Copyright 2002, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

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Abstract
The choice of an Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) process for
use in a particular reservoir depends on several factors; the
habitat of residual oil, the properties of the reservoir fluids,
reservoir conditions and reservoir heterogeneity.
Reservoir heterogeneity exists at all scales, from the micro
to the mega-scopic. Previous workers have studied the effects
of micro and meso-scale heterogeneities on IOR processes in
detail, as many processes are designed to act at those scales,
but have ignored macro-scale heterogeneities such as facies
variations. These can have a large effect on an IOR process;
controlling the magnitude and nature of the connectivity
between wells, compartmentalising the reservoir and
influencing the balance of capillary, viscous and
gravity forces.
A database of 499 IOR projects in clastic reservoirs was
collated. The macro-scale heterogeneity present in each
reservoir was categorised by depositional environment using
the Tyler and Finley Heterogeneity Matrix. The results show
that successful IOR projects using a particular process cluster
at certain combinations of lateral and vertical heterogeneity.
To investigate the distributions, a quantitative method of
evaluating macro-scale heterogeneity was devised. These
Lateral and Vertical Heterogeneity Indices (LHI and VHI)
provide a simple method of summarising and communicating
geological information between different people
and disciplines.
Reservoirs with known levels of LHI and VHI were
modelled, in which various IOR processes were simulated.
Over 350 simulations of steam, polymer and Water
Alternating Gas (WAG) injection processes were run and used
to identify the processes that worked best under different
levels of heterogeneity, dip and net to gross. The results
showed that the Heterogeneity Indices can be used to predict
the effect of macro-scale reservoir heterogeneity on these three
processes and that objective, geologically based screening
criteria could be derived. Using these criteria, it is
demonstrated that in the high cost and low well density
environment of the North Sea, WAG injection is the most
viable IOR process, as the efficiency of the process is
relatively unaffected by macro-scale heterogeneity.

Introduction
An oil reservoir is a complex system of interconnecting pore
spaces filled with a two or three phase fluid. This complexity,
coupled with the depletion of the natural drive mechanism,
often means that only a percentage (10 to 60%) of the total oil
in place can be produced by primary and secondary recovery.
Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) processes have been
developed to increase this proportion. The choice of IOR
process for use in a particular field depends on the habitat of
residual oil, fluid properties, reservoir conditions and
reservoir heterogeneity.
Reservoir Heterogeneity exists at all levels from the micro-
scopic to the mega-scopic
1
, illustrated in Fig.1.
i. Micro-scale heterogeneity in properties such as
permeability, porosity and capillary pressure control the oil
storage potential, fluid flow rates and residual oil (metres)
ii. Meso-scale heterogeneity is a function of
sedimentary structures, ripples, cross bedding (cm to m).
iii. Macro-scale heterogeneity is created by the
arrangement of individual sand and shale bodies within the
reservoir. This architecture defines the direction of fluid flow
between wells, determines how a reservoir drains and where
hydrocarbons remain unrecovered. (1m to 100s of metres)
iv. Mega-scale heterogeneity is a product of the
juxtaposition of major depositional elements, different
depositional environments or large-scale fault
compartmentalisation, creating traps and reservoirs.
(>1000 metres)
Micro and meso-scale heterogeneities have been studied in
detail by previous workers in the field of IOR because many
IOR processes are designed to act on those scales. While
papers such as Taber et al.
2
provide very useful screening
criteria based on porosity, permeability and reservoir fluid
parameters, little data is presented on the impact of larger
scale geological heterogeneity.

SPE 75148
Geologically Based Screening Criteria for Improved Oil Recovery Projects
Richard Henson, Schlumberger DCS, Adrian Todd and Patrick Corbett, Heriot-Watt University.
2 R. HENSON, A. TODD AND P. CORBETT SPE 75148
Tyler and Finley
3
carried out a review of the reservoir
heterogeneity and associated predicated recovery from 450
Texan sandstone reservoirs. They showed that there was a
well-defined relationship between reservoir architecture and
conventional recovery efficiency. As the complexity of the
architecture increased, the final recovery from a field
decreased. Recovery ranged from a high of 80% of original oil
in place (OOIP) in a low heterogeneity, wave-dominated
deltaic reservoir to a low of 8% of OOIP in a mud rich
submarine fan with high heterogeneity.
They found that as macro-scale heterogeneity in clastic
reservoirs is often a product of depositional environment, it is
predictable and can be characterised in terms of high,
moderate or low, vertical and lateral heterogeneity. Fig.2
shows the heterogeneity matrix for clastic depositional
environments developed by Tyler and Finley.
Carbonate reservoirs are more problematic as the
distribution of reservoir properties is often controlled by
diagenetic changes that have occurred since deposition rather
then the depositional environment itself.

Clastic Reservoir IOR Project Database A database
of 500 IOR projects in clastic reservoirs from 50 countries has
been compiled to study the effects of different reservoir
parameters and geological heterogeneity. Data was drawn
predominatly from the Oil and Gas Journal Bi-annual
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Survey
4-8
, but also from the
available literature and a survey of the petroleum industry.
The projects were evaluated in terms of reservoir and fluid
characteristics and the degree of success encountered. All
projects have been operating during the last 12 years and have
resulted in increased production and made a profit. Many
projects, particularly the thermal projects in America and
Canada, have been running successfully for ten or more years.
The database also includes 49 projects that have failed,
projects where enhanced production has been minimal or zero
and that have run at a loss.
The data was analysed using cross plots and simple
statistics to identify the oil compositions, reservoir conditions
and levels of heterogeneity at which a particular IOR
technique was a success.
The classification of the macro-scale heterogeneity present
in a reservoir was made using the Tyler and Finley Matrix.
The location of projects within the matrix is somewhat
subjective as the full details of the geology are rarely
described in the literature. Based on the description of its
geological environment a project can be assigned a high,
moderate or low value for vertical and lateral heterogeneity
and placed in the appropriate box.

IOR Success and Reservoir Heterogeneity IOR
projects from the database were plotted in the heterogeneity
matrix. There is no scale as such, just nine categories into
which a project can be placed, though a project can be placed
on the margin between two boxes if they fall between the two
categories. Fig.3 shows successful projects plotted by type and
depositional environment.
Despite the subjective nature of the plot, it can be seen that
certain types of project tend to group in specific areas of the
diagram, highlighted in Fig.4. Thermal projects seem to be
almost universally successful, working at most levels of
heterogeneity except for medium to high lateral heterogeneity
when coupled with high vertical heterogeneity. Few projects
of whatever type work in the low lateral heterogeneity and
high vertical heterogeneity box in the top right of the diagram.
CO
2
floods show a bi-modal distribution, clustered in the
low to medium lateral and low vertical heterogeneity and the
high lateral and moderate to high vertical heterogeneity. WAG
floods group in the middle of the matrix, successful when a
reservoir has moderate lateral and vertical heterogeneity.
Polymer floods are concentrated in the upper left sections
of the matrix; they are only successful if both heterogeneities
are low to moderate.
Hydrocarbon gas floods work best when the vertical
heterogeneity is moderate at all levels of lateral heterogeneity
as well as working when both heterogeneities are low.
The matrix classifying failed projects (Fig.5) shows that
while there are no successes in the low vertical and high
lateral heterogeneity box as there are also no failures. This
seems to indicate that these reservoir types are recognised as
bad candidates for IOR and projects are not attempted in such
reservoirs. There are also very few failed projects in the low
lateral and vertical heterogeneity box but successes, this could
indicate that heterogeneity has minimal effects at this level.
This distribution of successful IOR projects over
substantial areas of the heterogeneity matrix contrasts sharply
with predictions of Tyler and Finley (Fig.6). They predicted
that successful IOR projects would be restricted to the low
Lateral and Vertical Heterogeneity box. They do make
suggestions for ways to increase oil recovery for other areas of
the matrix but these are methods such as infill drilling, gel
placing and well recompletions.
By plotting successful and failed IOR process on the
Heterogeneity Matrix in this way it is shown that
heterogeneity has an effect on the success or failure of an IOR
project and this effect is dependant on the type of IOR being
attempted. This allows the effect of heterogeneity on an IOR
processes to be predicted and some limited screening of
potential IOR candidates to be carried out.
However. plotting a reservoir on the Heterogeneity Matrix
is largely subjective and is dependant on the published field
description presented by the operator. As it also does not take
into account the well spacing with which the reservoir has
been developed, a more objective way to investigate, quantify
and predict the effects of macro scale heterogeneity on the
performance of an IOR process was needed.
Heterogeneity was split into two mathematically defined,
vertical and lateral components or Indices. These were adapted
to take account of the effect of deviated and horizontal wells
on the apparent heterogeneity in a reservoir.
SPE 75148 GEOLOGICALLY BASED SCREENING CRITERIA FOR IMPROVED OIL RECOVERY PROJECTS 3
Synthetic reservoirs with known levels of Lateral and
Vertical Heterogeneity Index were generated using object-
based stochastic modelling. These models were based on an
'average' North Sea reservoir (1 Km well spacing, 100 m gross
pay, 75% Net to Gross) and covered the range of macro-scale
heterogeneity encountered in the UKCS.
Three IOR processes were investigated further; Steam
Drive, Polymer Flood and WAG. Compositional Simulations
modelling the effects of these IOR processes on a reservoir
and the reservoir fluids were developed.
A total of 349 different IOR simulations under a variety of
conditions were run. The results were used to identify
processes that worked best under certain levels of
heterogeneity, dip and net to gross. The results of the
simulations were summarised to create objective,
geologically-based screening criteria for the three IOR
processes, that can be used to identify potential candidate
reservoirs suitable for the application of IOR.

Quantifying Heterogeneity
As classification of heterogeneity by depositional environment
in the Tyler and Finley Matrix is highly subjective, a method
that allows a more objective assessment of the level of
heterogeneity present in a reservoir has several advantages;
- it enables simple comparisons between
disparate reservoirs.
- reservoirs that consist of several intervals with
different levels of heterogeneity (such as the Brent sequence in
the North Sea) can be plotted on the diagram using the average
heterogeneity throughout the pay zone, or each interval could
be characterised individually.
- heterogeneity variation within the same depositional
environment could be identified.
- it enables synthetic reservoirs to be generated for
any point in the heterogeneity matrix.
As in the Tyler and Finley Matrix only two dimensions are
considered, lateral and horizontal heterogeneity. The simplest
model on which to base a scale is to consider the heterogeneity
between two adjacent wells; an injector and producer pair
(Fig.7). The reservoir between the wells is a two-lithology
system; a background shale in which sand bodies are
randomly placed. These sand bodies or genetic units
(channels, crevasse splays, dunes, etc) can be defined in two
dimensions very simply.
Three other assumptions are made;
- the wells are vertical or near vertical over the
reservoir interval considered, with only a small variation in the
distance between them.
- the reservoir is developed in such a way that flow
between the wells is along, or close to the long axis of the
sand bodies.
- there is only a small variation in the trend (10
o

spread) of the deposited sand bodies in the reservoir interval to
be considered.

Lateral Heterogeneity Index (LHI) If the above
assumptions are made, the degree of lateral heterogeneity
between two wells depends on the correlation of sand bodies
or stacks of bodies between the wells; the more sand bodies
that correlate, the lower the heterogeneity. The important
factor therefore, is the ratio between the mean sand body
length and the inter-well distance or well spacing. This is
expressed in the equation below, with the addition of a log
function to give results that are easily scaleable. The minus
sign is included to give positive heterogeneity indexes that
increase with increasing heterogeneity.

(LHI) = - log Genetic Unit Mean Length
Inter-Well Distance
(1)

This equation generates a dimensionless index, allowing
the comparison of reservoirs with very different sand body
sizes, distributions and development strategies. When the
mean genetic unit length is equal to the inter well distance, a
LHI of zero is generated. Means greater than the inter well
distance result in a negative index. The equation also
demonstrates that the heterogeneity present in a reservoir is
not fixed but relative and can be increased or decreased by
varying the well spacing in a reservoir.

Vertical Heterogeneity Index (VHI) The amount of
vertical heterogeneity is controlled by the superposition of
sand bodies in the space between wells. The thicker the sand
body compared to the gross thickness of the reservoir, the
more likely these interceptions are. A 10 m mean thickness for
sand bodies within the reservoir is going to lead to a higher
heterogeneity in a thick reservoir than in a very thin reservoir.
This can be expressed in the equation;

VHI = - log Genetic Unit Mean Thickness
Gross Pay Thickness
(2)

Again, the log function and minus sign are included to give
a positive Index that increases as heterogeneity increases. A
Heterogeneity Index of zero is calculated when the mean
genetic unit thickness is equal to the gross reservoir thickness,
as in a single genetic unit reservoir.

Genetic Units A genetic unit is a body that can be related
to an individual depositional event or series of events and can
be constrained both geometrically and spatially
9
. For the
purposes of geological modelling a genetic unit can be defined
with only a few parameters; shape, length, width, thickness,
orientation, porosity distribution and permeability distribution.
The scale, geometry and orientation of genetic units are
critical in appraising the heterogeneity, connectivity and net to
gross of a reservoir. A well in a clastic reservoir may
encounter hydrocarbons in a series of stacked sand bodies.
Althpugh seismic data can usually give a reliable estimate of
4 R. HENSON, A. TODD AND P. CORBETT SPE 75148
the size of the reservoir and the larger structural elements, how
extensive will the sand bodies be? Will they be field wide or
will they cover only part of the reservoir? What chance is
there of other sands of limited lateral extent being present but
not having been contacted by the well?
There is a large amount of literature on genetic unit
dimensions in a variety of depositional environments, such as
paralic (ocean margin) sandstones
10
and fluvial
environments
11
. Where good correlations between genetic unit
dimensions exist, they allow the width and length of a genetic
unit to be predicted from the measured thickness from core or
wireline logs. Where correlations are poor, the likely ranges of
length and width can still be estimated.

Horizontal Wells For the purposes of calculating the
heterogeneity between wells, a horizontal well is any well with
a deviation of over 45
o
from the vertical, where the flow
between them can be considered to be more vertical than
horizontal. Therefore, the controlling factor for the VHI will
be the vertical inter-well distance rather than the reservoir
thickness, while the LHI will be a function of the length of the
completed well interval in the reservoir (Fig.8).
To calculate the heterogeneity between two wells where
the flow between them is vertical, modifications of equations
(1) and (2) are needed;

LHI = - log Genetic Unit Mean Length
Completed Well Interval
(3)

and;

VHI = - log Genetic Unit Mean Thickness
Vertical Inter-Well Distance
(4)

Again, the result is dimensionless with the log and the
minus sign included to give an easily scaleable result that
increases with increasing heterogeneity.

Generation of Synthetic Reservoirs
Object-based stochastic modelling provides the tools to create
reservoirs of known heterogeneity based on the Heterogeneity
Indices described above. In this process, geologically-defined
objects are randomly placed in a background facies until a set
limit, defined as a percentage of the total reservoir volume, is
reached. The dimensions and trend of each individual object
are randomly generated from frequency or fuzzy possibility
distributions defined by the user.
The reservoirs to be modelled were simple sand shale
models, with shale as the background facies. It was decided
that the range of heterogeneity that could be found in an
average North Sea reservoir should be investigated. To
determine these parameters, data from 78 North Sea
reservoirs, taken from the 25th United Kingdom Oil and Gas
Fields Commemorative Volume
12
was analysed.
It was determined that an average North Sea reservoir
has a 1 km well spacing in 100m of gross pay with a net to
gross of 75%. Therefore, the synthetic reservoirs are two-
dimensional rectangles, 1000m long by 100 m thick, with an
injector at one edge and producer at the other. In a reservoir of
these dimensions Lateral and Vertical Heterogeneity Indices
ranging from zero to 2 would result from sand bodies ranging
1 m thick and 10m long to 100m thick and 1000m long.
Five values of both LHI and VHI were selected (0.10,
0.55, 1.00, 1.45 and 1.90) to create 25 reservoirs that provided
good cover across the parameter space. The models created are
shown in Fig.9.
While the value of mean thicknesses and lengths are
known, to create a realistic reservoir a range of sand bodies of
different dimensions, either side of the mean, is needed. In real
field examples they are generated from probability
distributions of thickness and lengths identified from wellbore
and analogue data. While it would be possible to arbitrarily
create a probability distribution around the mean of each of the
five values of both LHI and VHI, this would not fully capture
the uncertainty involved. Instead, Triangular Fuzzy Numbers
(TFN) were used.
For each of the values of both LHI and VHI, a TFN was
defined, using the mean thicknesses or lengths as the most
likely value and a spread of 0.3 to either side of the most
likely value, as the least likely values (Table 1).

Reservoir Simulation
Three IOR processes were simulated;
- Steam Drive
- Polymer Flooding
- Hydrocarbon Gas WAG Injection
Thermal IOR is the second most successful IOR process,
both in terms of the number of active projects and total
production. Steam drive is the most used thermal process and
so has a large number of projects classified in the Clastic IOR
Project Database, which can be compared with the results of
the simulations.
Twenty years ago, polymer flooding was widely used but
often failed to meet the expectations generated from single
well trials when it was applied at a larger scale. Several of the
polymer projects documented in the Clastic IOR Project
Database were said to have failed due to reservoir
heterogeneity, but without further discussion of the nature of
the heterogeneity or how it resulted in the projects failure.
Hydrocarbon WAG injection is under-represented in the
Clastic Reservoir IOR Database, with only eight successful
projects identified. However recovery seems to be good and
there are no reported failures. The process is currently being
used in several North Sea reservoirs and is being considered
for use in several others. It is therefore a process that is
considered to be applicable in offshore areas with large
well spacings.
The simulation models are all 1km long by 10m wide and
100m thick. The permeability of the sand blocks was set at a
constant 1000 mD, with a porosity of 30%. The shale blocks
SPE 75148 GEOLOGICALLY BASED SCREENING CRITERIA FOR IMPROVED OIL RECOVERY PROJECTS 5
had a permeability of 0.001 mD with 0.001% porosity,
preventing any significant storage or flow of reservoir fluid
within them. The distribution of sand and shale is dependent
on the geological model used, which in turn is dependent on
the level of LHI and VHI. An injector was placed at the left
margin of the model and a producer at the right, both
completed throughout the whole reservoir interval.
Different simulation models were created for each IOR
process, as the reservoir conditions need to be optimised for
that particular process. The effectiveness of a project is,
therefore, only dependant on the LHI and VHI values. The
initial conditions and oil properties for all three models are
summarised in Table.2.
The steam injection model is based on Problem 3a in
"Fourth SPE Comparative Solution Project - A Comparison of
Steam Injection Simulators"
13
. The polymer model is based on
an amalgamation of three micellar polymer field tests that
have been reported in the literature
14-16
.

Results
Two measures are used to compare and contrast the
effectiveness of the IOR processes in reservoirs with
different heterogeneities;
- Recovery is the oil produced at surface conditions
divided by the total stock tank oil in place. This production
index, like the Heterogeneity Indices themselves,
is dimensionless.
- Efficiency is calculated as the ratio of the volume of
oil produced by the volume of fluid injected, both at surface
conditions. This equation results in a dimensionless figure that
takes into account both the volume of oil produced and how
efficiently it was produced. This can easily been converted to
give an indication of how profitable the IOR process will be
by including the operating costs of the IOR process used and
the current or predicted sale value of the produced oil.

Stream Drive Figs.10 and 11 show the recovery and
efficiency for a steam drive in the 75% net to gross reservoirs
plotted as surfaces against the Lateral and Vertical
Heterogeneity Indices. As there is no connectivity between the
injector and producer pair in the 75% net to gross reservoirs at
high LHI (above 0.8) and low VHI (below 0.3), flow between
the wells is impossible in these reservoirs and the surfaces
have been truncated to reflect the lack of data in this region of
the matrix.
Fig.10 shows that steam drives produce a good recovery in
reservoirs with low heterogeneity (LHIs and VHIs below
1.2), peaking at 51.1 % in the LHI: 0.10/VHI: 0.10 reservoir.
At higher heterogeneities recovery is smaller, dropping to
15.8% in the LHI: 1.90/VHI: 1.45 reservoir.
The most efficient steam drive simulations appear in a
relatively small area of the LHI and VHI Matrix, below 1.2 for
both Indices. When successful thermal projects from the
Clastic IOR Project Database were plotted on a Tyler and
Finley Heterogeneity Matrix, they could be found at almost all
levels of heterogeneity. The two different results can be
reconciled if we take into account the limitations of the Tyler
and Finley Matrix. The matrix does not take into account the
effect of well spacing on the heterogeneity between wells nor
does it represent the range of heterogeneity present in an
average North Sea reservoir. In this case we would expect that
the screening criteria derived from the Tyler and Finley Matrix
would not be valid at high levels of Heterogeneity Index in a
North Sea reservoir.
This is demonstrated in Fig.12, where the efficiency of the
simulated steam drives is compared with the pattern of
successful and failed thermal projects plotted on a Tyler and
Finley Heterogeneity Matrix. Contours showing the variation
in the efficiency of simulated steam drives, with values of LHI
and VHI below 1.2, are superimposed on a Tyler and Finley
Heterogeneity Matrix. The matrix shows the levels of
heterogeneity present in successful thermal projects (plotted
as triangles).
There is a good correlation between boxes of the matrix
with large numbers of successful thermal projects and high
levels of simulated steam drive efficiency. This demonstrates
that the level of heterogeneity in a reservoir, characterised
using the Indices, and the results of simulated IOR processes
in that reservoir are consistent with observed IOR successes in
reservoirs characterised by depositional environment.
The variation in efficiency of steam drives with LHI and
VHI can be explained by comparing the distribution, two years
into the steam drive, of the reservoir oil in the reservoirs where
the process is most and least efficient. The most efficient
steam drive is in the LHI: 0.10/VHI: 0.10 reservoir, shown in
Fig.13a. A piston like flood front has formed about 500m into
the reservoir.
Fig.13b shows the LHI: 1.90/VHI: 1.45 reservoir, in which
the simulated steam drive was least efficient. Again an oil
bank has formed at the flood front but it has been driven less
then half the length of the reservoir. The flood front has been
distorted and fragmented by the many small shales acting as
baffles to flow. The shales can identified as the volumes of the
reservoir still at the initial oil saturation.
Fig.14 shows the temperature distribution in the same
reservoirs after 10 years, at the end of the steam drive. In the
most efficient steam drive (Fig.14a) the steam has heated up
most of the reservoir, both sands and shales, with the top of
the producer at over 340
o
F. Fig.14b shows the temperature
distribution in the least efficient reservoir. All but the first
300m of the reservoir is still at the original reservoir
temperature, despite the oil saturation distribution in Fig.13b
showing that the injected steam front had travelled further than
this after two years of injection. Though the injected steam has
penetrated 500m into the reservoir, it has cooled to such an
extent by that time that it has negligible heating effect on the
reservoir. The energy of the injected steam is being wasted
heating the matrix of the shales. The larger the Heterogeneity
Index, the greater the surface area of the shales and the more
heat that will be lost to the non-net part of the reservoir.

6 R. HENSON, A. TODD AND P. CORBETT SPE 75148
Polymer Flood Figs.15 and 16 show the recovery and
efficiency surfaces for polymer floods. There is a good
correlation between recovery and efficiency; both indicate that
the process is most effective at low levels of LHI (up to 0.8).
The VHI of a reservoir has little or no effect on recovery
and efficiency.
The polymer flood models have markedly lower recovery
and efficiency than those demonstrated for steam drives at all
levels of LHI and VHI. This is because the polymer flood
model was designed to simulate a tertiary recovery process,
after one year of water flood, whereas the steam flood was
being used as a primary recovery method. As a consequence
the polymer models have lower initial oil saturation than the
steam drive models, 35% compared with 55%.
In Fig.17 the contours showing the variation in the
efficiency of simulated polymer floods, with values of LHI
and VHI below 1.2, are superimposed on a Tyler and Finley
Heterogeneity Matrix, showing the levels of heterogeneity
present in successful polymer projects, plotted as circles.
There is a good correlation between the variation of
efficiency with LHI and the presence of successful polymer
projects. Projects over an LHI of 0.8 have a low efficiency and
there are no successful projects in the High Lateral
Heterogeneity boxes. There is no similar correlation with the
variation of efficiency with VHI, the contours show that the
same efficiency is expected in reservoirs in the Moderate and
High Vertical Heterogeneity boxes, despite the fact that there
are few successful projects in the High Vertical Heterogeneity
boxes. This could be because high heterogeneity reservoirs are
recognised as bad candidates for polymer floods, but the type
of heterogeneity has not been taken into account. Reservoirs in
which polymer floods could be successful, because the high
level of heterogeneity present can be classed as vertical, are
being ignored.
Fig.18 demonstrates how LHI and VHI effect polymer
floods by comparing the oil saturation after 6 years of the
polymer flood in three different reservoirs. Fig.18 a shows oil
saturation distribution in the most efficient reservoir
(LHI:0.55/VHI: 0.10) where the injection of the surfactant for
a year has created a bank of enriched oil that the polymer slug
and chase water has pushed towards the producer. The front
has begun to collapse under gravity to the base of
the reservoir.
Fig.18b shows how high levels of both Lateral and
Vertical Heterogeneity Index can decrease the efficiency of
the polymer flood. In this figure, the change in oil saturation
with time in the LHI:1.90/VHI:1.45 reservoir is shown. The
injection of the surfactant slug has created a bank of high oil
saturation near the injector, but the front is distorted and has
moved only ~150m along the reservoir. The oil saturation in
the swept region behind the flood front is patchy, high in some
areas, low in others. Volumes of oil have been trapped in dead
ends and alcoves as they follow a tortuous path to
the producer.
Fig.18c shows an efficient application of polymer flooding
at a medium LHI but a high level of VHI, in the
LHI:1.00/VHI1.90 reservoir. The injection of the surfactant
slug has formed a series of small flood fronts in the individual
flow units that have swept a third of the reservoir. The shales
between flow units are preventing the collapse of the flood
front to the base of the reservoir as chase water is injected and
so allowing a better vertical sweep.
These examples show that polymer floods are more
effective at low LHIs because the flood front is moving
through thick, homogenous flow units with few internal shales
to act as baffles. As LHI increases the presence of internal
shales becomes more likely as sand bodies become shorter,
and flow units are made up of more and more intersecting
sand bodies.
The effect of VHI on the efficiency of polymer floods is
due to the presence of shales distorting the flood front. At low
levels of VHI there are thick flow units with no internal shales.
As VHI increases shales appear within these units, acting as
baffles to flow and distorting the horizontal flow within flow
units. At levels of VHI approaching 2 the shales become thin
enough that they have a minimal distorting effect on
horizontal flow, while acting as baffles and barriers to vertical
flow and preventing the polymer slug from slumping to the
base of the reservoir.

Hydrocarbon WAG Simulations Due to
convergence problems, a coarser grid had to be used for the
Hydrocarbon WAG Simulations. With this coarse grid it was
impossible to model any reservoir with a VHI over 1.45. The
five most vertically heterogeneous reservoirs were abandoned.
There are two separate fluids injected into the reservoir but
it was decided to use only the amount of water injected to
calculate the efficiency of the WAG process. The injection of
water is designed to displace the miscible
hydrocarbon/injected gas mixture from the reservoir. As such
a value of close to 1 for efficiency would indicate that the
volumes of water injected and oil produced are similar. Again
this measure is dimensionless.
When successful field applications of WAG injection were
plotted on a Tyler and Finley Matrix in Fig.3 they were
scattered over most of the matrix. As the eight data points also
include both CO
2
and hydrocarbon gas WAG injection it is
difficult to make any predictions as to the effects of
heterogeneity on the success of hydrocarbon WAG projects,
but the wide scatter of the projects suggests that heterogeneity
has a relatively small effect.
The recovery of the hydrocarbon WAG floods through the
75% n/g reservoirs is plotted as surface against the Lateral and
Vertical Heterogeneity Indices in Fig.19. The surfaces have
been truncated to reflect the lack of simulation data in some
regions of the matrix. Recovery is high across the whole
matrix with little variation from the mean of 86% and changes
in heterogeneity have a negligible effect on the recovery of
hydrocarbon WAG injection. Water injection efficiency
(Fig.20) is also high across the whole matrix.
The two ternary diagrams in Fig.21 show the distribution
of the three phases (gas, water and oil) present in the
SPE 75148 GEOLOGICALLY BASED SCREENING CRITERIA FOR IMPROVED OIL RECOVERY PROJECTS 7
LHI:0.10/VHI: 0.10 reservoir (Fig.21a) and LHI:1.90/VHI:
1.45 reservoir (Fig.21b) after 270 days. There has been one
complete cycle and the slug of gas for the second cycle has
been injected. The distribution of gas oil and water in both the
high heterogeneity and low heterogeneity reservoirs are very
similar. The shales seem to be having little effect on the
injected gas and water.

Net To Gross
The effects of net to gross on the recovery and efficiency of all
three IOR process was investigated by carrying out
simulations in reservoirs modelled at 60% and 45% net to
gross (n/g). At lower n/g there is more variation in the
percentage of total sand that is connected to both wells and a
greater tendency at high levels of LHI for there to be no
continuous sand bodies or amalgamations of sand bodies
connecting the injector and producer. The simulation result
surfaces have been truncated to reflect the regions of the
matrix where no flow between wells is possible.
As net to gross is reduced, connectivity declines, resulting
in lower levels of recovery and efficiency for all three IOR
processes. Despite the reduction in efficiency across the whole
matrix there are still regions of the matrix in which the process
operate at a higher efficiency.
WAG injection seems to be particularly sensitive to
changes in reservoir connectivity. There is a close correlation
between variations in the recovery and efficiency of WAG
processes with LHI and VHI and variation in the
reservoir connectivity.

Reservoir Dip
The effects of reservoir dip on the recovery and efficiency of
all three IOR process was investigated by carrying out
simulations in reservoirs to which a dip had been added. It was
decided to simulate reservoirs at two degrees of dip; a low
value of 10
o
and a high value of 60
o
were chosen.
A small amount of reservoir dip added to the steam drive
simulations increases efficiency at the expense of production
rate. The pattern of more efficient steam drives is identical to
that seen in the non-dipping reservoirs. A slight reservoir dip
also has a detrimental effect on the simulated polymer floods,
reducing injection rate and therefore recovery and efficiency.
Dip has no effect at any level of Heterogeneity Index on the
WAG models.
Steeply dipping reservoirs, coupled with large inter well
distances, often result in the injector being below the effective
limit for steam or polymer injection. The simulations often fail
due of lack of pressure support at the producer. Conversely,
when the dip is increased to 60
o
in the hydrocarbon gas WAG
models, both the recovery and efficiency increase at every
level of heterogeneity.

Screening Criteria
From the results of these simulations it is possible to create
screening criteria for IOR processes that could be applied to
identify suitable candidate reservoirs for further investigation
and simulation. Figs.22, 23 and 24 summarize the findings
from the analysis of the Clastic Reservoir IOR Project
Database, the screening criteria available in the literature and
results from the simulations.
The nomenclature used in the screening criteria is taken
from Taber et al
2
. He emphasizes that the criteria are not
absolute. They are intended to show approximate ranges of a
particular reservoir or fluid property for good projects. Values
such as > x or < z are not meant to imply a specific upper
or lower limit to the parameter. The steam drive screening
criteria, for example, shows that steam drives are
recommended for reservoirs with less than 1.2 VHI, but this
does not mean that the probability of a successful steam drive
drops to zero at 1.21 VHI.
Taber et al. have attempted to show that, for a given
parameter, if >x is feasible >>x may be even better for a given
process, within the natural limits of the parameter. By
underlining a value they indicate the mean of the parameter for
that particular IOR method. For example, for oil gravity in a
miscible nitrogen flood the table states, > 35 48 means
that the process should work with oils greater than 35 API, if
other criteria are met, and that high gravity oils are better. It
also shows that the approximate mean of current miscible
projects is 48 API. The ascending arrow indicates that higher
gravity oils are better still.

Conclusions
Lateral and Vertical Heterogeneity Indices have been
developed to quickly identify suitable IOR candidate
reservoirs for more detailed study.
Synthetic reservoirs models have been developed to
study the interaction of geological object size, well spacing
and IOR performance.
The synthetic model results have been plotted on a
simple architecture matrix using the LHI and HI indices.
The simulation results confirm earlier published
expectations about the relationship between the efficiency of
IOR processes and architecture.
Data from the large IOR project database was plotted
on the architecture matrix. Despite the often brief geological
descriptions available, the patterns plotted are consistent with
the results of the simulations, suggesting that a more detailed
and systematic recording of geological data could be
developed to provide guidance for screening IOR projects in
the future.
The results suggest that WAG is an effective IOR
process across a range of geological scenarios.

References
1. Alpay, O. A. A Practical Approach To Defining Reservoir
Heterogeneity, Journal of Petroleum Engineering, (1972) V 24,
p841-848.

2. Taber, J. J; Martin, F. D. & Seright, R. S. EOR Screening Criteria
Revisited-P1: Introduction to Screening and EOR Field Projects.
Part 2: Applications and Impact of Oil Prices, SPE Reservoir
Engineering, (Aug., 1997) p189-220.
8 R. HENSON, A. TODD AND P. CORBETT SPE 75148

3. Tyler, N. & Finley, R. J. Architectural Controls on the Recovery
of Hydrocarbons from Sandstone Reservoirs, SEPM Concepts
in Sedimentology and Palaeontology, (1991) V3, p3-7.

4. Moritis, G. CO
2
and HC injection lead EOR production
increase, Oil and Gas Journal, (Apr. 23, 1990) p49-81.

5. Moritis, G. EOR increases 24% World-wide; Claims 10% of US
Production, Oil and Gas Journal, (Apr. 20, 1992) p51-79.

6. Moritis, G. EOR dips in US but remains a significant factor, Oil
and Gas Journal, (Sept. 26, 1994), p51-79.

7. Moritis, G. Technology, improved economics boost EOR hopes,
Oil and Gas Journal, (Apr. 15, 1996) p31-69.

8. Moritis, G. EOR oil production up slightly, Oil and Gas Journal,
(Apr. 20, 1998) p49-77.

9. Hurst, A; Cronin, B; Hartley, A. & Verstralen, I. Sand-Rich
Fairways in Deep-Water Clastic Reservoirs: Genetic Units,
Capturing Uncertainty, and a New Approach to Reservoir
Modelling, AAPG Bulletin, (1999) V83, No. 7, p1096-1118.

10. Reynolds, A. D. Dimensions of Paralic Sandstone Bodies,
AAPG Bulletin, (1999) V82, No. 2, p211-229.

11. Bryant, I. D & Flint, S. S. Quantitative Clastic Reservoir
Modelling, In: BRYANT, I. D & FLINT, S. S. (eds.) The
Geological Modelling of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs and Outcrop
Analogues. International Association of Sedimentologists
Special Publication 15. Blackwell Scientific Publications,
(1993) p3-20.

12. Abbot, I. L. (Ed.) United Kingdom Oil and Gas Fields, 25th
Commemorative Volume,. (1991) Geological Society of London
Memoir 14, 573p.

13. Aziz, K; Ramesh, A. B. & Woo, P. T. Fourth SPE Comparative
Solution Project: Comparison of Steam Injection Simulators,
Journal of Petroleum Technology, (Dec. 1987) p1576-1584.

14. Saad, N. & Sepehrnoori, K. Simulation of Big Muddy Surfactant
Pilot, SPE 17549, SPE Reservoir Engineering, (1989) p24.

15. Chapotin, D; Lomer, J. F. & Putz, A. The Chateaurenard (France)
Industrial Micro-emulsion Pilot Design and Performance, SPE
14955, SPE/DOE 5
th
Symposium, Tulsa, (1986).

16. Huh, C; Landis, L. H; Maer Jr., N. K; Mckinney, P. H. &
Dougherty, N. A. Simulation to Support Interpretation of the
Loudon Surfactant Pilot Tests, SPE 20465, 65
th
Annual SPE
Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, 23
th
-26
th

September, 1990.

17. Dreyer, T. Geometry and Facies of Large-Scale Flow Units in
Fluvial-Dominated Fan-Delta Front Sequences, In: ASHTON,
M. (ed.) Advances in Reservoir Geology. Geological Society
Special Publications, (1993) No 69, p135-174.
Fuzzy Sand Body Fuzzy Sand Body
Heterogeneity Possibility Length for Av. Height for Av.
Index North Sea Reservoir North Sea Reservoir
-0.20 0 1584.9 158.5
0.10 1 794.3 79.4
0.40 0 398.1 39.8
0.25 0 562.3 56.2
0.55 1 281.8 28.2
0.85 0 141.3 14.1
0.70 0 199.5 20.0
1.00 1 100.0 10.0
1.30 0 50.1 5.0
1.15 0 70.8 7.1
1.45 1 35.5 3.5
1.75 0 17.8 1.8
1.60 0 25.1 2.5
1.90 1 12.6 1.3
2.20 0 6.3 0.6

Table.1-Heterogeneity Values Index for 25 Synthetic Reservoirs,
defined by one most likely value (with a possibility of 1) and
a spread of +/- 0.3 (with a possibility of 0)

Steam Polymer HC Wag
Oil 11 20.26 44.6
o
API
Oil Density 0.993 0.932 0.804 g/cm
3
Initial Oil Saturation 55 35 80 %
Reservoir Temperature 125 207 160
o
F
Reservoir Pressure 1102 6246 4000 psia
Sand Porosity 30 30 30 %
Sand Permeability 1000 1000 1000 mD
Shale Porosity 0.001 0.001 0.001 %
Shale Permeability 0.001 0.001 0.001 mD
i 100 100 100
j 1 1 1
k 100 100 50
Total Blocks 10,000 10,000 5,000
Simulation Length 10 10 1 years
Injectant 70% steam at Year 1: 3 month injection
450
o
F for 10 Water alone of gas, consisting
years Year 2: off 77% C
1,
20% C
3
Surfactant slug and 3% C
6
, alternating
Years 3 and 5: with a three month
Polymer slug water slug.
Year five:
Polymer taper
Years 6 to 10:
Chase water

Table.2-Summary of Simulation Parameters for the Three
IOR Processes




SPE 75148 GEOLOGICALLY BASED SCREENING CRITERIA FOR IMPROVED OIL RECOVERY PROJECTS 9

Fig.1-Scales of Reservoir Heterogeneity (from Dryer
16
).

Lateral Heterogeneity
Low Moderate High
Wave-dominated delta Delta front mouth bar Meander belt
1
Barrier Core Proximal delta front
Barrier Shore Face (accretionary) Fluvially dominated delta
1
Sand Rich Sand Plain Tidal deposits
Mud-rich strand plain Back barrier
1
Shelf bars
Alluvial fans
Aeolian Fan delta Braided stream
Lacustrine delta
Wave-modified delta Distal delta front Tide-dominated delta
(distal) Wave-modified delta
(proximal)
Coarse-grained meander Back barrier
2
belt Fluvially dominated delta
2
Basin flooring turbidites
Braid delta Fine-grained meander belt
2
Submarine fans
2
1
single units
2
stacked systems
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

H
e
t
e
r
o
g
e
n
e
i
t
y
L
o
w
M
o
d
e
r
a
t
e
H
i
g
h


Fig.2-Tyler and Finley Clastic Heterogeneity Matrix(after
Tyler and Finley
3
).






.

Fig.3-Successful IOR projects plotted by project type on a Tyler
and Finley Heterogeneity Matrix



Fig.4-Tyler and Finley Heterogeneity Matrices showing areas
where different IOR processes are successful.
10 R. HENSON, A. TODD AND P. CORBETT SPE 75148


Fig.9-75% Net to Gross Synthetic Reservoirs, Sand in Light Grey and Shale in Dark Grey. Reservoirs Outlined in the Dotted Line Have Zero
Connectivity. x3 Vertical Exaggeration.





Fig.5-Failed IOR Projects Plotted by Project Type on a Tyler and
Finley Heterogeneity Matrix
Low High
1. Very high to total mobile 1. Low mobile oil recovery
oil recovery
2. Compartmentalised, uncontacted
3. Excellent EOR candidate and lateral bypassed oil
3. Targeted infill drilling
1. Very low mobile oil recovery
1. Low efficiency
2. Vertical bypassed mobile oil 2. Both uncontacted and bypassed
mobile oil
3. Profile modification waterflood
redesign, recompletions 3. Targeted infill drilling, waterflood
redesign, profile modification and
recompletions
L
o
w
H
i
g
h
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

H
e
t
e
r
o
g
e
n
e
i
t
y
Lateral Heterogeneity


Fig.6-Heterogeneity Matrix Showing Predictions for Successful
IOR projects (after Tyler and Finley
3
).


Fig.7-Simple Heterogeneity Model. An Injector and Producer Pair in a
Sand/Shale Reservoir.

SPE 75148 GEOLOGICALLY BASED SCREENING CRITERIA FOR IMPROVED OIL RECOVERY PROJECTS 11

Fig.8-Horizontal Injector and Producer Pair in a Simple Sand/Shale
Reservoir.



Fig.10-Steam Drive Recovery vs. Lateral and Vertical
Heterogeneity Indices.


Fig.11-Steam Drive Efficiency vs. Lateral and Vertical
Heterogeneity Indices.


Fig.12 Contours Showing the Variation in Efficiency of Simulated
Steam Drives (scale on bottom and right edges of diagram)
Superimposed on a Tyler and Finley Heterogeneity Matrix
showing the level of Heterogeneity in Successful Thermal
Projects (scale on top and left edges of diagram).


Fig.13a Oil Saturation 730 Days into a Steam Drive Through the
LHI: 0.10/VHI: 0.10 Reservoir.


Fig.13b Oil Saturation 730 Days into a Steam Drive Through the
LHI: 1.90/VHI: 1.45 Reservoir.






12 R. HENSON, A. TODD AND P. CORBETT SPE 75148

Figure 14a Temperature 3650 Days into a Steam Drive Through
the LHI: 0.10/VHI: 0.10 Reservoir.



Figure 14b Temperature 3650 Days into a Steam Drive Through
the LHI: 1.90/VHI: 1.45 Reservoir.




Fig.15-Polymer Flood Recovery vs. Lateral and Vertical
Heterogeneity Indices.



Fig.16-Polymer Flood Efficiency vs. Lateral and Vertical
Heterogeneity Indices.


Fig.17-Contours Showing the Variation in Efficiency of Simulated
Polymer Floods (scale on bottom and right edges of diagram)
Superimposed on a Tyler and Finley Heterogeneity Matrix
showing the level of Heterogeneity in Polymer Thermal Projects
(scale on top and left edges of diagram).


Fig.18a-Oil Saturation 2190 Days into a Polymer Flood Through1
the LHI: 0.55/VHI: 0.10 Reservoir.

SPE 75148 GEOLOGICALLY BASED SCREENING CRITERIA FOR IMPROVED OIL RECOVERY PROJECTS 13

Fig.18b Oil Saturation 2190 Days into a Polymer Flood
Through the LHI: 1.90/VHI: 1.45 Reservoir.


Fig.18c Oil Saturation 2190 Days into a Polymer Flood
Through the LHI: 1.00/VHI: 1.90 Reservoir.





Fig.19-Hydrocarbon WAG Injection Recovery vs. Lateral and
Vertical Heterogeneity Indices.


Fig.20-Hydrocarbon WAG Injection Efficiency vs. Lateral and
Vertical Heterogeneity Indices.


Fig.21a-Saturation 270 Days into a Hydrocarbon WAG Flood: LHI:
0.10/VHI: 0.10 Reservoir.


Fig.21b-Saturation 270 Days into a Hydrocarbon WAG Flood: LHI:
1.90/VHI: 1.45 Reservoir.







14 R. HENSON, A. TODD AND P. CORBETT SPE 75148
Fig.22-Steam Drive Screening Criteria

Description: Steam (usually consisting of ~ 80% steam and 20% superheated water) is injected into the reservoir at around 200
o
C.

Mechanisms: - heating the oil by conduction/ convection and so reducing the viscosity.
- oil swelling.
- steam stripping of lighter oil components.

Heterogeneity: The effectiveness of steam drives declines with increasing heterogeneity as the flood front is distorted and broken up by the shales as
baffles to flow. Heat loss from the injected steam to these shales is also an important control on efficiency. The higher the heterogeneity, the higher
the surface area of the shales and the more heat is lost to them.



Net to Gross: As net to gross is reduced, recovery and efficiency decreases at all levels of heterogeneity, as more of the steams energy is lost to non-
net shales. The same general pattern of efficient steam drive remains, whatever the level of net to gross, though at lower levels of efficiency.

Reservoir Dip: A reservoir dip of 10
o
decreases recovery; the pattern of efficient steam drives again matches the results seen in real world examples.
Steeply dipping reservoirs, coupled with large inter well distances, often results in the injector being below the effective limit for steam injection.

Limitations: Oil saturations must be high and the pay zone must be more than 20ft thick, to minimise heat losses to adjacent formations. Lighter less
viscous oil can be steam flooded but these usually respond better to water or hot water floods. As the steam is injected down the wellbore heat is lost,
reducing the temperature and effectiveness of the steam, below 1000m steam floods are ineffective.

Oil Properties Reservoir Characteristics
Oil Net Average Average
Gravity Viscosity Composition
*
Saturation Thickness
*
k Depth Temp.
(API) (mPa.s) (% PV) (m) (%) (mD) (m) (C)
> 7 < 200,000 > 35 > 18 > 100 < 1,240
14 16,701
NC
66
> 6
32.3 2,389 465
NC
*
Taken from Taber et al.,
2
NC = Not Critical Underlined values are the approximate mean for successful projects

SPE 75148 GEOLOGICALLY BASED SCREENING CRITERIA FOR IMPROVED OIL RECOVERY PROJECTS 15
Fig.23-Polymer Flood Screening Criteria

Description: A small amount of a high molecular weight, water-soluble, polyacrylamide or polysaccharide are added to the water in a
water-flood type operation.

Mechanisms: The polymer reduces the mobility of the flood water and therefore lowers the mobility ratio, improving microscopic
displacement efficiency. It also increases the viscosity of the displacing fluid to prevent water fingering and gravity slumping.

Heterogeneity: The effectiveness of a simulated polymer flood declines with increasing lateral heterogeneity as flood front is distorted
and broken up by baffles to horizontal flow.



Net to Gross: When the net to gross is reduced to 60%, mean recovery and efficiency declines. The range of heterogeneities over which a polymer
flood provides relatively good recovery at relatively high efficiencies also declines. When the net to gross is reduced to 45% the mean recovery and
efficiency declines further, but the range of good results does not change.

Reservoir Dip: A reservoir dip of, 10
o
reduces the injection rate and therefore recovery and efficiency decline. A steep reservoir dip causes the
simulations to fail.

Problems: The stability of polymers can be threatened by hydrolysis and attack by free radicals. Polymers can be retained in the rock by adsorption
on the surface of the pores, mechanical entrapment in pores and hydrodynamic retention. Velocity enhancement, where injected water races ahead of
the polymer slug, can reduce the effectiveness of the process. Polymers can also degrade at high temperatures.

Oil Properties Reservoir Characteristics
Oil Net Average Average
Gravity Viscosity Composition
*
Saturation Thickness
*
k Depth Temp.
(API) (mPa.s) (% PV) (m) (%) (mD) (m) (C)
> 15 > 0.02 > 27 NC > 4.4 > 7 > 240 > 100
28 < 190
NC
58 19.5 540 1,534 54
*
Taken from Taber et al.,
2
NC = Not Critical Underlined values are the approximate mean for successful projects
16 R. HENSON, A. TODD AND P. CORBETT SPE 75148
Fig.24-Hydrocarbon WAG Injection Screening Criteria

Description: Water is injected with gas as alternate slugs. By combining the two the sweep efficiency and conformance of both miscible and
immiscible flooding can be improved.

Mechanisms: Recovery is increased by oil swelling, viscosity reduction and limited crude oil vaporisation. If the reservoir conditions are right for the
gas injected, miscibility is developed. Water is injected to drive the oil towards the wellbore and prevent gas interfingering and override.

Heterogeneity: The effectiveness of the simulated hydrocarbon flood is unaffected by the level of heterogeneity with high recoveries and efficiencies
at all levels of heterogeneity.



Net to Gross: When the net to gross is reduced from 75%, hydrocarbon WAG injection recovery and efficiency also decline. The major control on
both recovery and efficiency at all levels of n/g is connectivity.

Reservoir Dip: A dip of 10
o
has no effect at any level of heterogeneity. When the dip is increased to 60
o
both the recovery and efficiency for WAG
injection increases at every level of heterogeneity, due to the reduction in water slumping. An updip injector would reduce gas override.

Limitations: A source of cheap gas is necessary, depth and pressure thresholds are required for the development of miscibility.
Problems: Dependent on the gas injected but can include the production of low pH water and gas escape to the atmosphere.

Oil Properties Reservoir Characteristics
Oil Net Average Average
Gravity Viscosity Composition
*
Saturation Thickness
*
k Depth Temp.
(API) (mPa.s) (% PV) (m) (%) (mD) (m) (C)
High fraction > 30
38 0.6
of C
2
to C
7
70
NC NC NC 2,560 NC
*
Taken from Taber et al.,
2
NC = Not Critical Underlined values are the approximate mean for successful projects