We were learning
You were learning
They were learning



66
Negative
I was not learning / I wasnt learning
You were learning / You werent learning
He, she, it was learning / He, she, it wasnt learning
We were learning / We werent learning
You were learning / You werent learning
They were learning / They werent learning

Interrogative
Was I learning?
Were you learning?
Was he, she, it learning?
Were we learning?
Were you learning?
Were they learning?

Interrogative - Negative
Was I not learning? / Wasnt I learning?
Were you not learning? / Werent you learning?
Was he, she, it not learning? / Wasnt he, she, it learning?
Were we not learning? / Werent we learning?
Were you not learning? / Werent you learning?
Were they not learning? / Werent they learning?

13.4.2. Uses

The Past Tense Continuous is chiefly used for past actions which continued for some
time but whose limits are not known and are not important. There is a degree of
uncertainty about times of starting or finishing (Thomson Martinet, 1977: 163).

used without a time expression it can indicate an action going on at some time in the past,
or gradual development, e.g.

It was raining.
It was getting colder.
Mary was playing the piano.
What were you doing there?
I was washing my hair.

As with the present tense continuous, durative verbs are used in this way, e.g. work,
learn, write, read, watch, look at, ask etc.

to show an unfinished action at the time shown by the adverb/phrase of past time, e.g.

Mary was doing her homework last night.
John and Mary were fighting two days ago.

67
John was preparing his breakfast yesterday morning.

if the past time expression is replaced by a past tense indefinite an extremely productive
construction is obtained, e.g.

I was reading when John called.
When she arrived, we were having dinner.
John left while his parents were looking for him.

The meaning is that the action in the past tense indefinite intervenes while the other was
begun and probably continued after it.

used with a point in time to show that the action began before that time and probably
continued after it:

At 8 we were having breakfast (=we started eating before 8 and probably continued
eating after it).

Compare with:

We had breakfast at 8 (=we started eating at 8 oclock).

- with non-durative or point action verbs, the past tense continuous expresses a
repeated action at the moment in the past, e.g. knock, kick, jump, hit etc.

Somebody was knocking (=repeated knockings).
The robber was hitting him with a club (repeated hittings).

with time expressions such as today, last night, in the afternoon, two continuous past
tenses can be used for apparently parallel actions, e.g.

This morning mother was cooking and doing the house.
Last year he was teaching geometry and learning French.

with ALWAYS in order to express an apparently continuous action which annoyed the
speaker (see under Present Tense Continuous, section 13.2.4)

He was always complaining about his job.

as the past equivalent of the present tense continuous used for a definite future
arrangement (Present Tense Continuous: to show) a definite future arrangement, e.g.

Direct speech: They are leaving tomorrow, becomes
She said they were leaving the next day.
Mother said that Jane was meeting Tom at the station at 7 oclock.


68
as the past equivalent of the present tense continuous in the sequence of tenses or in the
indirect speech, e.g.

John is writing his homework.
Father said that John was writing his homework.
Mary is living in New York.
We were informed that Mary was living in New York.

Certain classes of verbs cannot be used in the continuous aspect (see section 10.1.1).

With state verbs (live, stay, remain, be etc.), to distinguish an action limited in time from
an action that is longer, e.g.

Compare

She was living in Paris. (=temporarily)

with

She lived in Paris. (=permanent residence)
or
She was staying with friends (=for the time being)
She stayed with her parents (=she lived these permanently).

13.4.3. Past Tense Continuous and Past Tense Indefinite compared

The past tense continuous can be used as an alternative to the past tense indefinite to
indicate a more casual, less deliberate action; compare

John was talking to the dean yesterday.
with

John talked to the dean yesterday.

The first gives the impression that the action was in no way remarkable and John talked
to the dean in the normal course of events, i.e. they met accidentally or they worked
together etc., while the second sentence implies a deliberate action that John performed,
i.e. he deliberately talked to the dean because he wanted to tell him something important.


13.5. THE PRESENT PERFECT INDEFINITE

13.5.1. Form

The present tense of the auxiliary HAVE (have, has) and the past participle of the
notional verb.

69

Affirmative
I have learned / Ive learned
You have learned / Youve learned
He, she, it has learned / Hes, shes, its learned
We have learned / Weve learned
You have learned / Youve learned
They have learned / Theyve learned

Negative
I have not learned / I havent learned
You have not learned / You havent learned
He, she, it has not learned / He, she, it hasnt learned
We have not learned / We havent learned
You have not learned / You havent learned
They have not learned / They havent learned

Interrogative
Have I learned?
Have you learned?
Has he, she, it learned?
Have we learned?
Have you learned?
Have they learned?

Interrogative - Negative
Have I not learned / Havent I learned?
Have you not learned / Havent you learned?
Has he, she, it not learned / Hasnt he, she, it learned?
Have we not learned / Havent we learned?
Have you not learned / Havent you learned?
Have they not learned / Havent they learned?

The Present Perfect can be defined as a mixture of past and present.
The Present perfect has the following characteristics:

the action it expresses always begins in the past (no matter how distant or close in
time);
it has a strong connexion with the present (to be seen in the following sections);
it can never be associated with past time expressions like: yesterday, the day before
yesterday, two/three days ago, last night/week/month/year etc., two days ago, three
years ago etc.





70
13.5.2. Uses

The Present Perfect Indefinite is used to express an action which began in the past, was
finished in the past and whose results are felt in the present. It is used without any time
expression because the user does not know exactly when, in the past, the action took
place OR the time is not important; the only thing that counts is that the action was begun
and completed in the past and its results are seen in the present; diagrammatically it may
be represented as follows:

A B TS
x x

Mary has done her homework - we do not know when in the past she did the
action, but the result is seen in the present, i.e. her homework is finished.
I have read the book but I do not remember the name of the main character (=the
reading was performed in the past, and what really counts is that the subject
presumably knows what is in the book.)

Compare with

Mary did her homework last night - the speaker is interested in the time when the
action was performed; this fact might have some impact on what he is
communicating.
or
I read the book last week =action performed in the past, no connexion intended
with the present.

Questions in the present perfect indefinite can be answered in the present perfect or past
tense, e.g.

Have you seen John?
Yes, I have.
No, I havent.
or
Yes, I saw him two hours ago.
Yes, I saw him with his wife (time implied).

An action in the present perfect usually has results in the present, while the past tense
does not. (Thomson Martinet, 1997: 166).

Compare

Tom has broken his arm (=it is still unhealed)
with
Tom broke his arm (=some time in the past, now it is healed)


71
Compare

Tom has had a bad car crash (=he is probably still in hospital)
with
Tom had a bad car crash (=but he is out of hospital now).
or
He has read the instructions (= he knows what is in them)
with
He read the instruction (=he did it some time ago, he may not remember them).
William Taylor has written 5 novels (so far) (=he is still alive and may write other
novels)
while
Shakespeare wrote many plays and sonnets (=Shakespeare is dead, so he cannot
write other plays or sonnets).

The Present Perfect Indefinite can also be used to express a recently completed action;
diagrammatically, it may be represented as follows:

TS
A B
x


When used in this way, the present perfect indefinite is usually associated with adverbs or
adverb phrases of recent time, i.e. lately, recently, already, just, up to now, so far etc.

What changes have there been lately/recently?
I have not seen them recently (= at some undefined time during the last
week/month/year etc.)
He has just finished his work (just is not used in negative or interrogative
constructions).

- with today, this morning/afternoon/week/month/year etc., tonight etc. With these
adverbs/adverb phrases, the present perfect indefinite expresses an action that has or has
not been finished within the time interval mentioned. Beyond the limits of these time
intervals, the speaker should use a past tense.

Max has asked for you 3 times this morning. (=between early morning till about
noon time)
and
Max asked for you 3 times this morning (=at 2 oclock, which is already in another
time interval)
or

Max has asked for you 3 times today (=because both this morning and 2 oclock
are within the time limits called today).

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Have you met John today? (=at any time today till the question was asked)
Yes, I have (met him today) (=at some time during the day)

or Yes, I saw him 3 hours ago.

NOTE: for actions that usually happen at a certain time or within well-defined time
limits the speaker should use a past tense, e.g.

The alarm clock didnt go off this morning. (= a specified time, plus the fact that the
speaker can never be within the limits of that time interval).
Has the garbage machine come yet? (Between 8-9 a.m. when the garbage machine
usually comes to collect). (But after 9 oclock:) Did the garbage machine come
yet?

The Present Perfect Indefinite is also used to express an action which began in the past
and is still continuing at the time of speaking; it can be used with durative verbs, i.e.
verbs expressing actions that may last for some time, e.g. live, learn, practice, speak,
snow, rain, wait, work, smoke etc.

The most frequent time expressions used include all day/night/week/ etc., all
my/your/his/etc. life, all the time and adverbs of frequency, e.g. always, lately, never etc.
and for +time interval and since +the beginning of the time interval, e.g.

Mary has been a teacher for 10 years/since she graduated/since she moved to
Paris. (=she is still a teacher)

Compare with

Mary was a teacher for 10 years/since she graduated/since she moved to Paris
(=but she is no longer a teacher).
She drank coffee all her life (=now she is probably dead)
She lived in Paris all her life (=she is dead now)

Sometimes the action finishes at the time of speaking, e.g.

I havent seen you for some time now/for ages. (=but I see you now)
It has rained a lot lately (=but it stopped now).
With superlatives, ordinal numerals, the only, the last, the present perfect indefinite
+ ever, is used to show that the speaker experiences that action for the first time, e.g.

Mary is the most beautiful girl I have ever seen.
This is the best wine I have ever had in 10 years.
This is the first time I have had a really good time at a formal dinner.
This is the last car I have bought with cash money.


73
the present perfect indefinite is used with adverbs of frequency, e.g. always, usually,
often, ever, never etc. In this use the present perfect indefinite can express a
special/characteristic action repeated in the past, present and probably in the future as
well, e.g.

He has usually played tennis well.
They have always stayed in this hotel.
I have always liked roses.
She has never eaten fish.
Have you ever drunk beer?
They have always answered my letters (= habitual action).

the verbs that are not normally used in the continuous aspect (see section 10.1.1) are used
in the present tense indefinite.
the present perfect indefinite can replace the present tense in if-clauses type 1 (see under
If. Clause, section 15.8.1.1)
the present perfect indefinite is used in time clauses instead of a future perfect, e.g.

Youll get a larger salary when you have worked here for five years;


13.6. THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

13.6.1. Form

It is formed by the present tense of the verb to have (have/has), the past participle of
the verb to be (been) and the present participle of the notional verb, e.g.

Affirmative
I have been learning / Ive been learning
You have been learning / Youve been learning
He, she, it has been learning / Hes, shes, its been learning
We have been learning / Weve been learning
You have been learning / Youve been learning
They have been learning / Theyve been learning

Negative
I have not been learning / I havent been learning
You have not been learning / You havent been learning
He, she, it has not been learning /
He, she, it hasnt been learning
We have not been learning / We havent been learning
You have not been learning / You havent been learning
They have not been learning / They havent been learning



74
Interrogative
Have I been learning?
Have you been learning?
Has he, she, it been learning?
Have we been learning?
Have you been learning?
Have they been learning?

Interrogative - Negative
Have I not been learning? / Havent I been learning?
Have you not been learning? / Havent you been learning?
Has he, she, it not been learning? /
Hasnt he, she, it been learning?
Have we not been learning? / Havent we been learning?
Have you not been learning? / Havent you been learning?
Have they not been learning? / Havent they been learning?

13.6.2. Uses

Like any continuous tense, the present perfect continuous underlines the idea of
continuity and displays the same characteristics as any other continuous tense. It is
mainly used:

to express an action which began in the past, was continuous over an interval of time and
is still going on at the moment of speaking, possibly in the future as well. It is chiefly
used with for and since, e.g.

It has been raining for two hours/since 8 oclock (=it started raining at 8, kept
raining for a while and it is still raining)
She has been learning English for 10 years/since childhood.
Ive been living in London for 5 years/since 1998.

with the verbs expect, hope, learn, lie, live, look, rain, sleep, sit, snow, stand, stay,
teach, wait, want, work, the present perfect indefinite can be used as an alternative
form of the present perfect continuous, the latter emphasising the idea of continuity,
e.g.

It has rained for two hours/since 8 oclock. It has been raining for 2 hours/since 8
o'clock
She has learned English for 10 years/since childhood. She has been learning
English for 10 years/since childhood.
Ive lived in London for 5 years/since 1998. I've been living in London for 5
years/since 1998.

to express a frequently repeated action, extending from past to present, which looks like
an apparently, uninterrupted action, e.g.

75

She has been writing letters of invitation since 8 oclock (=an indefinite number of
letters, the actions seems uninterrupted);
Ive been writing novels since I graduated;

However, if we mention the number of letters/novels written, the present perfect
indefinite should be used, e.g.

She has written 50 letters of invitation since 8 oclock.
Ive written 3 novels since I graduated.

Numbers are very much like adverbs of frequency, slicing up the apparently,
uninterrupted action, and thus coming into conflict with the main characteristic of the
continuous aspect, i.e. (apparently) uninterrupted flow.

Sometimes the meaning conveyed by the present perfect continuous differs essentially
from that expressed by the present perfect indefinite, i.e. the present perfect continuous
shows how the speaker has spent the last few minutes/half hour/etc before the time of
speaking and the action is not finished, while the present perfect indefinite shows an
action that was performed in the past, with results in the present, e.g.

I have been washing the dishes (=my hands are wet because this is how I spent the
last few minutes before you entered).
I have washed the dishes (=this job is finished)

Compare

Mother has been cooking dinner.

with Mother has cooked dinner.

or John has been washing the car.

with John has washed the car.

repeated actions that annoy or irritate the speaker, e.g.

How often have I been telling you not to do this again.

The Present Perfect Continuous cannot be associated with adverbs of frequency (see
section 13.2.4), except always.

The verbs in section 10.1.1, cannot be used in the continuous aspect, so

I have known him for 10 years.
*Ive been knowing him for 10 years (=incorrect).

76
She is the most beautiful girl I have ever seen in my life.


13.7. THE PAST PERFECT INDEFINITE

13.7.1. Form

It is formed by the past tense of the auxiliary to have (had) and the past participle of
the notional verb, e.g.

Affirmative
I had learned / Id learned
You had learned / Youd learned
He, she, it had learned / Hed, shed, itd learned
We had learned / Wed learned
You had learned / Youd learned
They had learned / Theyd learned

Negative
I had not learned / I hadnt learned
You had not learned / You hadnt learned
He, she, it not learned / He, she, it hadnt learned
We had not learned / We hadnt learned
You had not learned / You hadnt learned
They had not learned / They hadnt learned

Interrogative
Had I learned?
Had you learned?
Had he, she, it learned?
Had we learned?
Had you learned?
Had they learned?

Interrogative - Negative
Had I not learned? / Hadnt I learned?
Had you not learned? / Hadnt you learned?
Had he, she, it not learned? / Hadnt he, she, it learned?
Had we not learned? / Hadnt we learned?
Had you not learned? / Hadnt you learned?
Had they not learned? / Hadnt they learned?

The Past Perfect Indefinite is defined as an action performed in the past, before another
past action, e.g.

Mary had finished her homework before we got there.

77
I had left the country by the time my daughter was 7 years old.

13.7.2. Uses

The Past Perfect Indefinite has 3 main uses:

The Past Perfect Indefinite can be used for actions whose time is mentioned, or not, e.g.

He had come by the 0.30 train;
They had forgotten to tell their mother about their precipitated departure;
They had never been there before;

- The Past Perfect Indefinite is the past equivalent of the Present Perfect Indefinite
and reports to the past tense indefinite the some way the present perfect indefinite reports
to the present tense, i.e. it expresses

- an action which stopped some time before the time of speaking in the past:

TS in the past TS in the present
A B O
1
O
x x x


The action took place between A and B and presumably had results in O
1
(=the time of
speaking in the past), e.g.

John had owned a profitable business for 10 years before he decided to pass it over
to his son;
Mary had worked in that bank for several years; then she gave up her job and
moved with her family to another city;

b) an action which stopped just before the time of speaking in the past, e.g.

TS in the past TS in the present
O
1
O
A B
x x

The action took place between A and B, finishing just before the time of speaking in the
past, e.g.

Peter, who had waited for an hour/since morning, was very angry with his sister
when she eventually turned up;
She had written several letters when her sister came to see her.


78
c) an action which was still continuing at the time of speaking in the past and may have
continued after it, e.g.

TS in the past TS in the present
A O
1
O
x x


The action began at the time A, had gone on for some time and was still continuing at
point O
1
(=time of speaking in the past).

Mary was in her early thirties when we met. (=O
1
), she had been a qualified nurse
for 10 years/since she was 22 and liked her profession. (at O
1
she was still a
nurse and probably did not want to quit her job);
or
Ann had lived in a cottage for 30 years/since she married John, and did not want to
move to a city apartment.

The Past Perfect indefinite is also the past equivalent of the past tense indefinite and is
used when the speaker/narrator looks back on earlier actions from a certain point in the
past, e.g.

A certain
point in the TS in the
D C B A O
1
past present O
x x x x x


The speaker places oneself in O
1
, a certain point in past, and from that perspective relates
actions A, B, C, D etc.

My sister was only a kid when we moved to Manchester (= point in the past). She
had been a student and had wanted to stay in London, which was not possible
though.
or
I had just poured myself another glass of beer when the telephone rang. When I
came back from answering it, my glass was empty. Somebody had drunk the
beer.

If, however, the events/actions are given in the order in which they occurred, without that
looking back, only the past tense is used, compare, e.g.

My sister was a student when we moved to Manchester. She wanted to stay in
London but it was not possible
or

79
I poured myself a glass of beer, then the telephone rang. Somebody drank my beer
because when I came back from answering it the glass was empty.

Note the difference in meaning in the following examples (Thomson &.Martinet, 1997:
215), e.g.

She heard voices and realized that there were 3 people in the next room (= past
tense expressing successive/concomitant actions)

Compare it with:

She saw empty glasses and cups and realized (=successive actions) that three
people had been in the room (=this action precedes in time the ones mentioned
before).
or
He arrived at 2
30
and was told to wait in the VIP lounge (=he received the
instructions upon arrival
He arrived at 2
30
. He had been told to wait in the VIP lounge (=he got his
instructions before the journey started).

The Past Perfect Indefinite is the past equivalent of both present perfect indefinite
and past tense indefinite in the sequence of tenses or in reported speech (=which
generates sequence of tenses when the reporting verb is in the past tense), e.g.

Mary has just finished her homework. Mother was happy as Mary had just finished
her homework when the guests arrived.
John always had a board meeting on Monday. When we got there John had
already had his usual Monday board meeting.
or
He said: Ive worked in this office for a year.
He said he had worked in that office for a year.
He said: When you have finished the work youll have a break and a beer.
He said that when I had finished the work I would have a break and a beer.
He said: She worked hard.
He said that she had worked hard.
He said: I loved her.
He said that he had loved her.

- The Past Perfect Indefinite is used in time clauses, after WHEN when the speaker
wants to emphasize that the first action was completed before the second one started, e.g.

When he had finished writing, he called Mary to take her for a walk. (=he finished
writing first and only then he called Mary);

Confusion may occur if this principle is not observed, e.g.


80
When she sang her song she sat down gives the impression that she remained
seated while singing her song;

Compare with

When she had sung her song she sat down (=first she sang her song and only after
wards she sat down)

- the Past Perfect Indefinite used with till/until or before, the past tense action may/will
precede the past perfect, e.g.

John did not want to leave till he had finished washing the car;
Mary refused to dress in white till she had made sure nobody else was wearing that
colour;
Before she had published her novel, she wanted her husband to proof read the book
for her;
Before we had reached the bus stop, Mary realized that she had forgotten her card
at home.

- the Past Perfect Indefinite is standard after the preposition after

After the will had been read there were exclamations of delight;
After she had refused his proposal, he left the town never to return;

As after itself shows that the two actions succeed each other, two past tenses can be used
instead of a past perfect indefinite and a past tense indefinite, e.g.

After the will was read, there were exclamations of delight;
After she refused his proposal, he left the town never to return;
13.8. THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

13.8.1. Form

The Past Perfect Continuous is formed by the past tense of the auxiliary HAVE (=had),
the past participle of the verb BE (= been) and the present participle (= Vb. ing) of
the notional verb, i.e.

Affirmative
I had been learning / Id been learning
you had been learning / youd been learning
he, she, it had been learning / hed, shed, itd been learning
we had been learning / wed been learning
you had been learning / youd been learning
they had been learning / theyd been learning



81
Negative
I had not been learning / I hadnt been learning
you had not been learning / you hadnt been learning
he, she, it had not been learning / he, she, it hadnt been learning
we had not been learning / we hadnt been learning
you had not been learning / you hadnt been learning
they had not been learning / they hadnt been learning

Interrogative
had I been learning?
had you been learning?
had he, she, it been learning?
had we been learning?
had you been learning?
had they been learning?

Interrogative Negative
had I not been learning? / hadnt I been learning?
had you not been learning? / hadnt you been learning?
had he, she, it not been learning?/ hadnt he, she, it been learning?
had we not been learning? / hadnt we been learning?
had you not been learning? / hadnt you been learning?
had they not been learning? / hadnt they been learning?

13.8.2. Uses

Like any other continuous tense, the Past Perfect Continuous is used in principle to
express an action going on at the time of speaking in the past. It cannot be used with
adverbs of frequency (see sections 13.2.4), except always.

According to grammarians, the Past Perfect Continuous bears the same relationship to
the past perfect indefinite as the present perfect continuous bears to the present perfect.

The Past Perfect Continuous is used to express:

- an action which began in the past and continued up to the time of speaking in the past or
stopped just before it. It is used with for and since time expressions, e.g.

It was late afternoon and he was angry because he had been waiting for his sister
since morning;
or
It was late afternoon and he was angry because he had waited for his sister since
morning;


82
With the verbs expect, hope, learn, lie, live, look, rain, sleep, sit, snow, stand, stay,
teach, wait, want, work the past perfect continuous can be used as an alternative form
of the past perfect indefinite, the former emphasizing the idea of continuity;

- to express a frequently repeated action, which looks like an apparently uninterrupted
action, e.g.

He had been trying to get her on the phone. (=several times, the action seems
uninterrupted)
He had been designing cars for a car factory (=an indefinite number)

However, if we mention the number of actions, the past perfect indefinite should be used,
e.g.

He had tried 3 times to get he on the phone.
He had designed 5 cars for the car factory.

Sometimes the meaning conveyed by the past perfect continuous differs essentially from
that expressed by the past perfect indefinite, i.e. the past perfect continuous shows how
the speaker had spent the last few minutes/half hour/etc. before the time of speaking in
the past and the action was not finished, while the past perfect indefinite shows an action
that had been finished before the time of speaking in the past, e.g.

By the time we got there he had fixed his bicycle (=this action had been completed)
When we got there he had been repairing his bicycle (=this was how he had spent
the last hour before we got there; the action may not be completed).


13.9. THE FUTURE

An action that takes place in the future is not under the control of the speaker as are
actions that took place in the past or are taking place in the present. Linguistic frustration
as to the action that is to take place in the future is seen in the fact that in English there
are few future tenses proper, but a large number of means of expressing futurity. Anglo-
Saxon speakers feel uncomfortable that they cannot have real control over future actions
and, consequently, they have invented a variety of means used to express an action that
will take place in the future. Up to a certain point all these means are synonymous in the
fact that they all express a future action; but synonymy stops at this point as each of
these means differs from the others in various ways.

There are several characteristics that make the various means of expressing futurity
different:

intentionality the future action will be under the speakers wishes. These future with
intention forms are more likely to take place than others, which the speaker does not
wish to perform.

83
an arrangement that may be implied which, again, makes that form of future action
more likely to be performed than others in which no material or moral investment has
been made.
the simple statement of a future action or otherwise called future without intention
merely states that a certain action will happen. We dont know whether it was
arranged by the subject or by some other person and we dont know what the subject
thinks of it.
a decision or plan without any definite arrangement.

Here are the various means/ways of expressing the future in English:

The present tense continuous
The present tense indefinite
Will infinitive (in the first person singular)
The going to form
The future tense indefinite
The future tense continuous
The future perfect indefinite
The future perfect continuous
Be + infinitive (to be to)
To be about + infinitive
To be on the point of + gerund

Each form on the list will be dealt with separately and in comparison with other
form/forms in order to make clear the differences existing among them.

NOTE:
By no means should the reader expect to find here absolutely all the nuances and
potentialities of these future forms. The reasons are obvious: too many details would
make the book user unfriendly, and, because it is practically impossible to foresee and
gather together the infinity of means that speakers may invent.

13.9.1. The present tense continuous as a future form

Characteristics:

it is used only with a future time expression as otherwise it may be confused with the
present tense continuous proper;
it is used to express a definite arrangement in the near future;
with verbs of movement from one place to another, e.g. arrive, come, drive, fly, go,
leave, start, travel, verbs indicating position, e.g. stay, remain and the verbs do and
have (food or drink) the present tense continuous can be used to express a decision
or plan without any definite arrangement.


84
This method of expressing the future cannot be used with verbs which are not normally
used in the continuous tenses (see section 10.1.1). These verbs should be put in another
form expressing future action.

- it cannot be associated with adverbs of frequency (see explanations under section
13.2.4).

She is working with John on that project tonight (=they agreed and probably made
plans);
I am meeting Tom at the supermarket (=we arranged that meeting in advance, so it
is very likely that we should meet);
Tom is taking Mary to the restaurant tomorrow night (=the two talked, Mary
agreed to go out for dinner and Tom probably made reservations at the
restaurant);
John is leaving for Bucharest this afternoon (=he bought his ticket);

- the present tense continuous is the most usual way of asking people about their plans,
e.g.

What are you doing tonight? (=have you arranged anything for tonight?)
Im going to the disco with some friends.
Im not doing anything special. Actually, Im baby-sitting for Marys child.

13.9.2. The Present Tense Indefinite used to express an action in the future

Characteristics:

Like the present tense continuous, the present tense indefinite can express a definite
future arrangement when used with a time expression. There are, though, differences
between the definite future arrangement expressed by the present tense continuous and
the present tense indefinite in the following points:

- the present tense indefinite is more formal than the present tense continuous;
- the present tense indefinite is more impersonal than the present tense continuous;

Compare

The police start the enquiries next week (=official announcement)
with

The police are starting the enquiries next week. (=probably a policeman talking to
some friend);
Company in town plans to built a new school next year (=newspaper title )
or This new company is planning to built a new school next year (=husband to wife,
at home).


85
Compare:

Im going to that charity ball tonight (=my own decision, I made the
arrangements);
with
I go to that charity ball tonight (=it is not my decision, this action is part of a plan
made by somebody else).

Im leaving tonight (= my decision)
with
I leave tonight (= someone elses plan, e.g. I am part of the delegation and the
decision was my managers).

- the present tense indefinite is preferred to the present tense continuous when speaking
about a series of proposed future actions, like plans for a journey, i.e.

All of us meet in Bucharest, North Hotel, on Thursday at 9 oclock. We fly to
Budapest where we visit the most important sights, sleep there overnight and
leave for Paris the next morning. We stay only two days in Paris and then we
take the TGV to get to London.

- only the present tense indefinite can be used for programmed /scheduled departures or
arrivals of all public vehicles (=habitual actions) e.g.

Our plane takes off at 7
45
.
The bus leaves at 6
00
a.m.
The train arrives at 8
00
p.m.
Their ship leaves shore at 10
00
a.m.
13.9.3. The WILL + infinitive form

Characteristics:

This is a form of future that works with the first person singular as it expresses an
unpremeditated action usually defined as intention at the moment of decision, i.e. the
speakers have no intention of performing a certain action but something happens that
makes them decide to act instantly. The standard example is when the telephone is
ringing or the doorbell does the same; and somebody reacts on the spot saying: Ill
answer it. (he/she decided to answer the phone or open the door only when the bell
made the well-known sound). Other examples:

Mary: Its 6
30
and my train leaves at 7
00
, Ill have to call/order a taxi.
Tom: Ill drive you to the station.
or
Mary: (just getting home): The door is ajar. Someone has broken in. Ill call the
police.
or

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Tom: (to waiter, in a restaurant): Ill have a pizza. (or I would like to have a
pizza).
or
Mary: (in a bookstore, has just made up her mind to buy an expensive book): Ill
buy it.

The auxiliary is normally contracted to ll.

If after the decision the speaker mentions the action again he will have to resort to other
means (as the action has became premeditated or intended), particularly the present tense
continuous or the going to future. The above examples become:

Mary: (referring to Toms offer to drive her to the station): Tom is driving me to
the station (definite arrangement is underlined) OR Tom is going to drive me
to the station (Toms intention is underlined).
Mary: (who has found her house broken into explains to one of her neighbours who
was passing by): Im calling the police on the cell phone OR Im going to
call the police (right before dialing).
Tom: (explaining to Mike, who has just joined him in the restaurant): Im having
a pizza (he has already placed the order/ has not ordered yet).
Mary (in the bookstore, to an acquaintance who has happened to be there): Im
going to buy this book. (=expressing her intention).

13.9.4. The BE GOING form

Form: the present tense continuous of the verb TO GO + the long infinitive of a
notional verb.

Affirmative
I am going to learn / Im going to learn.
you are going to learn / youre going to learn.
he, she, it is going to learn / hes, shes, its going to learn.
we are going to learn / were going to learn.
you are going to learn / youre going to learn.
they are going to learn / theyre going to learn.

Negative
I am not going to learn / I m not going to learn /
I m not going to learn
you are not/going to learn / youre not going to learn /
you arent going to learn
he is not going to learn / hes not going to learn /
he isnt going to learn
she is not going to learn / shes not going to learn /
she isnt going to learn
it is not going to learn / its not going to learn /

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it isnt going to learn
we are not going to learn / were not going to learn /
we arent going to learn
you are not going to learn / youre not going to learn you /
arent going to learn
they are not going to learn / theyre not going to learn /
they arent going to learn

Interrogative
am I going to learn?
are you going to learn?
is he, she, it going to learn?
are we going to learn?
are you going to learn?
are they going to learn?

Interrogative Negative
am I not going to learn? / arent I going to learn?
are you going to learn? / arent you going to learn?
is he, she, it going to learn? / isnt he, she, it going to learn?
are we going to learn? / arent we going to learn?
are you going to learn? / arent you going to learn?
are they going to learn? / arent they going to learn?

The BE GOING TO form expresses two distinct things:

intention
prediction it expresses the speakers feeling of certainty that an action will occur in the
near future (or what the speaker considers near future). The speakers opinion is
usually based on certain signs that somehow foretell the action, e.g.

Tom (looking at the cloudy sky): Its going to rain.
Tom (about Mary who had been fined for speeding). Shes going to have a hard
time with her parents.
Tom (looking at a woman wearing highheeled shoes on a mountain path) That
woman is going to quit soon.

Such predictions can be introduced by verbs as : be sure/afraid, believe, think, reckon,
assumeetc.

FUTURE with INTENTION

Characteristics:


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The be going to form expresses the speakers intention to perform a certain action in the
future.

This intention is premeditated (unlike will + infinitive) and some preparations for the
action may have been made.

In British English this kind of future is usually avoided with the verbs TO GO and TO
COME (replaced by the present tense continuous).
Uses

It is used to show near future with a time expression or a time clause instead of the time
expression, e.g.

Im going to answer these letters tonight.
Mary is going to meet John tomorrow.
We are going to adopt a child as soon as (it is) possible
They are going to start preparing for their next expedition when they manage to
collect enough money for it.
What are you going to do when you get your degree? Im going to work in my
fathers company.

- if the situation is clear enough, the be going to form can be used without a time
expression to show that the action is starting immediately, e.g.

(public speaker to audience) 'Im going to show you a short documentary' (= he
will start showing it the second he finished telling them).
(teacher to students in class) 'We are going to work in pairs.' (=she/he starts
immediately).

- the BE GOING TO form is frequently used with the verb TO BE and other verbs
which are not normally used in the continuous form, as an alternative of the present tense
continuous used for future actions, e.g.

Im sure Im going to love it.
As he has told me, hes going to mind his own business and leave his wife alone.
Hes going to enjoy living in the new chalet in the mountains as he has always liked
to live far from crowded places.
Although reluctant to give up her present job, Im sure Mary is going to think about
your offer/suggestion.
Shes going to be very happy with her new job.

NOTE: the standard Future Tense indefinite (will + infinitive) can replace the BE
GOING TO form in the above examples.



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13.9.5. THE FUTURE TENSE INDEFINITE

13.9.5.1. Form

The auxiliary WILL + short infinitive of the national verb, e.g.

Affirmative
I will learn / Ill learn
you will learn / youll learn
he, she, it will learn / hell, shell, itll learn
we will learn / well learn
you will learn / youll learn
they will learn / theyll learn

Negative
I will not learn / I wont learn
you will not learn / you wont learn
he, she, it will not learn / he, she, it wont learn
we will not learn / we wont learn
you will not learn / you wont learn
they will not learn / they wont learn

Interrogative
will I learn?
will you learn?
will he, she, it learn?
will we learn?
will you learn?
will they learn?

Interrogative Negative
will I not learn? / wont I learn?
will you not learn? / wont you learn?
will he, she, it not learn? / wont he, she, it learn?
will we not learn? / wont we learn?
will you not learn? / wont you learn?
will they not learn? / wont they learn?

Characteristics:

The future tense indefinite is the equivalent in the future of the present tense indefinite,
i.e. it expresses habitual actions that the speaker assumes will take place in the future;
It can be associated with adverbs of frequency, e.g. usually, always, often, seldom,
frequently etc.



90
13.9.5.2. Uses

- it is used to express habitual actions which the speaker assumes will take place in the
future:

Ill be 30 next month.
The council will meet next week.
Winter will come soon.
The football team will play again in a fortnight.

- it expresses the speakers opinions, assumptions, speculations about the future.
These may be introduced by such verbs as: assume, be afraid, be/feel sure, believe,
daresay, doubt, expect, hope, know, suppose, think, wonder, or accompanied by
adverbs such as: perhaps, possibly, probably, surely, but they can be used without
them, e.g.

(I think) hell get married soon.
(I suppose) theyll be late because the weather is really bad.
She will (probably) come by bus.
(Im afraid) mother wont come back before the end of the week.

- the future tense indefinite is also used in sentences containing clauses of condition
(see if clause).
- the future tense indefinite is also used in time clauses;
- it is also used in purpose clauses;
- verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses (see sections 10.1.1) usually express
the future by the future indefinite (other forms of expressing futurity can also be used,
see comparison of means of expressing futurity)

Mary will be there in time.
I dont think well have time to visit your parents.
Well know the result tomorrow.

it is used to express formal announcements of future plans and for weather forecasts,
e.g.

The PM will attend the opening ceremony of the new university in our town.
The new TV. channel will start its programme next week.
The sky will be cloudy in all areas.
It will snow in the south-eastern port of the country.

in the 3
rd
person, singular/plural, the future tense indefinite expresses the speakers
intention rather than that of the subject:

Mary will help John with his maths (=the speaker volunteers Mary for the action;
Mary has not expressed her intention of helping John with his maths)

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My husband will drive you to the station (=the poor husband has no intention of
driving their guest to the station, but his wife offered the help).

wont [wunt] - is the standard negative form of the future tense indefinite and usually
expresses the speakers negative assumption etc, or negative intention of the subject,
e.g.

He wont come to school, can be understood as:
I dont think he will come to school (=speakers negative assumption)
or as
He refuses to come to school (=the subjects negative intention).

The meaning is usually made clear by context.

13.9.6. THE FUTURE TENSE CONTINUOUS

13.9.6.1. Form

The future of the auxiliary BE plus the present participle (the ing form) of the
notional verb.

Affirmative
I(wi)ll be learning
you (wi)ll be learning
he, she, it (wi)ll be learning
we (wi)ll be learning
you (wi)ll be learning
they (wi)ll be learning

Negative
I will not learning / wont be learning
you will not learning / you wont be learning
he, she, it will not learning / he, she, it wont be learning
we will not learning / we wont be learning
you will not learning / you wont be learning
they will not learning / they wont be learning

Interrogative
Will I be learning?
will you be learning?
will he be learning?
will we be learning?
will you be learning?
will they be learning?

Interrogative Negative

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Will I not be learning? / wont I be learning?
will you not be learning? / wont you be learning?
will he, she, it not be learning? / wont he, she, it be learning?
will we not be learning? / wont we be learning?
will you not be learning? / wont you be learning?
will they not be learning? / wont they be learning?

Characteristics

It cannot be used with verbs that are not normally used in the continuous form (see
section 10.1.1).

It is not used with adverbs of frequency (see section 13.2.4).

13.9.6.2. Uses

- it is the future equivalent of the present tense continuous, i.e. it expresses an action that
the speaker assumes will be going on at a certain moment in the future, e.g. usually with a
point in time, and the speaker assumes that the action will begin before that time and will
continue after it.

Tomorrow at 5 he will be repairing his car. (=he will start before 5 and will
continue after 5 as well).
On Friday at 12 Mary will be delivering her first speech as the new manager of the
company.
or
Everything is settled then, Ill be waiting for you in the afternoon.
She left too early. When Mary gets there, her parents will be preparing for her
arrival.

- the future tense continuous can also be used to express a future without intention. The
difference is best seen in comparison with the present tense continuous used as a future
form (see under future forms compared).

13.9.7. THE FUTURE PERFECT INDEFINITE

13.9.7.1. Form

Will + have + vb-past participle of the notional verb

Affirmative
I(wi)ll have learned
you (wi)ll have learned
he (wi)ll have learned
we (wi)ll have learned
you (wi)ll have learned

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they (wi)ll have learned

Negative
I will not have learned / I wont have learned
you will not have learned / you wont have learned
he, she, it will not have learned / he, she, it wont have learned
we will not have learned / we wont have learned
you will not have learned / you wont have learned
they will not have learned / they wont have learned

Interrogative
Will I have learned?
will you have learned?
will he, she, it have learned?
will we have learned?
will you have learned?
will they have learned?
Interrogative Negative
Will I not have learned? / Wont I have learned?
will you not have learned? / wont you have learned?
will he, she, it not have learned? / wont he, she, it have learned?
will we not have learned? / wont we have learned?
will you not have learned? / wont you have learned?
will they not have learned? / wont they have learned?

Characteristics:

The Future Perfect Indefinite is used only with a future time expression, e.g. by then,
by that time, by the 3
rd
of July, by Thursday etc, this time next week/month/year/
century, etc.

13.9.7.2. Uses

- the Future Perfect Indefinite expresses a future action that will be finished before a
certain point/a certain given time in the future, e.g.

This time next year my son will have graduated from the medical school.
By the end of next month I will have lived here 10 years.
They will have finished building the house by the time their son is born.

The Future Perfect Indefinite is frequently replaced in spoken language with a future
tense indefinite, a present tense indefinite with a slight reformulation of the construction;
the previous examples may be rewritten:

My son graduates from the medical school next year about this time.
Next month it is 10 years since I have lived here.

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By the time their son is born they will finish building their house.

13.9.8. THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

13.9.8.1. Form

Will + have + been + Vb-ing of the notional verb

Affirmative
I(wi)ll have been learning
you (wi)ll have been learning
he, she, it (wi)ll have been learning
we(wi)ll have been learning
you(wi)ll have been learning
they(wi)ll have been learning

Negative
I will not have been learning / I wont have been learning
you will not have been learning / you wont have been learning
he, she, it will not have been learning /
he, she, it wont have been learning
we will not have been learning / we wont have been learning
you will not have been learning / you wont have been learning
they will not have been learning / they wont have been learning

Interrogative
Will I have been learning?
will you have been learning?
will he, she, it have been learning?
will we have been learning?
will you have been learning?
will they have been learning?

Interrogative Negative
Will I not have been learning? / wont I have been learning?
will you not have been learning?/ wont you have been learning?
will he, she, it not have been learning? /
wont he, she, it have been learning?
will we not have been learning? / wont we have been learning?
will you not have been learning? / wont you have been learning?
will they not have been learning?/ wont they have been learning?

13.9.8.2. Characteristics and uses

Like any continuous tense, the future perfect continuous underlines the continuous
character of an action which will occur in the future, and which, at that future moment

95
will be in the past. It is always used with time expressions beginning with by, e.g. by
then, by that time, by tomorrow, by next Saturday etc, or this time next
week/month/year etc.
Sometimes the future perfect continuous can be used as an alternative of the future
perfect indefinite.

By the end of January he will have been studying/will have studied English for 20
years.
This time next year we will have been living/will have lived here for a decade.

- it can be used for an apparently continuous action in the future which, at a certain time,
will be in the past, i.e. adverbs of frequency and numerical restrictions are forbidden;

By the end of the year he will have been teaching English to non-natives for 10
years.
This time next month he will have been playing in concerts for 20 years.

However, if we mention the number of non-natives, and that of concerts, the two
sentences become:

By the end of the year he will have taught English to 300 non-natives.
or This time next month he will have played in 50 concerts.

13.9.2. TO BE TO + Vb-short infinitive

NOTE: to be to + Vb-infinitive is a very useful construction that, essentially, is used to
convey orders or instructions and to convey a plan, which can be included among the
means of expressing a future action.

This construction, used to convey a plan, is frequently used in written media, e.g.

The President is to open the UNO session tomorrow (=The president is scheduled
to open the UNO session tomorrow).
The Queen is to make a statement tonight (=she was scheduled/this plan has been
made, to make a statement tonight.)

In order to make such a newspaper title shorter, the definite article THE may be left out
as well as the verb IS, the resulting form being:

President to open the UNO session tomorrow;
or
Queen to make a statement tonight.

The past equivalent is the verb to be in the past tense form + Vb-infinitive, e.g.

They said that the President was to open the UNO session the following day,

96
or
They said that the Queen was to make a statement that night.

was/were + Vb-infinitive is possible, as well as
was/were + Vb-perfect infinitive, e.g.

She was to stay with them the whole summer (=we do not know if the plan was
carried out and she did stay with them the whole summer).
or
The Lord Mayor was to have laid the foundation stone but he was taken ill last
night so the Lady Mayoress is doing it instead (=unfulfilled plan, i.e. the Lord
Mayor was taken ill he did not carry out the plan).

13.9.10. TO BE ABOUT + Vb-long infinitive

This construction expresses an immediate future action, e.g.

John is about to leave.
Mother is about to start cooking dinner.

The equivalent in the past is very useful, e.g.

He was about to leave home when the phone rang.
Mother was about to start cooking dinner right before we got home.

13.9.11. TO BE THE POINT OF + Vb-gerund

This construction is very similar to the previous one, although a little bit more
immediate.

She is on the point of getting married. (=she is very likely to get married very
soon).
(telephone conversation): Can you come over for dinner?
Im sorry , we cant. We are on the point of leaving/we are leaving for London
(=the action is imminent/we have the tickets).

The past equivalent is also useful, e.g.

When we got there, they were on the point of leaving/they were just leaving for the
countryside.

NOTE - the past equivalent of all these forms of expressing futurity are called future in
the past and are used in subordinate clauses when the main one is in the past. (for more
details see under The Sequence of Sentence, section 14).



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13.9.12. Future forms compared

BE GOING TO and WILL + infinitive compared;

In the first person the main differences between the two are the following:

- the to going to form expresses a premeditated intention and, sometimes intention and
plan, e.g.

Im going to answer these letters tonight.
She is going to spend her winter holidays in the mountains.

- the will + infinitive expresses intention (decision made on the spot) without
premeditation, e.g.

Somebody is knocking at the door. Ill answer it.
or
Im very late, I think I will have to take a taxi. Ill drive you, if you want.

- sometimes, when the intention is neither clearly premeditated or unpremeditated either
form can be used., e.g.

I will/am going to buy a Vauxhall one day.
I will/am going to climb that mountain next year.

- intention in the second and third person is normally expressed by the be going to
form, e.g.

He is going to build a new house.
She is going to stay with us the whole weekend.
They are going to travel by air.

- in the negative wont can be used for all persons, but there is a slight difference
between

He isnt going to resign (=he doesnt intend to resign) and
He wont resign (=he refuses to resign). (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 185).

Will + infinitive in all persons differs from the be going to form in the following:

will + infinitive (= future tense indefinite) expresses what the speaker thinks, assumes,
hopes, fears will happen, while the be going to form implies that there are signs that
something will happen (= very similar with the predictive function of this future form),
compare:


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It will cost a lot to built such a large house (=the speaker believes/thinks/assumes
so)
with
Its going to cost a lot to built such a large house (=the owner has already spent a
lot, so the speaker has hints/signs about what will happen)
or
John will get the highest grade in the literature exam (=the speaker thinks/ assumes
so)
with
John is going to get the highest grade in the literature exam (=he is a very good
student and there are signs that he will be successful in his exam).
or
The weather will improve in the next few days (=the speaker thinks so).
and
The weather is going to improve in the next few days (=there are obvious signs that
the weather is improving)
Present Tense Continuous and Future Continuous compared

I am meeting Tom tomorrow.
and
Ill be meeting Tom tomorrow.

In the first example the speaker and/or Tom have/has deliberately arranged to meet
(=definite arrangement in the near future) while in the second it is assumed that the two
will meet in the ordinary course of events.

Similarly:

Mary is visiting her parents next week;
and
Mary will be visiting her parents next week;

This distinction may not always be important and either form can be used, e.g.

He is taking his exam next week;
or
He will be taking his exam next week;

The Future Continuous and Future Indefinite compared

The Future Continuous expresses a casual action in the future, one that will happen either
as a matter of routine or for reason unconnected with the main issue;

The Future Indefinite expresses intention, i.e. a deliberate future action in accordance
with the speaker's wishes, e.g.


99
Ill see the Dean and explain to him why I would like to set up that project (=seeing
the dean is a deliberate action on the part of the speaker), while
Ill be seeing the Dean and Ill explain to him why I would like to set up that
project (=no intention implied; the speaker is likely to see the dean in the normal
course of events or accidentally and then will tell him about the project).

The use of one or the other of the various means of expressing futurity depends on what
message the speaker wants to convey to the interlocutor. The speaker can choose to say,
depending on the context and what he/she has in mind,

John will sell his old car (=I assume/think so)
John is going to sell his old car (=it is his intention)
John is selling his old car (=he has already found a buyer). etc.

By no means are these the only comparisons between future forms possible. For practical
reasons, however, the author thinks that more details on the various means of expressing
futurity would be both impractical and rather confusing for the user.

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14. THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES


The term sentence defines two things:

a set of words, complete in itself as the expression of a thought, containing or
implying a subject and a predicate, and conveying a statement, question,
exclamation or command (Oxford English Reference Dictionary, 1996).
a piece of writing or speech between full stops or equivalent pauses, often including
several grammatical sentences (idem).
According to definition number 2 a sentence can contain several substructures,
themselves containing a subject and a predicate, that are referred to as:
a main clause/several main clauses, and
a subordinate clauses/several subordinate clauses;

A sentence defined as in definition 2 must contain at least one main clause and one
subordinate clause. This will be the case considered in order to explain the sequence of
tenses.

The Tense of the verb in the subordinate clause depends on the verbal tense in the main
clause as follows:

If in the main clause there is a present, present perfect or future, the tense in the
subordinate clause depends exclusively on logic and can assume any of the forms of
the indicative (see the following table), or of other moods;
If in the main clause there is a past tense, and more rarely, a past perfect tense, the
tense in the subordinate clause must assume a past form, according to the table below.

1
0
The indirect speech, when the reporting is in the past tense, always generates sequence
of tenses. The examples in the table below are, therefore, taken from indirect speech.
2
0
We will consider the case of a that-clause (object clause) as the subordinate clause in
our examples, the other types of subordinate clauses (conditional, defining, non-defining
relative clauses etc. being dealt with in other sections).

*Tense in
the main
clause

Tense in the
subordinate
clause
present
past tense
He says: I am very busy
today
He said he was very busy
that day
present
past tense.
present
past tense
He says: I was busy
yesterday
He said he had been busy
the day before
past tense
past perfect

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present
past tense
He says: Ive made a
mistake
He said he had made a
mistake
present perfect
past perfect
**present
past tense
He says: Im leaving
tonight

He said he was leaving that
night
present tense
continuous
past tense
continuous (past
equivalent of the
above)
present

past tense
He says: Ill drive you to the
station.
He said that he would drive
me to the station
will + infinitive
( = future)
future in the past
(=past equivalent of
will + infinitive, an
apparent present
conditional.
present

past tense
He says: Im going to
answer those letters tonight
He said that he was going to
answer those letters that
night
BE GOING TO
(=future)
future in the past
(=past equivalent of
the BE GOING TO
form.
present
perfect
past perfect
Ive done all that is
necessary.
He had done all that was
necessary
present
past tense
future
past
equivalent
of the future
(= an
apparent
conditional
present)
He will come as soon as he
can
He would come as soon as
he could
present
past tense

**Only a limited number of examples with the future in the subordinate clauses is given;

The generic term for all the past equivalents of the various means of expressing futurity is
FUTUREINTHEPAST.

This future in the past is realized by all the past equivalent of the various means of
expressing futurity, as follows:


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Future form Future in the past
present tense indefinite - past tense indefinite
present tense continuous - past tense continuous
will + infinitive (I pas) - would + infinitive.
BE GOING TO form - past equivalent of the BE GOING TO
future tense indefinite - (an apparent) conditional present
future tense continuous - (an apparent) conditional present
continuous.
future perfect indefinite - (an apparent) perfect conditional
future perfect continuous - (an apparent) perfect conditional
continuous.

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15. THE CONDITIONAL


The Conditional, present or perfect, expresses an action or state whose
realization/achievement depends an a condition.

The Conditional has two tenses, present and perfect, usually in the indefinite aspect.
The continuous aspect of the two conditional tenses is exceedingly rarely used
*
.

* An apparent continuous present/perfect conditional may be the outcome of the
sequence of tenses, when the future/future perfect continuous acquires a form that is
identical with continuous present /perfect conditional, e.g.

Will be writing - would be writing
Will have been writing - would have been writing.


15.1. THE PRESENT CONDITIONAL

15.1.1. Form

Subject + would + Vb short infinitive of the notional verb

Affirmative Interrogative
I would learn Id learn Would I learn?
You would learn Youd learn Would you learn?
He would learn Hed learn Would he learn?
She would learn Shed learn Would she learn?
It would learn Itd learn Would it learn?
We would learn Wed learn Would we learn?
You would learn Youd learn Would you learn?
They would learn Theyd learn Would they learn?

Negative
I would not learn I wouldnt learn
You would not learn You wouldnt learn
He would not learn He wouldnt learn
She would not learn She wouldnt learn
It would not learn It wouldnt learn
We would not learn We wouldnt learn
You would not learn You wouldnt learn
They would not learn They wouldnt learn


104
Negative Interrogative
Would I not learn? Wouldnt I learn?
Would you not learn? Wouldnt you learn?
Would he not learn? Wouldnt he learn?
Would she not learn? Wouldnt she learn?
Would it not learn? Wouldnt it learn?
Would we not learn? Wouldnt we learn?
Would you not learn? Wouldnt you learn?
Would they not learn? Wouldnt they learn?

15.2. THE PERFECT CONDITIONAL

15.2.1. Form

Subject + would + Vb Perfect Infinitive

Affirmative
I would have learned Id have learned
You would have learned Youd have learned
He would have learned Hed have learned
She would have learned Shed have learned
It would have learned Itd have learned
We would have learned Wed have learned
You would have learned Youd have learned
They would have learned Theyd have learned

Interrogative
Would I have learned?
Would you have learned?
Would he have learned?
Would she have learned?
Would he have learned?
Would it have learned?
Would we have learned?
Would you have learned?
Would they have learned?

Negative
I would not have learned I wouldnt have learned
You would not have learned You wouldnt have learned
He would not have learned He wouldnt have learned
She would not have learned She wouldnt have learned
It would not have learned It wouldnt have learned
We would not have learned We wouldnt have learned
You would not have learned You wouldnt have learned
They would not have learned They wouldnt have learned

105

Negative Interrogative
Would I not have learned? Wouldnt I have learned?
Would you not have learned? Wouldnt you have learned?
Would he not have learned? Wouldnt he have learned?
Would she not have learned? Wouldnt she have learned?
Would it not have learned? Wouldnt it have learned?
Would we not have learned? Wouldnt we have learned?
Would you not have learned? Wouldnt you have learned?
Would they not have learned? Wouldnt they have learned?

NOTE:
a) in order to ensure the coherence and logic of the forthcoming explanations, it is
preferable to deal with both tenses of the conditional at the same time, comparing and
contrasting them when necessary.
b) it is worth mentioning the fact that the verb SHOULD is infrequently used as a
conditional auxiliary in persons I, singular and plural as it used to.


15.3. Uses

Present and perfect conditional are used:

in conditional sentences (see below)
as past equivalents of the simple future and future perfect in the sequence of tenses when
the main verb is in the past tense. (see The Sequence of tenses, section 14)
with various meanings other than those mentioned above (see Modal verbs, the respective
sections)

15.3.1. Conditional sentences

The conditional sentences are structures consisting of (at least) two parts, i.e. the main
clause and the if-clause or the subordinate clause. In the sentence If the rain stops, well
go on a trip -if the rain stops is the subordinate clause, while well go on a trip is
the main clause. There are three kinds of conditional sentences, in each a different pair of
tenses being used (to be seen below). The two clauses of any type of conditional
sentences can be placed in any order, i.e. the main clause first, the if clause second or
the if clause first and the main clause second. Therefore, the example above can be re-
written as: Well go on a trip, if the rain stops, the meaning being the same.

However, if either the main clauses or the subordinate one is long or followed by a
prepositional structure or a relative clause etc. it is usually placed in the second position,
e.g. If the rain stops, well go on a trip that was planned long time ago. Without being
strictly compulsory, this succession of sentences sounds less awkward than the reverse
order i.e. Well go on trip that was planned long time ago, if the rain stops.


106
The three kinds of conditional sentences will be treated in turn. Each type can have
different variations, which are, though, important only for advanced students, the main
types being enough for the intermediate ones.

SPECIAL NOTE: in many European languages the conditional sentence contains the
same pair of tenses (see Romanian); in English the tenses in the two clauses are different
and that is why non native speakers frequently make mistakes, because they usually
applying their mother tongue model.

Table of tense compatibilities in if clauses

Type
Subordinate clause
(if)
Main clause
Probable/possibl
e condition
If + S
*
()
+ present
tense,
S
*
(2)
+ future tense
indefinite
Improbable
condition
If + S
*
(1)
+ past tense
indefinite
**

S
*
(2)
+ present
conditional
Impossible
condition
If + S
*
(1)
+ past
perfect indefinite
***

S
*
(2)
+ perfect
conditional

NOTE:
* the subjects in the two clauses may be identical or different;
** the past tense indefinite is actually a past subjunctive; as past subjunctive and past
tense indefinite are identical in form, though not in functions, for the readers sake it is
simpler to use the terminology suggested than the strictly scientific/formal one;
*** for similar reasons, the perfect subjunctive is called past perfect indefinite.

Examples:

Type I probable / possible condition

(a
1
) If the rain stops, well go on a trip.
(b
1
) If you run fast, youll catch the train.
(c
1
) If we invite her to the party, she will come.
(d
1
) If they accept our suggestions, well finish the work in time.
(e
1
) If somebody gets caught in the act, they will be severely punished.

Type II improbable condition:

(a
2
) If the rain stopped, we would go on a trip.
(b
2
) If you ran fast, you would catch the train.
(c
2
) If we invited her to the party, she would come.
(d
2
) If they accepted our suggestions, we would finish the work in time.
(e
2
) If somebody got caught in the act, they would be severely punished.



107
Type III impossible condition:

(a
3
) If the rain had stopped, we would have gone on a trip.
(b
3
) If you had run fast, you would have caught the train.
(c
3
) If we had invited her to the party, she would have come.
(d
3
) If they had accepted our suggestions, we would have finished the work in time.
(e
3
) If somebody had got caught in the act, they would have beer severely punished.

15.3.1.1. Conditional sentences type 1

These conditions are called in bibliography either probable or possible, expressing an
action that is quite probable/possible to happen in the present or in the future.

In examples (a
1
, b
1
, c
1
, d
1
, e
1
) the future tense in the main clause may refer either to a
present action or one that is likely to happen in the future.

(a
1
) If the condition is fulfilled, the action in the main clause is likely to happen
immediately.

The explanations for the other examples under Type I are identical. Constructions of this
type are basic forms which can have possible variations, as follows:

a) Variations of the if clause

if + present tense continuous, e.g.

If you are looking for your grammar book, youll find it on the upper shelf.
If you are planning to leave tomorrow morning, youll have to buy a train ticket in
advance.

if + present perfect, e.g.

If you have finished your paper, Ill ask your teacher to mark it.
If she has written the letter, John will mail it.
If the kids have never seen the museum, the school will organise a visit there.

b) Variations of the main clause

Instead of WOULD several modal verbs are possible, each bringing with it an extra
meaning, depending on the modal verb itself, e.g.
may/might introducing the idea of probability

If you run fast, you may/might catch the train (maybe the train timetable has been
changed).
If we invite her to the party, she may/might come (perhaps she has other plans)


108
may/can for permission

If you have finished your paper, you may/can leave (permission)
If the rain stops, we can take out the toy train and play with it. (permission)

can for possibility

If the floods go down, we can clean our yards and houses.
If the weather changes for the better, the climbers can try to reach the peak.

can for ability

If our friends are in time, we can start organising the party.
If the thunder storm gets worse, we wont be able to fix the broken roof.

must strong command (pers. 2)

If you want to get better, you must fight as well.
If you refuse to work in the new team, you must accept the former conditions in the
old team.

must strong advice

If you want to lose weight, you must eat less carbohydrates.
If you meet your brother, you must tell him about your parents problems.

should/ought to mild command, request, suggestion etc. In most instances it is rather
difficult to distinguish between all these meanings, only a larger context clarifying the
situation, e.g.

If Mary needs more money, she should/ought to ask it from her parents (=
suggestion, advice etc)
If you want to finish your work as soon as possible, you should not waste your time
(advice, reasonable suggestion etc.)

could in the interrogative - request, e.g.

If you go to town, could you mail my letter?
If you dont want to take the car, could I take it for tonight?

for automatic or habitual results two present tenses are used, e.g.

If you place food in the refrigerator it lasts longer than otherwise.
If you add two and two it makes four.


109
15.3.1.2. Conditional sentences type II

These conditions are called improbable because the user does not think that the action in
the ifclause is likely to happen, or is contrary to reality. There is no difference in time
between type 1 and type 2, they both may happen in the present or future.

The tenses used in this type of conditional clauses are those shown in the table, i.e.
subjunctive in theif clause. For simplicity the verb form in the ifclause will be called
past tense. See the examples under Type 2 (a
2
, b
2
, c
2
, d
2
, e
2
). All are basic forms which
can suffer variations either of the ifclause or of the main clause, as follows, e.g.

a) Variations of the if clause

if + past tense continuous, e.g.

If we were travelling in group, I could be much happier (but we arent and I am not
happy)
If they were working together, they would finish the project in 2 days (but they
arent working together and are unlikely to finish the project in 2 days).

if + past perfect (actually a combination of types 2 and 3)

If he had worked harder as a student, he would have a well-paid job now (condition
in the past, result in the present).
If he had taken the stronger car, he would be at his destination now;

b) Variations of the main clause:

the continuous past conditional, e.g.

My brother is in the mountains, climbing the highest peak; if I were with him I
would be climbing the highest peak, too.
John does not have a vacation this summer; he is working on a new project. If I did
not finish my job last week, I would also be working on the new project;

might probability/possible result

If the rain stopped, we might go on a trip
If you ran fast, you might catch the train.

could ability

If they accepted our suggestions, we could finish the work in time.
If they tried harder, they could win the contest.

two past tenses to express automatic or habitual reactions in the past, e.g.

110

If the demand of a product got high, its production suddenly increased.
If anyone told him he was wrong, he got irritated.

NOTE: the form of the verb TO BE used in the ifclause, type 2, is WERE for all
persons, although the regular forms was (pers. I, III sg), and were are more frequently
used. The tendency is to employ were for the first person in If I were you, I
wouldused to express advice.

Conditionals type 1 and 2 express actions that may or may not occur in the present or
future while conditionals type 3 happened in the past. Thus, there is a temporal gap/break
between types 1 and 2 on the one hand and type 3 on the other.

15.3.1.3. Conditional sentences type 3

These conditionals are called impossible because the action expressed in the ifclause
did not happen in the past and, therefore, the action in the main clause was not fulfilled.
As time is irreversible, the condition cannot be fulfilled anymore and the action in the
main clause cannot, either.

The tenses used in this type of conditional clauses are those shown in table with
conditional tenses, i.e. perfect subjunctive in the ifclause and perfect conditional in the
main clause. Again, for simplicity, the verb form in the ifclause will be called past
perfect (see the examples under Type 3 (a
3
, b
3
, c
3
, d
3
, e
3
)). All are basic forms which can
suffer variations either of the if clause or of the main clause, as follows:

a) Variations of the ifclause

if + past perfect continuous

At the time I was travelling in Italy. If I hadnt been travelling in Italy right at that
time, I would have been killed in the earthquake that happened in Iran.

b) Variations of the mainclause

The continuous form of the perfect conditional, e.g.

Tom was writing her sisters homework because Jane his sister
was helping their mother with the dinner. If Jane had not been helping their
mother, she would have been writing her homework.
At the time of the floods I was travelling with my parents abroad. If we had not
been travelling abroad we would not have escaped the disaster.

might to express probability

If they had called yesterday, we might have had time to get there.

111
If Tom had finished his work, his boss might have given him a rise.

could to express ability or permission

If mother had told us what she needed, we could have bought her everything when
we were on vacation in Paris;
If we had finished in time, we could have left in the following two hours;

NOTE: HAD can be placed before the subject and the conjunction if is omitted:

Had mother told us what she needed, we could have bought her everything when we
were in town.
Had we finished, in time, we could have left in the following two hours.

The forms of the verb TO BE for type 2 are were in all persons or was/were. In most
instances was/were can be used alternatively in the I
st
and III
rd
persons singular. WERE
is the only possible form in the expression of advice if I were you, e.g.

If I were you I would sell the old car.
If I were you I wouldnt tell my parents.

15.3.1.4. Conjunctions (and equivalents) introducing the condition in the conditional
sentence

IF - is the most frequently encountered conjunction introducing the subordinate clause in
a conditional sentence, as seen in all the examples before.

WHETHER - also means if but is preferred when an alternative action is expressed,
whether or, e.g.

Youll have to travel by plane whether you like it or not.
They must accept the invitation to Toms birthday party whether they like Toms
friends or not.

UNLESS - is a negative conjunction meaning if not. It is used with a positive form of
the verbs, e.g.

Unless you invite her personally, she wont come (= If you dont invite her
personally she wont come);
Unless we tell them the truth, our parents wont let us go to the party tomorrow
(=If we dont tell them the truth, our parents wont let us go to the party
tomorrow);

PROVIDED (THAT) can replace if when there is a strong idea of limitation or
restriction.


112
It is chiefly used with permission (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 203).

You can camp here provided you leave no mess.
She can take my car provided she does not drive too fast.

113



16. NON-FINITE FORMS


Finite and nonfinite

The forms of the verb, and the phrases they are part of, are usually classified into two
broad types, based on the kind of contrast in meaning they express. The notion of
finiteness is the traditional way of classifying the differences. This term suggests that
verbs can be limited in some way, and this is in fact what happens when different kinds
of endings are used.

The finite forms are those which limit the verb to a particular number, tense, person, or
mood. For example, when the form -s is used, the verb is limited to the third person
singular of the present tense, as in goes and runs. If there is a series of verbs in the verb
phrase, the finite verb is always the first, as in I was being asked etc.

The nonfinite forms do not limit the verb in this way. For example, when the ing form
is used, the verb can be referring to any number, tense, person, mood;

Im leaving (first person, singular, present)
Theyre leaving (third person, plural, present)
He was leaving (third person, singular, present)
We might be leaving tomorrow (first person, plural, future, tentative). (Crystal,
1997: 212).


16.1. THE INFINITIVE

Old English was purely Germanic in its beginnings and the infinitive form was
inflectional (i)an. As this inflection decayed, the particle TO began to take over.
Originally a preposition, TO developed a function as a purpose marker, but soon it lost
its semantic content, acting only as a sign of the infinitive.

The infinitive is defined as a form of a verb expressing the verbal notion without
reference to a particular subject, tense etc. (The Oxford English Reference
Dictionary, OUP, 1996). It is the basic form of a verb, a form without endings, as listed in
a dictionary, e.g. learn, stay, go, be, etc.

The infinitive with the particle TO is called the long or the full infinitive, e.g. to go, to
write, to stay, to remain etc.

The infinitive without the particle TO is called the bare or the short infinitive, e.g. go,
write, stay, remain etc.

114

In point of the infinitive form there are 3 classes of verbs, e.g.

with a long infinitive that can also function without the TO particle, e.g. (to) want, (to)
go, (to) work etc. This class contains the notional verbs.
Without an infinitive form, i.e. the modal verbs proper, e.g. can, may, must etc.
With or without a TO infinitive, i.e. the semi modals, e.g. (to) dare, (to) need;
with TO they are notional verbs;

TO as a particle of the infinitive is frequently used to avoid the repetition of a notional
verb employed before, e.g.

Did you see the president; No, but I wanted to (see the president)
Do you want to come on a trip with us? Id like to (come with an a trip with
you) but I dont have time this week.

TO is also a preposition that can be followed by a noun/noun equivalent or an - ing-
form.

She is not used TO staying up late.
Im not used TO such spicy food;
Mary is looking forward TO seeing you;

DO NOT CONFUSE TO THE PARTICLE OF THE INFINITIVE WITH THE
PREPOSITION TO
16.1.1. Forms

Present infinitive: to repeat, to get
Present continuous infinitive: to be repeating, to be getting.

Perfect infinitive: to have repeated, to have got(ten)
Perfect continuous infinitive: to have been repeating, to have been
getting.

Present infinitive passive: to be repeated, to be got(ten)
Perfect infinitive passive: to have been repeated, to have been
got(ten)

16.1.2. Uses

1. The infinitive can be used alone, after a finite form of a verb as part of an infinitive
phrase, e.g.

full/long infinitive, e.g.

He continued to speak.

115
Mary started to run.
John wants to fight.

short/bare infinitive, e.g.

We must go.
They can swim.
Nobody could move.

as part of an infinitive phrase, e.g.

We continued to talk about our vacation.
They wanted to represent our company.
I went to buy some food and drinks for us.

2. The infinitive can be the subject of a sentence; the infinitive or the infinitive phrase is
usually placed first, particularly with verbs like to appear, to be, to seem e.g.

To buy a new car now seems completely impossible;
To react in such a rude manner is unacceptable;
To win under such conditions appears more than difficult;
It is more usual, however to use the impersonal construction, with the introductory
pronoun IT as subject, e.g.

It seems completely impossible to buy a new car now;
It is unacceptable to react in such a rude manner;
It appears more than difficult to win under such conditions;

Introductory IT+BE+ADJECTIVE+long infinitive, e.g.

It is not safe to leave your bag here.
It was not interesting to attend that course.
It is boring to watch the same movie twice

NOTE the adjective can also be a deverbal adjective, -ing-form.

Introductory IT+BE+noun+long infinitive, e.g.

It is a crime to maltreat animals.
It was a disaster to remain there.
It is a pity to refuse to help people when you can do it.

The Perfect Infinitive can also be the subject of a sentence, e.g.

To have married and divorced the same woman three times is unbelievable; and
more conveniently

116
It is unbelievable to have married and divorced the same woman three times.

3. The infinitive can be the complement of a verb, e.g.

Our wish is to keep the prices as low as possible.
Toms insistence was to have a new car before she end of the year.

4. The infinitive as object or part of the object of a verb.

Here is a list of the most important verbs that can be followed directly by a long or bare
(b) infinitive (unmarked), and, alternatively by a that-construction (marked with one
star), a that-should construction (marked with two stars), or by verb + object +
infinitive (marked with three stars), e.g. accept*, advise***, afford, agree**, aim, allow-
/***, allow***, be allowed, appear*, apply, arrange**, ask**/***, attempt, be
authorized, avoid**, be (=to be to), beg**/***, begin, bother* (negative), bribe***,
care*, cause*** (to happen), cease, challenge*, be challenged, choose*, claim**, coax,
come, command**/***, compel-/***, be concerned*, condescend, consent*, conspire,
continue, decide**, decline, demand**, deserve**, be destined, determine**, be
determined**, be directed, educate, be elected, be employed, enable***, encourage***,
endeavour, endure (negative), engage, entitle***, expect***, fail, fear (hesitate),
feel(b)***, finish, forbid*** (not to), force***, forget**, get, grow, guarantee**, would
hate***, happen**, have (must), hear(b)***, help-/***, hesitate, hope, imagine***,
implore***, be impressed, induce***, inspire (stimulate), instruct***, be integrated,
intend***, invite*/***, be invited, be led (guide by persuasion), learn*, let(b)***, like-
/***, would like***, love, would love***, long, live, make(b)***, manage, mark, be
marked, mean-/*** (negative), need, neglect*, be occupied, offer, oblige***, order-/***,
, permit***, be permitted, persuade***, plan, be pleased, please*, plot, pray, predestine,
prefer-/***, preoccupy, prepare, be prepared, presume, pretend*, profess, promise,
program, be programmed, promise*, be promised, prove*, provoke, push***, puzzle,
refuse, remember*, remind***, request**/***, resolve**, risk, be satisfied, say
(colloquial), schedule, see***, seem*, seek, be shocked, show how-/***, signal, start,
stop, be stopped, struggle, be supposed, swear*, teach(how)-/***, telegraph***,
telephone***, tell(how)***, tempt***, tend, test***, think, threaten*, train***, trouble,
try, undertake*, urge*/***, venture, volunteer, vow, wait, want***, warn***,
watch(b)***, wish***, write***, ask, beg, expect, would hate, help, intend, like, would
like, would love, mean, prefer, want, wish, expect, advise, allow, bribe, command,
compel, enable, encourage, entitle, feel (b), forbid, force, hear (b), implore, induce,
instruct, invite, let (b), make (b), oblige, order, permit, persuade, remind, request, see (b),
show how, teach (how), tell (how), tempt, train, urge, warn, watch (b) etc.

Phrases can also be followed by an infinitive (bare or full)

be about
be able + afford
do ones best
do what one can

117
make an/every effort
make up ones mind
*

it + occur
*
+ to + object
set out
take the trouble
turn out
*
(= prove to be)

Conclusion:

All the verbs in this list can take a bare or full infinitive;
Verbs and expressions with one star can take an infinitive or a THAT clause.
Verbs and expressions with two stars can take an infinitive or a THAT SHOULD
construction.
Verbs and expressions marked with three stars are followed by object + infinitive (b =
bare infinitive) while in the passive they can take a bare/full infinitive

NOTE:

This classification is not very strict, in the sense that certain verbs and expressions are
found in more than two classes (see ask), while some can also take a gerund as an
alternative to other constructions. The constructions that can take a gerund will be dealt
with in another chapter.

Examples:

1. She was allowed to drive her mothers car.
They attempted to conquer the highest peak.
We were authorized to enroll them all.
She began to read philosophy at the age of 20.
War will cease to be a threat only when the whole mankind co-operates to this end.
The two thieves conspired to rob our neighbours.
She continued to work till night.
John and Mary were destined to get married.
We were educated to respect our ancestors.
They hoped to get there in time.
Nobody intended to harm you.
Professor Johnson was invited to deliver a speech on Shakespeares Othello.
She was led to believe that her parents had died in an accident.
He did what he could to persuade his parents that he was right.
Helen made up her mind to quit school.
2. He appears to like his new neighbour.
It appears that he likes his new neighbour

He forgot to tell his mother about the exam.
John forgot that his wife needed to go to the doctors.


118
Michael learned to use the computer when he was 8.
John learned that his friend had got married.

She neglected to make the announcement in time.
Mike neglected that his sister was due to come home that very night.

I was pleased to have Prof. Williams as guest of honour at our Conference.
He was pleased that the invitation to the Conference came early enough for him to
plan other visits.

NOTE:

a) the verbs: appear, happen, seem, turn out when used with a that-construction,
require and introductory IT, e.g.

It appears that John and Marys new house belongs, in fact, to Marys parents.
It so happened that their marriage was postponed 3 times before it was finally
concluded.
It seems that the new type of BMW has a lot of improvements as compared to its
predecessor.
It turned out that his famous novel was, in fact, a 20 page piece of writing.

b) The verb occur requires a toobject between it and the thatconstruction. It is
always introduced by IT; occur has a different meaning when followed by an infinitive
than when it is followed by a THAT construction, as explained above. See the following
examples:

It occurred to him to ask her for my new phone number.
It did not occur to him that I might have a new phone number.

It occurred to her that her husband was cheating on her.
It did not occur to them to check the garage to see if their daughters car was still
there.

3. They demanded to have their orders carefully carried out.
The professor demanded that his directions should be followed to the letter.

Mike agreed to write an article for tomorrow.
She agreed that her shares/dividends should be sold at a lower price.

They arranged to travel by car.
She arranged that her children should travel to Hawaii by sea.

I asked to see Tom.
They asked that we should not leave so soon.


119
Mary decided to move to another town.
John decided that his old property should be sold as soon as possible.

They were determined to refuse the new conditions.
It was determined that the new comers should be lodged in the other hotel.

4. The lawyer advised his client/him to be patient.
I was advised to wait another 3 weeks;

The new book enabled its author to hope for a new promotion.
Mary was enabled to decide for her whole family.

The audience encouraged the younger competitor to jump higher than the others.
I was encouraged to fight my opponent.

The authorities entitled him to administer the family money.
She is entitled to wait for more consideration from her children.

We persuaded him to go to the doctors.
Mary was persuaded to accept the invitation to Alecs party.

I reminded him to take the car keys.
She was reminded of her obligations.

The policeman warned me not to drive so fast.
I was warned not to drive so fast.

NOTE: the verbs FEEL, HEAR, LET, MAKE, SEE, WATCH (marked with b) in the
list) take a short infinitive in the active voice and a long one except LET in the
passive, e.g. subject + V(b) + object + short infinitive e.g.

I heard him close the door.
He was heard to close the door.

We saw him cross the street.
He was seen to cross the street.

We made them give up their intention of having a trip in the mountains.
They were made to give up their intention of having a trip in the mountains.

They let us watch them rehearse the play.
but
We were let watch them rehearse the play (Or, in ordinary English: We were
allowed/We were permitted/etc to watch them rehearse the play)

For more details see The Accusative with the Infinitive, section 2.7.4.2).

120

A certain number of verbs cannot be followed directly by an infinitive; they take
how/what/when/where/which/why before the infinitive, e.g. arrange, ask, be instructed,
choose, command, conspire, decide, discover, explain, find out, forget, instruct, know,
learn, order, plan, preoccupy, prepare, program, promise, seek, see (=understand),
show +object, telegraph, telephone, think, understand, want to know, wonder etc.

NOTE: some of these verbs as well as others which may not be listed here are followed
by an object + how/what/etc + an infinitive.

She asked where to go
They asked when to leave for the station.
or
John asked me where to move the fridge.
I will ask my parents to send me my books.

She decided where to spend her holidays.
We will decide which of us should participate in the Conference.
They discovered how to get there in time.
Mary has discovered what to buy to make her mother a pleasure.

Nobody was able to find out where he had hidden the money.
They learned how to react in such circumstances.

Shell remember where she has put the keys.
Ill think where to spend the next vacation.
She was preoccupied what to do with the money.

The verbs ask, decide, forget, learn, remember can also be directly followed by an
infinitive, e.g.

They asked to return home that very night.
She decided to refuse his proposal.
We all forgot to hand in our CV-s.
She learned to protect herself.
Nobody remembered to send the invitations.

Notice the differences between:

She asked to speak to the manager.
and
She asked when to speak to the manager.

They decided to return to Paris.
They decided when to return to Paris.


121
I forgot to take my umbrella.
I forgot why to take my umbrella.

Mary learned to paint when she was 10.
Mary learned how to paint when she was 10.

Hell remember to write his homework.
Hell remember how to write his homework.

The following verbs of knowing and thinking: assume, believe, consider, feel, know,
suppose, and understand can be followed by object + to be, but a thatclause is more
common, e.g.

They assumed her to the thief.
They assumed that she was the thief.

I believe him to be the best teacher in town.
I believe that he is the best teacher in town.

When the action refers to a previous action the perfect infinitive is used, e.g.

They believed him to have stolen the jewelry.
They are believed to have stolen the jewelry.

John was thought to have won the competition.
She was considered to have been the best athlete of her time.

SUPPOSE this verbs can have two distinct meanings in the passive, one expressing a
simple supposition, and one expressing the idea of duty, e.g.

They are supposed to have traveled by car (supposition)
They are supposed to have finished yesterday (two meanings);
You are supposed to know the laws of your country (duty).

The infinitive represented by TO

Remember that TO is both a preposition and the particle of the infinitive. As a
preposition it can be followed by a noun/-ing form; an infinitive can be represented by
a simple TO in order to avoid the repetition of a verb that was used in the previous
structure, e.g.

Did you see the president? No, but we wanted to (see the president)
They wanted to buy a new car but they didnt have enough money to (buy a new
car)
Did you have to buy that, too? Yes, I had to.
He wanted to go, but he wasnt able to.

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The infinitive can connect to clauses:

He left the house early to find out that the train did not run that day.
She returned home to learn that her sister had just left for London.

With ONLY the infinitive expresses a disappointing sequel, e.g.

She accepted to leave the house only to find out that her parents sold everything
and disappeared.
John survived the accident only to break his leg on the way home.

16.1.3. The verb WISH

This verb can be followed

1. By a long infinitive, when both the predicate and the infinitive refer to the same
subject, e.g.

I wish to go by train;
They wished to stay overnight;

This construction is less frequently used than I want to go by train; or They wanted to
stay overnight.

Wish (that) can also be followed by

a past tense (actually a past subjunctive) to express a wish in the present;

I wish I knew his telephone number (Im sorry I dont know his telephone number)
I wish he was coming to our place (Im sorry he doesnt want to come to our place)

past perfect (a perfect subjunctive) to express a wish in the past;

Mother wished I hadnt spent all my spare time playing tennis (She is sorry I
wasted my time like that)
I wish you had written to her (Im sorry you had not written to her)

would + infinitive (to express regret for a present situation, dissatisfaction with the
present and wish for change in the future)

I wish she would come to my place more often (Im sorry she isnt willing to come
more often)
I wish the teachers would be more lenient (Im sorry they are not willing to be more
lenient; they could if they wanted)


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NOTE: the learner should notice that the verb wish can only be followed by a long
infinitive, a past tense, a past perfect (subjunctives) and would + infinitive.

The Infinitive can replace relative clauses

The first , the second , the third, etc., the last, the only and sometimes superlatives
can be followed by an infinitive as an alternative to a relative clause; the infinitive
replaces a subject pronoun + verb, e.g.

Jack loves trips; he is the first to go. (the first who goes)
Mary was the second Romanian to win this contest (= Mary was the second who
won this contest).
Michael is a very lazy student; he is always the last to hand in his paper (= he is
always the last who hands in his paper).
The boys in our class are good sportsmen; they are always the best to participate in
the yearly school contest (=they are always the best who participate in the yearly
school contest).

The Infinitive can be placed after nouns/pronouns to show how the latter can be used or
what is to be done with them, or sometimes to express the subjects wishes; if the verb
takes a preposition or an adverbial particle + a preposition these should not be omitted;
see examples 1, 3, 4 below:
(Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 222)

1. This is a comfortable bed to sleep in.
2. That is an interesting book to read.
3. This is a knife to cut with.
4. That was a box to put jewels in.
5. Mary has homework to do.
6. Stephen did not have enough bread to eat.

The passive infinitive should be used similarly, e.g.

There are a lot of things to be done.
There is not much to be found out about the accident.

13.1.4. The Infinitive for purpose

Along with the clauses of purpose the infinitive is frequently used to express purpose. If
possible the infinitive for purpose is preferred to the purpose clause.

The main uses of the infinitive for purpose

The infinitive alone, subject + predicate + etc. + infinitive + etc.:


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John and Mary are going to Bucharest to attend a famous concert (= John &
Marys purpose of going to Bucharest is to attend a concert. Both are going and
to attend refer to the same subject)

Some of the verbs that frequently take an infinitive of purpose are the following:
approach, back, bend, come, climb (up), combine, concentrate, dash, dress, go, return,
sacrifice, send, stop, turn, twist write, visit, wash, leave, show, study, give up etc.

They approached to see who was in the house.
The enemy backed up to avoid more casualties.
John bent the branch to make an arrow.
We climbed the tree to get away from the lions attack.
All the students concentrated to solve the equation the teacher had written on the
blackboard.
She dressed in red to make herself as visible as possible.
They returned home to get the other car.

NOTE: When the main verb has a personal object, the infinitive refers to this object,
while the main verb refers to the subject, e.g.

Mother sent John to Bucharest to see after the passports (=Mother sent John, but
John was supposed to see after the passports)
They stopped John to run in the race.

In the next cases the infinitive is introduced by IN ORDER TO or SO AS; IN ORDER
TO is more frequently used because it accepts a larger range of constructions, e.g.

1. When the infinitive refers to the subject of the structure and not to the object,

Compare:

The parents sent John to the mountains to enjoy a month of relaxation. According
to this example John is to enjoy the relaxation, but if we want the infinitive to
refer to the subject (=the parents), in order to should be used before the
infinitive, i.e.
The parents sent John to the mountains in order to enjoy a month of relaxation (=
the parents to enjoy )

Because this construction may be ambiguous or misunderstood by the listeners, another
form is preferred:

The parents sent John to the mountains because they wanted to enjoy a month of
relaxation.




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2. To express a negative purpose, e.g.

Mary dressed in black in order to/so as not to be too showy at the party.
John left early in order to/so as not to be late for the meeting.

3. When the purpose is less immediate or is so felt by the user, e.g.

Mary is visiting museums in order to prepare herself for the graduation exam in
fine arts.
I learned to drive all types of vehicles in order to get a job with a transportation
firm.

4. In longer sentences it is necessary to re-enforce the idea of purpose which has
become less clear, e.g.

He approached the delinquents car from the lateral in order to avoid being seen
by the latter.
They concentrated on the feasability of the project in order to know how much
money they needed.

NOTE: a sentence may begin with IN ORDER TO/SO AS, when the infinitive of
purpose precedes the main verb, e.g.

In order to travel more comfortably in the following week, John and Mary took the
trouble of having their car repaired.

In order to return to base without delay, the two soldiers asked their friend, John,
to lend them his car.

The Infinitive is used after adjectives like: angry, afraid, anxious, ashamed, bound,
certain, confident, delighted, dismayed, fortunate, glad, happy, likely, lucky, pleased,
probable, possible, relieved, sad, sorry, sure etc. The infinitive is an alternative to
adjective + that clause or adjective + that should (see section 12.7.3). See the
following examples:

He was angry to hear about his sisters marriage.
Mary is fortunate to have such parents.
She was sorry to learn about their divorce.
John is likely to come tonight.
They were anxious to see the British Museum.
The students are lucky to have passed the final examination.
He was afraid to travel by plane.

The most frequent verbs following these adjectives are: learn, find, hear, see, say, tell,
inform.


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The Infinitive is also used after certain nouns as an alternative to other constructions.
The most frequent nouns that are followed by an infinitive are: ability, ambition, anxiety,
attempt, decision, demand, desire, determination, eagerness, effort, failure, offer, plan,
promise, refusal, request, scheme, willingness, wish e.g.

Her ability to jump over 2 meters high made her one of the potential winners of
high jump.
The teams ambitions to win the championship was one of their greatest assets.
My decision to leave my native town is final.
Their effort to honorably represent their school in the annual contest paid off.
Our refusal to accept their conditions was well-grounded.

The verb TO BE + infinitive is used to express commands and instructions; it is also
frequently preferred in the indirect speech.

The adverb TOO + adjective/adverb (for + noun / abject pronoun) + infinitive

This suitcase is too heavy (for us, you etc) to carry;
You are too young to understand;
This homework is to difficult (for me, Mary etc) to solve;
This box is too heavy to be sent by post;
The light is too weak to read by;
It was too soon to leave;
It is too early (for Mary, me etc) to leave for school;

The word ENOUGH is an adjective, an adverb or a pronoun. In all instances it can
take an infinitive.

SPECIAL NOTE:

- as an adverb, ENOUGH comes after the adjective, another adverb, verb, while as an
adjective ENOUGH, is placed in front of the noun like the majority of other adjectives;

The adverb ENOUGH:

adjective/adverb + ENOUGH + infinitive

This construction can refer to the subject, the object or the prepositional object, e.g.

Mary is tall enough to reach the upper shelf.
John is clever enough to know better.
I am careful enough to avoid an accident

The book is heavy enough (for the child) to carry to school every day.
His car was broken enough in the accident to be repaired only in 10 days.

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Their contribution to the party was substantial enough to reflect their financial
status in the community.

The road was good enough to walk on.
The picture was interesting enough to look at.
The pick-up truck was large enough to travel by.

The adjective /pronoun ENOUGH

ENOUGH (+ NOUN) + infinitive

She does not get enough (money) to buy a new house.
We wrote enough (letters) to please mother.
I carried away from home enough (books) to make myself a mini library in my new
apartment.
Jane worked hard enough to finish in time.
We travelled comfortably enough to get to the destination in a good disposition.
They talked long enough to bore the other guests.

Another construction with the infinitive is

SO + adjective + AS + infinitive

John was so rude as to pass by his brother and never greet him (he did it).
I was so foolish as to leave my car keys in the other jacket (=I did it).

This construction can be replaced by an

ENOUGH construction, but the meaning is slightly different, e.g.

John was rude enough to pass by his brother and never greet him ( = he did it OR
he was capable of doing it).
I was foolish enough to leave my car keys in the other jacket (I did it OR I was
capable of doing it).

Certain infinitive phrases can be placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, the
users usually reassuring their interlocutors that what the former are telling is not to be
questioned. Psychologically, though, these constructions may have the opposite meaning.

The most frequent are: to be perfectly frank, to be fair, to tell you the truth, to be honest,
to cut a long story short etc, e.g.

To be perfectly frank, I never liked your mother.
or
To be fair (to you), I always liked dogs.
To be honest, she was never my favourite.

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To tell you the truth, I have never driven such a car before.
. and, to cut a long story short, in two days they were married.

The Continuous Infinitive

Form: to be + present participle, e.g. to be writing, to be learning, to be going, to be
reading, to be looking, to be living etc.

The Continuous Infinitive is used after auxiliary verbs (may/might, be, must,
shall/should, will/would, etc.), and a series of verbs, like: agree, arrange, appear,
believe, consider, decide, determine, happen, hope, plan, pretend, promise, seem,
suppose, think, undertake etc. Examples:

John is not in town; he may be travelling in the country.
Mary appeared to be living in the neighbourhood.
I happened to be washing my car.
The thief pretended to be looking for a book.
I hoped to be teaching English this year.

The Perfect Infinitive

Form: to have + past participle, e.g. to have learned, to have worked, to have gone, to
have felt, to have seen, etc.

The perfect infinitive can be used after modal verbs in order to express some form of
speculation about a past action.

It is also used with appear, happen, pretend, seem, e.g.

He seems to have been a very good teacher. (It seems that he was a very good
teacher)
or
He seemed to have been a very good teacher (It seemed that he had been a very
good teacher)

The Perfect Infinitive Continuous

Form: to have + been + present participle: to have been working, to have been going,
to have been walking, to have been waiting etc. It is used after modal verbs in particular
and after verbs like happen, pretend and the passive of believe, know, report, say,
understand, e.g.

Mike couldnt have been driving that car; I was driving it at the time.
He appears to have been waiting for more than an hour.


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16.2. THE GERUND

The gerund is a form of a verb functioning as a noun, originating in the Latin -ndum
(declinable), in English ending in ing and used distinctly as part of a verb (The Oxford
English Reference Dictionary).

The reader should notice that the gerund has exactly the same form as the present
participle (for the spelling rules see section 13.2.2).

16.2.1. Form

gerund, e.g. working, writing, studying, speaking, deriving, going etc.
the perfect gerund (having + past participle) e.g. having worked, having written,
having gone, having studied etc.
the passive gerund, e.g. being learned, being written, being asked, being taken etc.

The Gerund can take articles, adjectives, a plural form; it can be used in the Saxon
genitive, e.g.

an imperative knocking
the decoding of the message
a beautiful writing
our comings and goings
the dogs barking
the sound of my friends crying.

These characteristics prove the noun qualities of the gerund.

16.2.2. Uses

1.1. as the subject of a sentence
Swimming is more efficient than jogging.
Driving a car may be easier than riding a horse.
Rehearsing the play twice a week is absolutely necessary.

The gerund as a subject is usually replaced by an itconstruction, e.g.

It is more efficient to swim than to jog
It may be easier to drive a car than to ride a horse.
It is absolutely necessary to rehearse the play twice a week.

1.2. The gerund as the subject of a clause after verbs like believe, consider, discover,
expert, find, think, wonder, admit, forgot, remember, understand, etc.

They believed that writing Chinese was not very difficult.
They considered that seeing is believing.

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I discovered that jogging helped me recover.
She thought that neglecting ones duty was unacceptable.
They admitted that robbing a bank is a crime.

After find we can omit THAT and the verb be, i.e. we can say

He found that parking was difficult
He found parking difficult.

But it is safer not to omit be after the other verbs.

Note the possible difference between gerund and infinitive here: He found parking
difficult would mean that he usually/always found it difficult. He found it difficult to park
could refer to one particular occasion. It could also mean that he always found it difficult,
but it is more usual to express this idea by a gerund (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 228).
The gerund is also used in prohibitions that can be expressed in a single work, i.e.

NO + gerund, e.g.

No smoking.
No loitering.
No trespassing.
No fishing.
No hunting.
No waiting.

When the prohibition cannot be expressed as above, usually a negative imperative is
used, e.g.

Do not feed the animals!
Do not pick the flowers!
Do not cross the street!
Do not touch the exhibits!
Do not wash!

The gerund as complement of a verb, e.g.

His hobby is reading/collecting stamps/etc.
My luck was finding an expert at the right moment.

The gerund is used after prepositions in the following instances:

after prepositions
after nouns + prepositions
after adjectives/past participles + prepositions
after verbs + prepositions

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after phrasal verbs.

after prepositions: after, before, by, for, from, on, besides, without, against, of, in, in
spite of etc., e.g.

After coming back from school, Jane did her homework for the following day.
Our supervisor wanted to read our papers before handing them in.
She keeps her good shape by swimming twice a week.
On waking up, Mike found a toy car under the Christmas tree.
Everybody was against going on a trip on Sunday.
In spite of being a bad driver, he never had an accident.
Can you touch your toes without bending your knees?

(b) noun + preposition construction, i.e.
doubt ABOUT,
cause/reason FOR,
have belief/confidence/delight/difficulty/experience/faith/interest/ luck/pride IN,
charge/favour/habit/hope/intention/ opportunity/point OF,
contribution/objection/opposition TO etc.
adjective/past participle + preposition construction, i.e.
angry/anxious/certain/enthusiastic/happy/optimistic/pleased/sure/worried ABOUT,
angry/astonished/bad/clever/delighted/expert/good/pleased/skilful/ surprised AT,
excellent/famous/responsible/sorry/suitable/useful FOR,
consistent/correct/diligent/experienced/expert/fortunate/helpful/
interested/late/prompt/quick/right/slow/successful IN,
afraid/ashamed/aware/capable/certain/conscious/convinced/fond/ guilty/proud/tired
OF,
based/dependent/intent/keen ON,
accustomed/equal/equivalent/opposed/used TO,
annoyed/bore/content/delighted/furious/disappointed/happy/ pleased/satisfied/
sick/upset WITH
verb + preposition construction, i.e.
complain, dream, learn, worry, see ABOUT
aim/hesitate .. AT
fight/struggle AGAINST
begin/conclude/end BY
apologize/care .. FOR
prevent/recover/retire . FOR
believe/consist/delight/participate/succeed IN
accuse/approve/boast/complain/consist/hear/think OF
agree/concentrate/congratulate/count/decide/depend/focus/insist/ live/rely ON
agree/contribute/look forward/object/resort TO
agree WITH




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verb + adverbial particle (= phrasal verbs), i.e.

leave/cut/put OFF
go/get/keep ON
give OVER
give UP etc.

Examples:

She should go on trying.
A dog never gives over sniffing.
She had to give up smoking.
The president cut off the speakers babbling.
You should get on writing the letter.
The Perfect Gerund

Form: having + past participle, e.g. having tried, having worked, have learned, having
come etc.
When referring to a past action the perfect gerund is preferred to the simple gerund, e.g.

He was punished for committing a crime.
He was punished for having committed a crime.

The simple gerund is preferred whenever the meaning of the utterance is clear, i.e. which
action comes first and which second.

The verb deny is usually followed by a perfect gerund because the user can only deny an
action that had been already performed, e.g.

Mary denied having ever been at that house.
He denied having taken the money.
They denied having accepted a bribe.

The Passive Gerund

Form: present: being written

Past: having been written.
He was punished by being sent to bed without any supper.
I remember being taught swimming when I was a child.
The house showed no signs of having been forced open.

The Gerund is used in noun compounds where it carries the main stress, e.g. waiting list,
diving board, driving license, dining room, swimming pool, reading lamp, washing
machine, writing table etc.


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16.3. THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

The present participle is a verbal form ending in ing and used in compound verb forms
(= the continuous aspect), or as an adjective (=working women).

The present participle and the gerund have the same form, but they are distinguished
through their functions.

16.3.1. Form

The infinitive + ing (for the spelling note see section 13.2.2), e.g. learning, hating,
seeing, being, dyeing, studying, travelling, omitting etc.

16.3.2. Uses

to form the continuous tenses

I am learning
Hell be studying
We have been working.

- as adjectives: boring, interesting, amazing, amusing, astonishing, irritating,
infuriating, pleasing, floating etc.

after verbs of sensation
to replace a relative pronoun + verb
in defining relative clauses:

The boy who is crossing the street is my friend
or
The boy crossing the street is my friend.

People who work here are well-paid.
People working here are wellpaid.

The books that/which contain a lot of photos are rather expensive.
The books containing a lot of photos are rather expensive.

in nondefining relative clauses:

My friend, who is very skeptical about the weather, said that we should not go on a
trip this weekend.
My friend, being skeptical about the weather, said that we should not go on a trip
this weekend.


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Mike, who hoped to earn more money, offered to work extra hours.
Mike, hoping to earn more money, offered to work extra hours.

NOTE: the most frequent verbs thus used are those expressing a wish, i.e. wish, desire,
want, hope, and verbs of knowing and thinking, i.e. know, think, believe, expect etc.

as a predicative, after STAND, SIT, LIE, e.g.

Mary stood looking at the picture on the wall.
We all sat listening to the speaker.
I stood thinking of what to do next.

- to replace a main clause

Of two simultaneous actions one can be replaced by a participle phrase, e.g.

She wrote the letter. She sang as she wrote.
= She wrote her letter singing.
I walked to school. I thought of my friend.
= I walked to school thinking of my friend.
They worked very hard. They talked as they worked.
=They worked very hard talking to each other.

the first action in a succession of two can often be expressed by a present participle, e.g.

Tom shut the window and went to the door = Shutting the window, Tom went to the
door.
We move along the passage and we talk about what was coming next = Moving
along the passage, we talked about what was coming next.

NOTE: if it is not clear which action is first and which is second, the perfect participle
must be used instead of the present participle, e.g.

Tom wrote his homework and went to the movies = Writing his homework Tom
went to the movies. This writing his homework is ambiguous: it is as if Tom
went to the movies and was writing his homework at the same time. In order to
show that the writing of the homework clearly preceded his going to the movies
we must say Having written his homework Tom went to the movies.

Equally:

Mary opened the door and put her bag on the kitchen table. =
Having opened the door Mary put her bag on the kitchen table.

to express a second action in a succession of two, in which the former is somewhat part
of the first, e.g.

135

She cried out, hoping to be heard by somebody.
Tom threw the ball, hitting a child in the head.
I pushed the door open, overturning a chair.

to replace a subordinate clause, e.g.

Not knowing that she would not be able to carry her luggage, Mary was obliged to
call a taxi (= as she did not know that we could not carry her luggage Mary was
obliged to call a taxi).
Hoping to pass the exam, Tom had already bought the plane ticket to Miami (= As
he hoped to pass ..).

The subject of the present participle does not need to be the same as that of the following
verb, e.g.

The weather changing, the tourists had to stay in the hotel.
The novel being famous, Mary quickly made up her mind to buy it.

The perfect participle (active)

Form: having + past participle, e.g. having, learned, having worked, having been,
having tried, having invited etc.

The perfect participle (active) can be used instead of the present participle in order to
show that its action clearly happened before the other one.

Having finished his work, Mike invited some friend to his house to celebrate.
Having tried 3 times to climb the mountain and having failed as many times, Tom
was so disappointed that he did not want to hear of climbing again.


16.4. THE PAST PARTICIPLE

16.4.1. Form

In regular verbs the past participle is the same as the past tense (-ed) while in irregular
verbs it has a special form, (see the list at the end of the book)

16.4.2. Uses

to form the perfect tenses, e.g.

Tom has worked hard.
Mary had come early.


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to form the perfect infinitive, e.g.

to have tried,
to have learned,
to have seen,
to have gone etc.

to form the passive voice, e.g.

It was cleaned,
Tom was stopped,
I was told,
Jane was asked etc.

- to replace a subject + passive verb, e.g.

Mary leaves. She is seen to the station by her whole family =Mary leaves, seen to
the station by her whole family.
I was frightened by the thunder storm and rang the neighbour next door =
Frightened by the thunder storm, I rang the neighbour next door.

The Perfect Participle

Form: having + been + past participle, e.g. having been seen, having been asked,
having been warned, having been shot etc. The perfect participle is used when it is
necessary to emphasize that the action expressed by the participle happened before the
action expressed by the next verb, e.g.

Having been told about the dangerous, John decided not to take his girl friend with
him.
Having been asked to deliver a speech, Mary read and wrote a lot.

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17. THE PASSIVE VOICE


The action expressed by a clause/sentence can often be viewed in either of two ways:

The dog saw the cat.
The cat was seen by the dog.

This kind of contrast is referred to as VOICE. The first type of construction is known as
the active voice. The second, which is far less common, is the passive voice. Most verbs
which take an object (=transitive verbs) can appear in both active and passive
constructions, e.g. kick, jump, eat, break etc.

"The passive is less frequent in speech. In writing it is more common in informative than
imaginative prose, especially in contexts which demand an objective, impersonal style,
such as scientific and official publications. When it is overused, it tends to attract
criticism, especially from those campaigning for clearer forms of English in official
documents, and many writers have been influenced by their arguments. But passives
cannot be dispensed with entirely. They give writers the option of an impersonal style,
which can be very useful in contexts where it is irrelevant to state who actually carried
out an action. (Crystal, 1997: 225).


17.1. Form

To be (in the same tense as the active verb) + past participle of the active verb , e.g.

I was told.
They should be asked.
Well be offered.
It is said

Examples of passive transformations in all the tenses and moods. Only present and past
tense of the continuous tenses can also have a passive form, e.g.

Present Tense Indefinite

A: John breaks a window every day
P: A window is broken (by John) every day
A: They write a book on WW II
B: A book on WW II is written.


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Present Tense continuous

A: They are building a bridge across the river.
B: A bridge across the river is being built.
A: Someone is cleaning my house.
B: My house is being cleaned.

Past Tense Indefinite

A: He invited some friends to a party.
B: Some of his friends were invited to a party.
A: They sold the house.
B The house was sold.

Past Tense Continuous

A: They were arranging our class room.
P: Our class room was being arranged.
A: A boy was helping the old man.
B: The old man was being helped (by a boy)

Present Perfect Indefinite

A: Someone has broken my favourite coffee cup.
P: My favourite coffee cup has been broken.
A: They have finished repairing the rood.
B: The rood has been finished/repaired.

Past Perfect Indefinite

A: They had consulted the instructions manual.
P: The instructions manual had been consulted.
A: They had eaten all the food they had with them.
P: All the food they had with them had been eaten.

Future Tense Indefinite

A: Theyll finish the house in a year.
P: The house will be finished in a year.
A: Theyll reorganise the institute when needed.
P: The institute will be reorganised when needed.

Future Perfect Indefinite

A: This time next week they will have repaired the car.
P: This time next week, the car will have been repaired.

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A: In two years time they will have finished this construction.
P: In two years time this construction will have been finished.

Conditional present

A: They would repair the mill, if they had money.
P: If they had money, the mill would be repaired.
A: They would announce their marriage soon, if their parents agreed.
P: If their parents agreed, their marriage would be announced soon.

Conditional perfect

A: Someone would have delivered the merchandise, if the buyer had paid in
advance.
P: If the buyer had paid in advance, the merchandise would have been delivered.
A: They would have ignored my mistake, if it had not been so obvious.
P: My mistake would have been ignored if it had not been so obvious.

Present infinitive

A: to write, to announce
P: to be written, to be announced

Perfect infinitive

A: to have written, to have announced
P: to have been written, to have been announced.

Present Participle and Gerund

A: writing announcing
P: being written being announced

Perfect Participle

A: having written having announced
P: having been written, having been announced.

Modal Verbs when the active construction contains a modal verb, that verb must be
repeated in the passive form, e.g.

A: You should write that letter soon.
P: That letter should be written soon.
A: She must open the windows.
P: The windows must be opened.
A: Authorities may start building a new hospital.

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P: A new hospital may be started.
A: They ought to/should have told him.
P: He ought to/should have been told.
A: They can finish their homework in an hour.
P: Their homework can be finished in an hour.
A: Somebody could help John with his work.
P: John could be helped with his work.

Interrogative verbs in active questions (introduced by a question adjective/pronoun or
adverb) follow the same rules as above, on condition that the interrogative form is
maintained, e.g.

A: When did they build the house?
P: When was the house built?
A: Where did they place the piano?
P: Where was the piano placed?
A: Why did they ban him?
P: Why was he banned?
17.2. Classes of verbs that can undergo passivisation

Transitive verbs with one direct object, e.g. drink, eat, love, meet, need, read, seek,
write, hate, respect, etc.

The direct object becomes the subject of the passive construction and the subject a by
phrase if it is necessary, e.g.

A: The students loved the English teacher.
P: The English teacher was loved (by his students)

Transitive verbs that take 2 direct objects, e.g. ask, teach, envy, strike, cost, charge
etc.

Either of the direct objects can become the subject of the passive construction, but (+
human) direct object is by far more usual.

A: He taught the children a new lesson.
P
1:
The children were taught a new lesson.
P
2:
A new lesson was taught to the children.

Transitive verbs that take a direct object and an indirect one, e.g. give, buy, pay,
address, announce, communicate, show etc.
In this group of verbs, it is more usual for the (+human) indirect object to become the
subject of the passive construction, while the former subject becomes a by phrase, if
it is needed in the sentence:

A: They gave her a new English book.

141
P: She was given a new English book.
P: A new English book was given to her.

Transitive verbs that take a direct object and a prepositional one, e.g. blame smb. for
smth., charge smb.with smth., help smb.with smith., to congratulated smb. on smth.
etc.

The non-prepositional object becomes the subject of the passive construction.

A: They helped her with her work.
P: She was helped with her work.
A: The authorities congratulated me on my success.
P: I was congratulated on my success.

Certain intransitive verbs with preposition (=intransitive prepositional verbs) can
undergo the passive transformation, e.g.

A: Somebody has slept in my room.
P: My room has been slept in.
A: The authorities look after orphans.
P: Orphans are looked after by the authorities.

Examples of such verbs: agree about, agree on agree to, aim at, argue about, arrange
for, ask for, believe in, call for, call on, conceive of, laugh at, look at, look for, look
after, look into, run over, sleep in speak of / about, talk of, think of, write about etc.

1. When the subject is very general (people, authorities, they etc), unknown to the user
(somebody, someone etc), or unimportant for the communication. Examples:

A: The authorities are building a new hospital in our town.
P: A new hospital in being built in our town.
A: Someone has stolen my car
P: My car has been stolen
A: They (those in charge) clean the windows every week.
P: The windows are cleaned every week.

2. When the subject of an active construction would be an indefinite pronoun (one,
you)

A: One encounters such people all the time
P: Such people are encountered all the time.
A: One sees expensive cars everywhere in America.
P: Expensive cars are seen everywhere in America.


142
The passive may be used to avoid an awkward or ungrammatical sentence. This is
usually done by avoiding a change of subject (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 366).
Examples:

When hearrived home a detectivearrested him.

When hearrived home hewas arrested.
When they reached the end of their trip the guide told them that they had to stay
there for 3 days.
When they reached the end of their trip they were told that they had to stay there
for 3 days.

NOTE: the agent, i.e. the subject in the active construction, is introduced by the
preposition by. In many instances, however, the agent is no longer important for various
reasons, and the user leaves it out altogether, e.g.

A: James Joyce wrote Ulysses.
P: "Ulysses" was written by James Joyce.
A: They published the news in The Times.
P: The news was published in The Times.
17.3. Infinitive constructions after passive verbs

Verbs like acknowledge, assume, believe, claim, consider, estimate, feel, find, know,
presume, report, say, thin, understand, suppose, have two possible passive forms:

A: People believe that she is the best singer of her time.
P: It is believed that she is the best singer of her time
A: She is believed to be the best singer of her time
or
A: They say that Mary stole the jewels.
P: It is said that Mary stole the jewels.
P: Mary is said to have stolen the jewels.

A: People consider that Dr. Johnson is the best G.P. in town.
P: It is considered that Dr. Johnson is the best G.P. in town.
P: Dr. Johnson is considered (to be) the best G.P. in town.

SUPPOSE in the passive this verb expresses two distinct meanings: supposition and
duty, e.g.

They are supposed to be hiding in the woods (=supposition).
They are supposed to be here by 7 (=obligation)
We are supposed to have crossed the country (=supposition in the past)
We are supposed to have finished (=obligation)

143





1. REPORTED/INDIRECT SPEECH


Reported or Indirect Speech is a very common way of relating what a person has said.
In direct speech a person repeats exactly the words of the original speaker, without any
changes whatsoever. This way of relating someones words is very useful when the
speaker wants to be very exact, or when the sense of the narration depends on the strict
words of the original speaker (see jokes, plays upon words in any language not only
English). The direct speech is also used to enforce the dramatic effect or as mannerism.

Direct speech is the main or exclusive way of speech used in plays. In fiction direct
speech alternates with descriptions etc. Quotations from various sources are the direct
words of the author and are always placed between inverted commas. In direct speech the
introductory verb can be in any tense and this fact does not affect the verb tense in the
quoted words, i.e. we can say either

She says : I tried to meet him several times
She said : I tried to meet him several times
She will say : I tried to meet him several times

While in the indirect or reported speech many changes, including those of the verb tenses
occur.
Reported or Indirect Speech is very frequently used in all instances, by all speakers of
English or any other language. In Indirect speech the user does not repeat the exact words
of the original speaker but tries to convey the exact meaning of a remark etc.
Indirect Speech is mainly used in speech but it is also very useful in written language for
the same purposes as those mentioned before.
When direct speech is turned into indirect form, quite a number of changes are necessary,
regarding verbal tenses, pronoun forms, adjectives, word order etc.

In order to make things easy to understand for the reader
the following part will be structured as follows:
General changes necessary in all types of indirect structures (statements, questions,
commands, mixed types etc).
Statements in indirect speech.
Questions in indirect speech.
Commands in indirect speech.
Requests and Advice in indirect speech.
Exclamations and interjections in indirect speech.
Yes and No in indirect speech.
Mixed types.

144

18.1. General Changes

The structure of a reported speech event consists of MC (=main clause, introductory
clause) + connector (IF/THAT, when, where, who etc) + SC (=subordinate clause,
the reported words proper).

MC = the main clause contains a subject representing/expressing the original speaker and
the verb is an introductory verb adequate to the type of structure it introduces (stay, tell,
or ask, or order, etc);

CONNECTOR = it is THAT/IF/when, where, who etc. depending on the type of structure
it introduces;

SC = represents a good approximation of the structure uttered by the original speaker,
consisting of a subject and a predicate, the verb assuming a form according to the
sequence of the tenses.

More details concerning these three structural elements are given below.
Examples:

John says: I am at the station waiting for you to pick me up.
becomes
John says THAT he is at the station waiting for me/us to pick him up.
Mary said: I am very tired today.
Mary said THAT she was very tired that day.

Important NOTE readers should make sure that they know the sequence of tenses
because this is one of the major changes required in the realization of the indirect speech.

Indirect speech can be introduced by a verb in the present tense, e.g. she says, he
explains, they complain etc., when no tense changes in the subordinate clause are
necessary in the reported structure, e.g.

Mary complains: I dont have enough money to buy a new car
Mary complains THAT she doesnt have enough money to buy a new car.
Mike explains: She always refused to come to ourparties.
Mike explains THAT Mary/she always refused to go to their parties.

When the introductory verb is in the past tense which is what happens in most
instances - , the verb tense in the reported structure changes according to the sequence of
tenses, e.g.

John said: Mary is coming today
John said THAT Mary was coming that day.

145
My father explained: Your brothers wont be able to come tomorrow because
their flight was cancelled.
My father explained THAT my brothers would not be able to come the following
day because their flight had been cancelled.

18.2. Tense changes

present tense indefinite past tense indefinite
present tense continuous past tense continuous
present perfect indefinite past perfect indefinite
present perfect continuous past perfect continuous
past tense indefinite past perfect indefinite
past tense continuous past perfect continuous
past perfect indefinite == unchanged
past perfect continuous == unchanged
future tense indefinite future in the past (would form).
future tense continuous future in the past (would be + Vb ing) form
future perfect indefinite future in the past (would have + Vb -ed) form.
future perfect continuous future in the past (would have been + +Vb ing
form).

NOTE
*
- in certain grammar books these forms are called conditional forms because of
the identity of form between the conditionals and the past equivalent the conditionals and
the past equivalent of the future tenses of the indicative.

am/are/is going to + infinitive future was/were going to + infinitive form.

Present conditional == unchanged
Perfect conditional == unchanged

John said: Mary works in a hospital
John said THAT Mary worked in a hospital
John said: Caroline is playing tennis with Mary
John said THAT Caroline was playing tennis with Mary.
John said: They have just finished their work

NOTE:
a) theoretically all these tense changes are necessary, but in spoken language the past
tense is often left unchanged when there are some temporal elements, e.g.

John said: Mary finished writing the novel
John said THAT Mary had finished writing the novel. (no time reference, the
sequence of tenses is necessary).
But
John said: Mary finished writing the novel the week before. Had finished is not
incorrect, just superfluous.

146

b) In written language, however, the sequence of tenses is more strictly observed.
Readers are advised to chose the sequence of tenses to be sure that no
misunderstanding intervenes.
c) When the speaker describes a state of affairs which still exists when the speech is
reported the past tense remains unchanged, e.g.

John said: My parents wanted to buy a house situated right across the street from
ours.
John said THAT his parents had wanted to buy a house situated right across the
street from theirs (=situated is left unchanged because the house is still
there).
Modal verbs in Indirect Speech

The modals will, can, may, shall change to would, could, might, should.

John said: Ill see you soon
John said THAT he would see me soon.
John said: She can play the piano very well
John said THAT she/his sister could play the piano very well.

The modals would, should could, might, must, ought to, used to do not change in
indirect speech:

John asked: Would you help me?
John asked if I would help him.
John said: Mary should tell her mother about her exams
John said THAT Mary should tell her mother about her exams.
John said: They could stay here if they wanted

Depending on their meanings, some of the modal verbs can be expressed in indirect
speech by their modal equivalents, e.g.

must remains unchanged or the idea of obligation is expressed by to have to in the
in the past or in the future.
could expressing ability either does not change or changes to to be able to in the
adequate form (would be able to or had been able).
expressing permission can can be reported unchanged or be changed (to would be
allowed to/had been allowed to).

TO CONCLUDE ; in indirect speech the sequence of tenses is usually observed,
although there are exceptions. Nonnative English speakers should be careful because the
sequence of tenses may not exist in their mother tongue and consequently, they will be
tempted to apply their native tongue model to English.



147
18.3. Other changes in indirect speech

NOTE : these other changes in indirect speech are mostly obligatory in most languages
as well, so they should not arise special difficulties to nonnative English speakers.
Experience shows, however, that for various reasons the nonnative English speakers are
not always aware of these changes in their native tongues, and, obviously, it is difficult
for them to identify and use them in a foreign language. Our advice is that teachers
should make sure first that their students know what indirect speech is in their mother
tongues and only then, pass on to teach indirect speech in English.

18.3.1. Changes of pronouns and adjectives

- Change of the personal pronoun depends on the person of the reporter, and very
frequently verbal changes are required, e.g.

John says: I know her becomes
John says (THAT) he knows her.
John complains: I never find my shoes when Im in a hurry
John complains that he never finds his shoes when he is in a hurry.

Personal pronouns in Dative/Accusative may also change, e.g.

John says: Mary gave me her dictionary
John says (THAT) Mary gave him her dictionary.
Mary said: My parents bought me a new car
Mary said (THAT) her parents had bought her a new car.

Possessive pronouns and adjectives change logically, e.g.

We would like our parents to let us go on the trip, the three children said,
becomes
The three children said that they would like their parents to let them go on the trip.
My brother wants to make a bungalow by himself,
Mary said but Id rather he didnt.
Mary said that her brother wanted to make a bungalow by himself and she
preferred he didnt .

When the speaker reports his own words, pronoun and adjective forms do not change,
e.g.

I said: I want my books back
I said (THAT) I wanted my books back.

If by chance the original speaker and the subject pronoun in his sentence are the same,
this may sometimes generate ambiguity, and a noun (or a name) may need to be inserted
in the indirect speech in order to avoid this) e.g.

148

Mike said: He never has enough money
Mike said (THAT) he never had enough money.

The indirect structure has become ambiguous for the interlocutor/reader. Both persons,
i.e. the original speaker (Mike), and the subject in the reported structure are male
persons, and we do not understand who does not have enough money, Mike himself or
another male person designated by he. So, the reporting person must replace he in
Mikes original words by a noun/name in order to differentiate the speaker from the
other person, e.g.

Mike said that his friend/Bill never had enough money.

THIS and THESE, THAT and THOSE

In time expressions THIS becomes THAT, e.g.

Bill said: My former fiance is getting married this week becomes
Bill said (THAT) his former fiance was getting married that week.
John said: I want to take a trip to France this year
John said (THAT) he wanted to take a trip to France that year.

This and that used as adjectives change to the, e.g.

John said: I made this sandwich for my sister
John said (THAT) he had made the sandwich for his sister.
John said: The doctor wrote that prescription for me
John said THAT the doctor had written the prescription for him.

Used as pronouns this/these become it/they/them/noun or noun equivalent, e.g.

John was holding two books: I bought these as a present for my friend".
Holding two books John said that he had bought them as a present for his friend.
He said: Well talk about this tomorrow
He said THAT they would talk about it/the matter/who was to drive to car the
following/next day.

As adjectives or pronouns, this, these, that, those are used to indicate choice or to
distinguish some things from others, when they are replaced by an explanatory
phrase/sentence/word, e.g.

Im sure shell want this one, said John.
John said he was sure she would want the red one/with black covers/the one which
was near her/etc.
Give me that, Mary asked.

149
Mary asked me to give her the coffee cup/the book on the lower shelf/the blue
book/etc.

18.3.2. Expressions of time in Indirect Speech

In principle, they change as follows, e.g.

past time the day before yesterday two days before
- yesterday the day before
present time - today that day
future time - tomorrow the next/following day
- the day after tomorrow in two days time.
next week/month/year/etc the following
week/month/year/etc.
last week / month/year/etc the previous
week/month/year/etc.
- a year ago a year before/the previous year.

Logical adjustments are necessary if the speech is reported at other times than those
mentioned above. The speech could be reported:

- the same day

Im leaving today, Mary said this morning.
This morning Mary said she was leaving today.

When the reporting is performed at other times than the standard ones, e.g. John said
Friday morning: Marys going to Bucharest on Monday, someone reporting this would
say: John said that Mary was going to Bucharest tomorrow. If the reporting is performed
Monday morning, the speaker would say: John said that Mary was going to Bucharest
today.

18.3.3. Adverbs of place in Indirect Speech

Here and there can remain unchanged when it is clear what place is meant, e.g.

In front of the university John said: Ill be waiting for you here tomorrow at 5.
In front of the university John said that he would be waiting for me there tomorrow
at 5.

if the place is not clear, here must be replaced by some explicit place phrase, e.g.

Mary said: You will be working here, John.
Mary told John that he would be working at the desk near the window.
John asked: Can I sit here?
John asked if he could sit on the chair near the other guest.

150
Mother said: Come here,/boys, is usually reported : Mother called the boys.

All the changes mentioned so far occur in all types of structures that are changed from
direct to indirect speech, be they statements, questions etc. There are, however, certain
specific details that need to be mentioned for each type of structure in particular.

18.4. Statements in Indirect Speech

In order to change statements from direct into indirect speech, all the details mentioned
so far are necessary.

It is useful to know that there is a large variety of verbs that can be used instead of say,
to introduce the original words of the speaker. The choice of the introductory verb
depends of the content of the direct statement e.g.

agree, refuse, offer, promise, threaten +infinitive
accuse of, admit, apologize, for, deny, insist on +gerund
add
*
, admit
*
, answer
*
, argue
*
, assure + object, boast
*
, complain
*
, grumble
*
,
object
*
, observe
*
, point out, promise
*
, protest
*
, remark
*
, remind, reply* +
object etc.

These verbs can be used with direct or indirect speech. With direct speech they follow
direct statements, while starred verbs can be inverted, provided the subject is a noun.

murmur, mutter, shout, stammer, whisper can precede or follow direct statements or
questions. With noun subjects the verb can be inverted, e.g.

Youre late, whispered Tom/Tom whispered.

other verbs describing the voice or the tone of voice, e.g. bark, growl, roar, scream,
shriek, snarl, sneer, yell. But these are more common with direct than indirect speech.
(Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 277).

The verbs SAY and TELL

the verb say can introduce a statement or follow it, e.g.
John said: Ill be there as soon as I can
Ill be there as soon as I can, John said/said John.

When say comes after the direct statement it can be inverted, as above.

Say + TO + person addressed must always follow the direct statement, e.g.
Mary is writing a letter, mother said to me
*
.
*
This construction is not so usual, but it is possible; it would be more normal to say
, mother told/informed me.


151
TELL + person addressed (the object is obligatory), e.g.
You should not come tomorrow, John told me.
John told her: I dont need your help.
With to tell lies/stories/the truth the person addressed need not be mentioned. The
speaker can say:
John told (me) lies, she complained
Mary complained that John told (her) lies.
Mother promised to tell me a story, said the child.
The child said that his mother promised to tell him a story.
TELL cannot be inverted with its subject.

In indirect speech

- indirect statements are preferably introduced by TELL + person addressed
(obligatory), e.g.

John told her that the weather was changing.

SAY TO somebody is a poor alternative, though possible of TELL + person
addressed, e.g.

He said to her that the weather was changing is less preferable than the form
above;

TELL + person addressed + how/about/why/who/which/when/where introduces
direct statements, e.g.

Ive been to the opera he said, becomes

He told me he had been to the opera, and also: He told me where he had been.


18.5. Questions in Indirect Speech

Indirect questions require all the changes mentioned under General Changes, concerning
tenses, personal pronoun, possessive adjectives and pronouns, adverbs of time and place.

Questions are characterized by the presence of an auxiliary verb before the subject of the
structure. When turned into indirect questions, the word order should be reversed to the
affirmative form, i.e. the auxiliary verb disappears or is re-introduced after the subject,
e.g.

Where are you going John asked.
John asked where I was going.


152
The change of the subject in the original question may also trigger changes of the verbal
form, i.e. first person third person, second person first person etc.

Questions may be classifies as;

- Yes/No questions

- Questions beginning with a question word (when, where, who, how, why, which
etc.):

A. a yes/no question is introduced in the indirect structure by IF or WHETHER (OR).

Do you like cakes?, my aunt asked.
My aunt asked if/whether I liked cakes.
Did they travel by plane?" John wanted to know.
John wanted to know if/whether they/Johns friends had travelled by plane.

Whether is preferred when a choice is made, e.g.:

Do you want to travel by car or by train? John asked.
John wanted to know whether I wanted to travel by car or by plane.

Questions beginning with a question word, e.g. what, where, when, which, who, how
etc.

When the original question begins with a question word it is retained in the indirect
structure and serves to introduce the question in the final construction, e.g.

Where do you live? Mary asked him.
Mary asked John where he lived.
When is Mary coming? someone asked
Someone asked when Mary was coming?

It is advisable to use more introductory verbs, not only ask or ask + person addressed,
e.g. inquire, wonder, want to know which cannot be used with an object.

See the following examples in which all the necessary changes have been make, e.g.

Do you want to go to college here or in Los Angeles? Johns mother asked.
Johns mother wanted to know whether he wanted to go to college in their home
town or in Los Angeles.
Did they come yesterday? John inquired.
John wanted to know if his friends/they had come the day before.

Shall I/we questions in indirect speech. According to Thomson and Martinet they are of
4 kinds:

153

Questions implying speculations or requests for information about a future events, e.g.

Shall I ever go to Hawaii? she wondered
She wondered if she would ever go to Hawaii.
Shall I be able again to get on top of that mountain?"
He wondered if he would be able to get on top of that mountain.

Request for instructions or advice, e.g.

Where shall I put the package? the man asked.
The man asked where he should put/was to put the package.
What shall I buy, mother? Mary asked.
Mary asked what she should/was to buy.

Offers, e.g.

Shall I make you a sandwich? she asked

Although this type of questions can be reported word for word (=She asked if she should
make me a sandwich), it is more advisable to repeat the essence of the question, e.g.

She offered to make me a sandwich.
Shall I lend you my book? she asked.
She offered to lend me her book.
Shall we help you to move to the new apartment? Mary said.
Mary and her husband offered to help me move to the new apartment.

Suggestions, e.g.

Shall we go on a trip can be reported
He/She suggested going on a trip.
Shall I meet you at the station?
He suggested meeting her at the station.

Requests, invitations, rarely commands can be formulated under the form of questions
beginning with will you/would you/could you? These types of questions are never
reported by repeating the exact words of the question. The user should identify the type
of question and reformulate it as a statement introduced by one of the following verbs:
ask, tell, invite, order etc. If the will/would/could you question is an ordinary question,
its reporting will follow the rules for questions.

Will John come tonight? Mary asked. (ordinary question)
Mary asked if John would come that night.

Close the window; will you! he said angrily.

154
John ordered/told me to shut the window.

18.6. Commands in indirect question
A direct command is expressed by an imperative in the affirmative or negative.

Direct command: Go home, Mary.

Indirect command: Mother told Mary to go home;

D.C: Write that letter, Tom.
I.C. Mary told Tom to write the letter.
D.C: Leave her alone, Jack.
I.C: He told Jack to leave her / the girl alone.

Along with tell other verbs should be used to introduce the command: advise, ask, beg,
command; encourage, entreat, forbid, implore, invite, order, recommend, remind,
request, urge, warn, depending on the nuance of the construction.

D.C: Stay away from me, Jack
I.C: John told/ordered/warned Jack to stay away from him.

The structure of an affirmative indirect command is: a verb of command/advice +
object + infinitive. The object is strictly necessary and if does not exist in the direct
command, the speaker must supply it in the reported structured, e.g.

D.C: John said: Shut up
John told/warned him/Mary/etc. to shut up;

18.7. Negative commands, requests, advice

The structure of a negative indirect command etc. is verb of command etc. + object
(person addressed + NOT + infinitive), e.g.

D.C: Dont cross the street, John, his mother said
I.C: Mother warned/told/ordered/advised John not to cross the street.
D.C: Dont repeat that story to anyone, she said.
I.C: She said/advised/warned me not to tell the story to anyone.

Like with direct commands etc. the object (=person addressed) is obligatory and the
speaker should supply it if it does not exist in the original direct command.

Emphatic form: Do, please, spare my child she asked.
She begged/implored the kidnapper to spare her child.

Please, dont shoot me, she said.
She begged/implored the robber not to shoot her.

155

TO BE TO in indirect speech (see section 11.1.2)

THATSHOULD another construction used to render advice in indirect speech.

The verbs say/tell (+ that) + subject + should

If you cant sleep, why dont you take sleeping pills? John said.
John said/told me that if I cant sleep I should take sleeping pills.
The same structure can be reported:

He advised me to take sleeping pills.

Advise, recommend and urge + that..should are the most useful verbs to introduce
the original advice in the indirect speech, e.g.

John said: If you like cakes, why dont you learn to make them yourself.
John advised/urged that Mary should make the cakes herself.
or
John advised/urged Mary to make the cakes herself.

THAT..SHOULD can also be used to render an order (order, command), e.g.

The policeman said: Stay out of the restriction area.
The policeman ordered that people should stay out of the restriction area.
The principal ordered: All students must come to school tomorrow at 9
00

The principal ordered that all the students should come to school the next day at
9
00
.

LET US/LETS + short infinitive is rendered in indirect speech by suggest + Vb-ing
OR THAT.SHOULD, e.g.

John said: Lets walk in the park
John suggested walking in the park.
John suggested that they should walk in the park.

Mary said: Lets stay home this weekend
Mary suggested staying home that weekend.
Mary suggested that they should stay home that weekend.

The negative LETS NOT can be re-used as above or by using a phrase such as subject
+ opposed the idea/was against it/objected, e.g.

Lets not take the Browns with us, said John
John suggested not taking the Brown with them.
John suggested that they should not take the Browns with them.

156
John was against taking the Browns with them.
John opposed the idea.
LET HIM/HER/THEM can express (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 283)

a command, reported by say + be + infinitive, e.g.

Let him move his own thing, mother said
Mother said that John was to move his own things.
Let them finish their own work, the teacher said.
The teacher said that John & Mary were to finish their own work.
Let her wash the dishes today, Mary said
Mary said that Helen was to wash the dishes that day.

a sort of command only because, actually, the speaker has no authority over the person
who is to obey the command, e.g.

Its not my business, said the postman. Let the government solve the problem.
The postman said that it wasnt his business and that the government should/ ought
to solve the problem.

a suggestion usually rendered in indirect speech by suggest, or say that.should, e.g.

John said:Let her go to the President, who may want to help her.
John suggested her/him going to the President
John suggested that she should go to the President
John said that she should go to the President.

4. the speakers indifference concerning the matter in discussion, e.g.

The teacher will punish us, Mary said.
Let him / her, John answered.
Mary warned John that the teacher would punish them, but John said he didnt
mind/but Tom showed indifference/but Tom was indifferent.
The Police will give you a fine for speeding, Mary said.
Let them, Helen answered.
Mary warned her that the police would give her a fine for speeding but Helen
did not mind/but Helen was indifferent.

LET can also be an ordinary verb meaning allow/permit, e.g.

Let him stay with his friend some more, Mary said.
Mary asked her mother/her husband/etc. to let the child stay with his friend some
more time.
Let him go to the disco, John, his wife said.
Johns wife asked her husband to let their son go to the disco.


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18.8. Exclamations in Indirect Speech

Exclamations in indirect speech become statements reflecting the nature of the former,
e.g.

what (a).
How , i.e. by exclaim/say/cry out that - or give an exclamation of
delight/disgust/horror/
relief/surprise/amazement/satisfaction/ pleasure.

John said: How horrible !
Mary gave an exclamation of horror.

exclamations consisting of one word or an interjection will be reported as above, e.g.
Good ! Splendid ! Marvelous ! Heavens ! Good ! Perfect ! O.K ! All right ! Hell !

Splendid! she said.
She gave an exclamation of pleasure.
He gave an exclamation of surprise/amazement.

other exclamations are reported by the verb/noun existing in the original form, e.g.
(Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 285).

He said: Thank you! = He thanked me.
He said: Bless you! = He thanked me gratefully.
He said: Curse this fog! = He cursed the fog.
He said: Good luck! = He wished me luck.
He said: Happy Christmas! = He wished me a Happy Christmas.
He said: Happy Easter! = He wished me a Happy Easter
He said: Happy New Year! = He wished me Happy New Year.
He said: Congratulation! = He congratulated me.
He said: Mary happy returns of the day = He congratulated me.
He said: Liar! = He called me a liar.
He said: Down! = He swore.
He said: Son of a bitch! = He called me names.
He said: Welcome! = He welcomed me.

18.9. YES and NO in Indirect Speech

Particularly in spoken language the interlocutors resort to the shortest answer possible
which are Yes and No. In reported speech, especially in written texts Yes and
No are rendered by subject + appropriate auxiliary verb, in the affirmative or
negative, e.g.

John asked: Have you ever been to Paris? and I said Yes,
becomes

158
John asked if I had ever been to Paris and I answered that I have.

18.10. Mixed Types in Indirect Speech

For didactic reasons the author has explained separately each type of structure in direct
and indirect speech. In everyday speech or writing, however, all these types are usually
mixed according to the speakers logic, imagination etc. Normally, each structure
requires a distinct way of turning it into indirect speech, and an appropriate introductory
verb. In practice, the speaker/writer resorts to the most economical way/ways of
expressing indirect speech, two or more original structures being put together, e.g.

Im going to the movies. Will you come with me? John asked.
John took his bicycle and said: Ill go there tomorrow , Mary.
Do you want me to buy you something?
becomes
Taking his bicycle John informed Mary that he was going to town the next day and
offered to buy her something/and asked if she wanted him to buy her something.


18.11. Punctuation Rules in Indirect Speech

Examples to be seen in all sections.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

the original speakers
words are placed between inverted commas are dropped inverted commas ( )

a comma or colon is placed before
the remark or only a comma after comma or colon is dropped.
the remark when it comes first and
before he said etc.

direct speech can be under the form
of statements, questions, indirect speech can only commands, exclamations
etc, end with a full STOP, all
with the appropriate other punctuation signs
punctuation signs (full stop/period, being banned.
question mark, exclamation mark






159
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