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Corruption: Its Definitions and Typologies

+r. Sha,i--ur-Rehman

Registrar) .uaid-i-A/am 0ni1ersity ".A0$) Near +i#lomatic 2ncla1e)"Islamabad) Pa3istan$
2mail4 sha,i-*45yahoo.com

Abstract
6orru#tion is one o, the central issue ,acing de1elo#ing state) be that dictatorshi# or democracies. 'nce seen as a
#roblem largely con,ined to the low #aid #eo#le) the e7#losion o, scandals in well established #oliticians)
bureaucrats and businessmen o1er the last two decades has demonstrated that no one is immune to the corrosi1e
im#act o, corru#tion. 8his #a#er is an e,,ort to bring together the de1elo#ed and de1elo#ing state) which
a##roaches the issue o, corru#tion ,rom a 1ariety o, di,,erent analytical #ers#ecti1es. Attention is de1oted to
such -uestions as how corru#tion is to de,ined) how it o#erates in #ractice) what its im#act on the society.
Keywords: 6orru#tion and its ty#ologies) Social #roblems) 9o1ernment and society) 0nited States o, America)
Pa3istan.

1. Introduction and Background
+e,initions are tools) not truth) their 1alues determined in use) not in term o, their a##ro7imation o, some
transcendental ideas:: +is#utes o1er a##ro#riate de,initions are thus #olitical con,licts
!
.
8his study was consisted o, two #hases. ;irst #hase was conducted in Pa3istan) where as the other one was in the
0nited States o, America. 8he study ,ocuses attention on the di,,erent ways in which certain #utati1e conditions
are constructed as the #roblem o, corru#tion by 3ey actors in society. 8hese actors are the elites ,rom the term o,
#ublic discourse about the #roblem. At the center o, this a##roach is an e7amination o, the de,inition o,
corru#tion em#loyed by 1arious elites grou#) with an em#hasis on the social contingency o, 3nowledge.
8his #a#er gi1es a brie, re1iew o, some de,initional models and ty#ologies a1ailable in the literature on the
corru#tion) with a demonstration) using inter1iew and some te7tual data) o, the ambiguity in1ol1ed in de,ining
corru#tion and the ,luidity o, the #henomenon o1er time. 8he #a#er then goes on to the include a discussion o,
the degree o, im#ortant gi1en by the 1arious elites grou#s to the #roblem o, corru#tion) see3ing to show how the
di,,erential ran3ing o, the #roblem) li3e the di,,erent de,initions) de#ends to the large e7tent on the con,iguration
o, #ower.

2. egalistic or !arrow Definitions
8he de,inition a##earing in the #a#er can be categori/ed in se1eral ways. 8hey can be grou#ed according to their
degree o, ,unctionality or s#eci,icity and according to the e7tent to which they em#hasi/e causes and
conse-uences) the conce#t o, the illegal e7change) the morality o, the act) and the 1iolation o, the #ublic trust.
8here are a number o, other statements) which de,ine corru#tion in terms) which are im#recise) or otherwise
unsatis,actory.
!. <6orru#tion is a many-,aceted conce#t) not necessarily to do with money changing hands. It may be abuse
o, #osition) ne#otism. Su##ose you are in some #osition in go1ernment ser1ices) and you use that #osition
,or #ri1ate interests that is corru#tion. I, you abuse your #ower to# ,urther your #ri1ate interest that is
corru#tion.=
2

2. <6orru#tion in my o#inion is any transaction in which a man gets bene,its which are not due.=

. <6orru#tion is the ta3ing o, some remuneration or bene,it o, some 3ind in order to do some thing that you
are su##osed to do any way as #art ,or your >ob.=
4

4. <6orru#tion includes as3ing ,or money e7#ecting money) reci#rocal ,a1or o, some 3ind-basically we are
tal3ing o, -uid-#ro--uo) whether in cash or 3ind. Ne#otism is a di,,erent matter-there?s is no -uid-#ro--uo
#rimarily.=
5

5. <8here are rules that go1ern the conduct o, go1ernment ser1ants. 8here is something called 9S6R
"9o1ernment Ser1ant?s 6onduct Rules$ which deals with a number o, things) including acce#ting gi,ts
beyond a certain 1alue. So its amount to corru#tion when you de1iate ,rom that code o, conduct.=
*

*. <6orru#tion is something which you are legally not entitled to get-whether it is #osted ,acto or not is

!
Sederberg) Petter 6. <8he Politics o, @eaning) Power and 27#lanation in the 6onstruction o, Social Reality= 8ucson
Ari/ona) 0ni1ersity o, Ari/ona Press !&A4.
2
A senior bureaucrat in Ser1ices and 9eneral Administration) 9o1ernment o, Balochistan) .uetta.

An Industrialist) Carachi
4
An Industrialist
5
@ember) 6hamber o, 6ommerce and Industry) .uetta.
*
A Retired Bureaucrat) 9o1ernment o, Balochistan) .uetta
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(ol.4) No.7) 2%!4

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irrele1ant. It is understood that to do a duty assigned to you ,or which you are #aid) you should not e7#ect
anything beyond that salary.=
!

7. <8he meaning o, the corru#tion is -uite e1ident ,rom the law. It is something indulges in by a #ublic ser1ant.
A #ublic ser1ant is said to be corru#t when he does something or does not do something ,or a consideration)
usually a material consideration. 8his is beyond the legal wage he earns.=
2

A. <In the strictly legalistic and administrati1e sense) which I thin3 is a reasonable a##roachD the de,inition o,
corru#tion is gi1en in the #re1ention o, corru#tion ordinance. 'ne o, the ingredients o, that which
constitutes a criminal o,,ense is called criminal misconduct. 8hat is de,ined there are 1arious ,orms o,
criminal misconduct are catalogued illustrati1ely. 'thers may di,,er) but I ,eel that to the #uritan) all things
seem im#ure. I, you are loo3ing at it ,rom the #oint o, Puritanism) then e1erything will loo3 corru#t.=

&. <8he sim#lest yardstic3 I used is that i, someone misuses an o,,ice he occu#ies ,or #ersonal gain) then that is
corru#tion.
4
=
!%. <As ,ar as I am concerned) it is -uite ob1ious what one means by corru#tion it is e7change o, money ,or
doing something that is #rohibited by the law or not doing something which the law re-uires one to do.=
5

!!. Su##ose an ins#ector o, a restaurant or o, a construction #ro>ect a building ins#ector o1erseeing a #ro>ect is
beha1ing wrongly and ta3e a bribe and e7tort someone who is engaged in #er,orming a ser1ice ,or a
go1ernment. 8hat ty#e o, misbeha1ior is corru#tion.=
*

!2. <It is basically the mani#ulation o, the go1ernment #rogramsEsystemEorgani/ation by #eo#le who are
,amiliar to the system) usually internally. Some time wor3ing in collusion with #eo#le e7ternal #ersonnel
who ha1e 1ested interest in that organi/ation.=
7

!. <@isuse o, o,,icial o, go1ernment #osition.=
A

!4. <+ishonesty is the ma>or source o, corru#tion) 1iolation o, #enal code) state and ,ederal laws) 1iolation o,
any #ublic #olicy that go1erns the conduct o, #ublic em#loyee or elected o,,icial is corru#tion.=
&

!5. <Someone who abuses the trust that is been #laced u#on him by the ta7 #ayer and #aying your salary ,or
doing wor3.=
!%

!*. <6orru#tion is #ro#er moti1ated #olicy misconduct. 9enerally #eo#le tal3 about them arrangement o, #olicy
license illegal o#eration and ta3e a regular #ass o,, and there is e7tortion where the #olice sha3e #eo#le
down to a1oid arrest or not arrest them.=
!!

8he narrow or legalistic de,inition lists a limited number o, acts under the category o, corru#tion and
a##ro7imates the de,inition o, corru#tion gi1en in law. this de,inition may sometimes be sim#le re,lection o, the
legal #ro1isions) but more commonly it is an e7#ression o, only o, the sentiments and ideas) i.e. the s#rits "as
against s#eci,ic #ro1isions$ o, the law ) and is there ,or legalistic) in a technical sense.
A better understanding can be head o, what is 3ind o, de,inition entails by e7amining the actual laws concerning
corru#tion. Fistorically) all societies are engaged to some e7tent in what duster calls Gthe legislation o, morality?
and Pa3istan is no e7ce#tion.
In the study) about two third o, the bureaucrats almost all the industrialist and about three -uarter o, the
#oliticians o,,er some ,orm o, narrow or legal de,initions. Among all the elites who ga1e narrow legalistic
de,initions) only a ,ew identi,ied more than three acts that deser1e the corru#t label. Bribery) misuse o, o,,ice
and misa##ro#riation o, #ublic resources) 3ic3 bac3s and commissions embe//lement were the most ,re-uently
cited e7am#le o, corru#tion.

!
+irector) Institute o, Public Administration) .uetta.
2
Hoint Secretary "2stablishment$) 9o1ernment o, Pa3istan) Islamabad

A Senator ,rom Balochistan) Islamabad.

4
A Politician and high ran3ing o,,ice bearer o, Pa3istan Peo#les Party.
5
A Politician and high ran3ing o,,ice bearer o, Pa3istan Peo#les Party.
*
+ennsion Iong) Hr. 6ounsel to the @ayor) 6ity o, New Ior3.
7
Ben>amin H. Redmond) Ins#ector 9eneral) 6ity o, Philadel#hia.
A
@ichael J. Je1y) ;irst Assistant 0nited States Attorney
&
Honathan Saidel) 6ity 6ontroller) Philadel#hia
!%
Anthony R. Radwans3i) +irector o, S#ecial In1estigations) 6ity o, Philadel#hia
!!
Pro,essor Hames H. ;y,e) +e#artment o, 6riminal Hustice) 8em#le 0ni1ersity.
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"lites w#o offer a narrow$ legalistic definition "%a&ples of corrupt acts cited by t#e&
Bureaucrats
Industrialists
Politicians
Bribery
@isa##ro#riation o, #ublic resources
Cic3bac3 and commissions
2mbe//lement
9i,ts) beyond a certain 1alue
Sale o, #ublic o,,ice
8he most ,re-uent ty#es o, corru#tion mentioned by the res#ondents contain a ,inancial or monetary com#onent
and in that sense suggest a narrow de,inition o, corru#tion. ;or e7am#le a senior bureaucrat who is the head o,
the #ublic sector cor#oration saysD
<6orru#tion means it is illegal grati,ication) that is) I ha1e a #ower to use my discretion in man?s ,a1or. Su##ose
without 3ee#ing #ublic interests in mind) I hel# some buyer ,rom whom I am buying things and he gi1es me
some money ,or that. So I am bene,iting by that and I am letting the cor#oration lose through that deal. @y act
has resulted in a #ecuniary loss to the cor#oration so that is corru#tion.
In the a1ailable literature) Cotecha and Kal3er) ,or e7am#le) discuss administrati1e 1igilantism as a ,orm o,
corru#tion characteri/ed by <corru#tion o, the s#irit= and resulting ,rom a lac3 o, commitment to democratic
#rinci#les.
!
Statements such as this re#resent inter#retations o, the #henomenon which are somewhat s#eciali/ed
s#eciali/ed and ,or this reason will not be considered here. Jegal de,initions are #rescribed and descri#ti1e. 8hey
are also #roblematic) in that they are di,,icult to use as a basis ,or com#arison between di,,erent >urisdictions.
Because laws) regulations) and en,orcement #olicies change #eriodically) they do not e1en #ro1ide a basis ,or
com#arison o, conditions within one agency during di,,erent historical #eriods.
Jegal de,initions are not widely used in the literature. @ost de,initions commonly a##lied do) howe1er) include a
legal element in that they state or im#ly a lower limit to corru#tion. 8he #oint at which a gi,t is considered to
re#resent a bribe demonstrates this limit.
+e,initions em#hasi/ing the conce#t o, <illegal e7change= tend to de,ine this limit according to the moti1ation s
o, the #eo#le in1ol1ed in the e7change. @isner #resents a ty#ical de,inition o, this sort and de,ines corru#tion as4
<the abuse or illegal use o, o,,ice ,or the direct or indirect #ecuniary gun o, the indi1idual.= 8he illegality o, a
gi,t is determined by whether ,riendshi# or the o,,icial #osition o, the reci#ient was the moti1ation ,actor in the
e7change.
<8he main element o, a corru#t transaction is the agreement to commit an illegal act or) at least an) ethical act o,
commission) omission) or ,orbearance.=
2

@c@ullan?s de,inition states that4 <a #ublic o,,icial is corru#t i, he acce#ts money or money?s worth ,or doing
something that he is under a duty not to so) or to e7ercise a legitimate discretion ,or im#ro#er reasons.=

8he best de,inition o, this ty#e is #ro1ided by Nye) <it is a ,unctional one and is s#eci,ically intended ,or
com#arati1e use on cross-cultural situations) it is #otentially 1aluable in describing some ,orms o, corru#tion=.
A number o, de,initions recogni/e the im#ortance o, non-monetary ,actors in the corru#tion. Price) who #laces
hea1y em#hasis on moti1ation) rather than action) states that4 <corru#tion is ty#i,ied by the beha1ior directed
towards the goal o, ,inancial ad1antages "and sometimes tangentially enhanced status$=. Souryal notes that4 <A
corru#t act must be recogni/ed as a 1iolation o, common interest ,or s#ecial ad1antage=)
4
but does not suggest
that this ad1antage must be ,inancial. Ault man?s de,inition includes beha1ior designed to obtain money <or any
other #ersonally desirable rewards=.
@any de,initions o, the <illegal e7change= 1ariety recogni/e the notion o, corru#tion as 1iolation o, the #ublic
trust. Jegal de,initions ,all into this category in that they concei1e o, corru#t #ractices as those) which 1iolate the
law o, a regulation carrying the ,orce o, the law. (iolating o, the #ublic trust may be considered in a more
general sense as 1iolation o, rules) or ,ormali/ed norms) o, beha1ior. @anning and Redlinger a##ly this 3ind o,
de,inition in stating that) <By corru#tion we mean a de#arture ,rom ideali/ed norms o, #rocedures and) in
addition) a de#arture ,rom the o,,icially #resented 1ersion o, the #rocedure=. According to this conce#t)
corru#tion does not necessarily in1ol1e either an illegal act or ,inancial gain to any #arty. Husti,ication to this
a##roach is gi1en is a discussion) which suggests that beha1ior in1ol1ing de#artures ,rom o,,icial #rocedures) is)
in ,act) the basis o, more ob1ious ,orms o, corru#tion. In the abo1e de,inition) the em#hasis is on the corru#tion)
which is administrati1ely induced. 8o @anning and Redlinger) corru#tion is seen as a logical conse-uence o, a
re-uirement that o,,icers attain goals) which are unrealistic in terms o, the ina##ro#riate rules) which are

!
Cotecha) Canti 6. and Hames J. Kal3er. <Police (igilantes=) Society) !&7*
2
National 6ouncil on 6rime and +elin-uency) Jaw) 2n,orcement 6ouncil. <',,icial 6orru#tion4 A Position Statement)=
6rime and +elin-uency) !&74.

@c@ullan) @. <A 8heory o, 6orru#tion)= Sociological Re1iew) !&*!.

4
Souayal) Sa,wat S. <Stages o, 6orru#tion)= ) !&75.
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#rescribed ,or the achie1ement o, those goals.
@ost o, the de,initions o, the <causes and the conse-uences= 1ariety result ,rom organi/ational and other
structural theories. 8hese discuss corru#tion in the conte7t o, de1iant beha1ior brought about by bureaucratic
dys,unction) the im#ossibility o, #olice mandate) and the contradictions inherent in the role o, the #olice in
society. 8he most im#ortant ,eature o, these analyses is that corru#tion is not considered or de,ined in and o,
itsel,. Rather it is 1iewed as a conse-uence o, a much broader #roblem L the <#olice #roblem.=
!
8hese analyses
tend to discuss corru#tion as one ,orm o, #olice criminality) and they either do not #resent concrete de,initions at
all) or #resent those) which are loosely de,ined in terms o, their u##er or lower limits. Because o, this) they are
not generally use,ul within a s#eci,ic o#erational ,ramewor3.

'. Broad or (oralistic Definitions
Another grou# o, de,initions ,ocuses on the <morality o, an act=. 8hey are #rimarily concerned with moral
choice and the #articular set o, 1alues used to sanction or condemns a corru#t act.
!7. <According to me) 6orru#tion is anything that is dece#ti1e) that is 1iolation o, a basic human code o,
conduct. Kithin this 3ind o, a broad de,inition we can include gi1ing or ta3ing o, bribes doing undue ,a1ors
to your ,amily members) misuse o, o,,ice ,or #ersonal gain) embe//lement) ,raudulent beha1ior) all this is
corru#tion.=
2

!A. <6orru#tion includes a whole lot o, illegal and moral acti1ities including ta3ing o, bribes. ;a1oritism)
ne#otism) misuse o, o,,ice machinery embe//lement) all these things would be corru#tion.=

!&. <Any consideration or remuneration or anything else -uid-#ro--uo ,or anything done by a #ublic ser1ant
amounts to corru#tion. And corru#tion needs not to be #urely money.=
4

2%. <6orru#tion means much more than ta3ing a bribe. ;a1oritism and ne#otism are both #art o, corru#tion.
6orru#tion can?t be sim#ly con,ined to ta3ing o, money.=
5

2!. It occurs in widely 1arying ,orms. 6orru#tion does not mean >ust e7changes o, money. Fel#ing one?s
relati1es) getting them >obs or doing those ,a1ors o, some 3ind or the other) all come under corru#tion.=
*

22. <6orru#tion does not con,ine only to gi1ing or ta3ing money. 8here are 1arious ,orms o, corru#tion which
area usually indulge in. e.g. ne#otism are se#arate categories) these are #art o, corru#tion.=
7

2. <6orru#tion ,or me is 1iolation o, moral conduct. It can come in 1arious ,orms. Bribery is only one ,orm but
corru#tion does not ha1e to in1ol1e money. +oing an out o, turn ,a1or to a ,riend or a ,amily member by
misusing one?s #osition is also corru#tion.=
A

24. <6orru#tion is abuse o, #ower ,or #ersonal gain. Sometimes it is related to ,inancial gain) sometimes related
to ad1ancement o, #osition. It is 1iolation o, trust and oath o, the o,,ice where there is a clearly an
obligation to #er,orm certain degrees o, res#onsibility.=
&

25. <6orru#tion is where any #ublic o,,icial whether it is a tra,,ic agent) >udge or a commissioner o, agency uses
go1ernment system to bene,it him or hersel, illegally at the e7#ense o, ta7#ayers. Khether it is ta3ing a
bribe or gi1ing undue ,a1or.=
!%

2*. <6orru#tion to me means #ersons engaged in unlaw,ul acts to bene,it themsel1es.=
!!

27. <'ne who acce#ts something o, 1alue in return ,or his own #ersonal bene,itM=
!2

2A. <Khene1er a #ower holder who is charged with doing certain things i.e. who is res#onsible ,unctionary or
o,,ice holder) is by monetary or other rewards not legally #ro1ided ,or) induce to ta3e actions which ,a1or
whoe1er #ro1ides the reward and thereby does damage to the #ublic and its interests.=
!

2&. <Khen you tal3 about corru#tion) you are loo3ing at #ublic o,,icial and #ublic ser1ants regard to what le1el)
#er,orming a tas3s) outside o, the guideline) outside the #olices and #rocedures) outside the law and they are
doing it ,or illegal #ur#oses ,or sel, grati,ication.=
!4

%. <It is a lac3 o, moral character) lac3 o, integrity) integrity that #ublic has entrusted with in ci1ili/ed society)

!
Kilson) Hames .. <6orru#tion4 8he Shame o, the States) New Ior3 (intage Boo3s) !&**.
2
6hie, Re#orter) 0rdu News Pa#er) Pa3istan

2ditor) 0rdu News Pa#er) Pa3istan

4
Fonorable Hudge) Balochistan Figh 6ourt.
5
Retired Hudge) Su#reme 6ourt o, Pa3istan
*
A Senior Hudge) Su#reme 6ourt o, Pa3istan.
7
Retired Hudge) Balochistan Figh 6ourt.
A
Resident 2ditor) 2nglish News Pa#er
&
6harles (. 6am#oso) 6hie, o, Internal A,,airs) Police +e#artment) 6ity
!%
Robert Brac3man) S#ecial 6ounsel to 6om#troller) 6ity o, New Ior3.
!!
Hohn B. Folmes) Hr. Farris 6ounty +istrict Attorney
!2
+onald C. Follingsworth) +irector) ',,ice ,or Public Sa,ety and +rug Policy) 6ity o, Fouston
!
. +a1id Bur3e) 6orru#tion Pre1ention) +e#artment o, In1estigation) 6ity o, New Ior3
!4
6.'. <Brad= BRA+;'R+) 6hie, o, Police) Fouston
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and the indi1idual whate1er reason abuses that integrity trust) which is im#osed by the community.=
!

!. <6orru#tion is systematic illegality in #ublic em#loyment. Brea3ing a law being #aid by ta7 #ayers whether
it would be an em#loyee in the city de#artment o, licenses and ins#ections who acce#t a #ayo,, to a##ro1e a
building #ermit or a #olice o,,icer who acce#t a #ayo,, ,rom a motorist to a1oid a tic3et.=
2

2. <6orru#tion is de,ined as misuse o, authority towards #ersonal gain. So i, a o,,icer use his o,,ice to ma3e
money himsel,) use his o,,ice to get into mo1ie theater ,or ,ree or get ,ree good ser1ices.=

. <6orru#tion is de,ined as misuse o, the #ublic #ower) o,,ice or authority ,or #ri1ate bene,it through bribery)
e7tortion) in,luence #eddling) ne#otism) ,raud) s#eed money or embe//lement.=
4

Pro,essor Hac3 9reen) ,or e7am#le) discusses corru#tion within the broader ,ramewor3 o, integrity and 1iews
corru#t acts as re,lecting the moral standards o, society at large. Although legal codes are usually #roducts o,
com#le7 negotiation) among dominant elites o1er issue o, morality and moral boundaries) the arrow de,inition is
e7#ressed in language that is o,ten instrumental) rationalistic) and e1ens a moralistic. 8he board de,initions) on
the other hand) includes as#ects identi,y by the law as corru#tion) but o,ten goes beyond a legalistic 1iew
articulating an abstract) amor#hous morality) and list a large number o, acts under the category o, corru#tion.
In the study only the third o, the bureaucrats) about one -uarter o, the #oliticians and a negligible number o,
industrialists gi1e a board de,inition in contrast >udges and >ournalists o1erwhelmingly #resented broad
de,initions o, corru#tion and on the a1erage listed about ,i1e di,,erent acts under the corru#t category. In their
1iew gi,t gi1ing ne#otism) cheating) ,raud) lying) lobbing and adulteration o, ,ood all amounted to corru#tion.
Some o, them introduced another ty#e o, corru#tion <intellectual corru#tion o, soul= and moral corru#tion. In
their 1iew <doing anything against your conscience ,or a consideration is corru#tion) whate1er is the
consideration. Sometime there wouldn?t be anything changing hands) but you ta3e decisions because somebody
belongs to your religion) your caste) your tribe) etc that is intellectual corru#tion.=
A >ournalistic sought to widen the nation o, corru#tion beyond most other elites understanding o, the term as
e7#ressed in inter1iews ,or the study4 <we need to tal3 about corru#tion in the ordinary #eo#le. 'ur #oliticians
and bureaucrats ha1e increased the #eo#les de#endence on the state) con1erted our #eo#le into #arasites. Peo#le
ha1e to come to e7#ect the state to #ro1ide them e1erything chea# and subsidi/ed) without e1en demanding it.
Somebody comes and says) <I ha1e ,aced a calamity) my houses is gone. 9i1e me a hundred thousand ru#ees.
Peo#le ha1e turns into beggars that are corru#tion o, soul. So what our #oliticians and administrators ha1e done
is instead o, sto##ing with corru#ting themsel1es) they ha1e corru#ted the soul o, Pa3istan) corru#ted our #eo#le
at the grassroots le1el.=
Politicians did not thin3) ,or ob1ious reasons) that interest lobbing is a ty#e o, corru#tion) while many o, the
media elites tended to re,er to a wide range o, de1iations ,rom what is considered to be normati1e beha1ior as
corru#t. A senior >udge with e7#erience o, dealing with corru#tion cases similarly e7#ressed the ,ollowing
understanding o, corru#tion) <it is im#lies anything that is not straight ,orward. In nature there are corru#ted
things ,rom which arises corru#ted mentality. A #erson who is not thin3ing straight or acting in a straight
,orward manner is considered corru#t.=
"lites w#o offered a board$&oralistic definition "%a&ple of corrupt acts cited by t#e&
Hudges
Hournalists
Bribery
Ne#otismE,a1oritism
9i,t gi1ing
6heating) ,raud) dishonest
2mbe//lement
Cic3bac3 and commissions
Intellectual corru#tion
6orru#tion o, the soul
In the de1elo#ment literature) Bell best states this 1iew by describing 1arious ,orms o, the corru#tion as being
limited to G#etty gi,ts?) and describe such #ractices as bring sanctioned by 1alues o, sub-culture. Sourayal
discusses the use o, de,inition o, corru#tion dri1e ,rom #olitical science) but) in re>ecting) concludes that the
#rinci#al identi,ying the characteristics o, the #henomenon is that it in1ol1e indi1idual choice. A distincti1e
,eature o, this structuralist a##roach to the morality o, corru#tion is the considerable em#hasis #laced on a
distinction made in administrati1e subculture between Gclean? and Gdirty? gra,t. 8his distinction is generally
considered in the thesis to be o, ,undamental im#ortance in describing how o,,icial 1alue systems are able to
countenance certain ,orms o, corru#tion.

!
Horge 9. 6ru/-Aedo) +irector) ;inance and Administration +e#artment) 6ity o, Fouston.
2
8homas 9ibbsons >unior) Philadel#hia In-uirer

Pro,essor Hac3. 9reene) 6ollege o, 6riminal Hustice) Northeastern 0ni1ersity) Boston.

4
Pauline 8amesis) Program ,or Accountability N 8rans#arency) @anagement +e1elo#ment and 9o1ernance +i1ision) 0nited
Nations +e1elo#ment #rogram) New Ior3.
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*!
Because o, the many di,,iculties in1ol1ed in the construction o, the wor3able de,inition o, corru#tion) many
im#ortant authorities ha1e sim#ly a1oided any attem#t to ,ormulate a #recise de,inition. Although #roblem e7ist
in determining how corru#tion di,,er ,rom other ,orms o, misconduct) the real #roblem lies in the inability o,
any o, the de,initions currently used to delineate the lower le1el o, corru#tion. 0ntil this di,,iculty is resol1ed)
the -uestion) crucial to the de1elo#ment o, any set o, corru#tion control #olices) o, whether the acce#tance o, a
ti# or gratuity constitutes a corru#t #ractice) will be unanswered.
@any o, the de,initions cited abo1e recogni/e that corru#t act can be ty#ed in a number o, ways. 8he distinction
made between Gclean? and Gdirty? gra,ts) ,or e7am#le) re#resents a categori/ation according to how the
administrati1e subculture >udges a corru#t act.
8y#ologies are actually schema by which distinction can be made within grou#s o, corru#t acts. 8y#ologies are
use,ul in identi,ying relationshi#s) which e7ist between di,,erent ,orms o, corru#t act or beha1ior. @any
ty#ologies) which are stated) im#licitly or e7#licitly) in the literature ,all into ,i1e #rinci#al grou#s. 8hese are
ty#ologies ,ormulated according to the actors in1ol1es) the acts themsel1es) and the degree o, organi/ation o, the
acts) the source o, illegal #ayments) and the social and organi/ational conditions) which su##ort corru#tion. As
with categories o, de,initions) these grou#ing o1erla# and can in no way be considered as mutually e7clusi1e.
@any o, the ty#ologies ,ocusing on the actors in1ol1es in an illegal transaction classi,y acts according to
whether the corru#ter was a ,ellow o,,icer o, a #ri1ate citi/en. Beigel?s ty#ology) ,or e7am#le) considers corru#t
acts as either internal or e7ternal. 27ternal acts in1ol1e #ri1ate citi/en and are subdi1ided into #ay-o,, to the
#olice ,rom otherwise res#ectable citi/ens who ha1e 1iolated the law) #ay-o,, #ro,essional criminals) and
gratuities. Internal acts in1ol1e corru#tion within law en,orcement agencies and concern #ay-o,, o, one 3ind or
another between o,,icers and bribes #aid as a #rere-uisite ,or >oining the ,orce. 8he internal acts o, corru#tion
that begel describe is <strict adherence to the code o, silence concerning e7ternal corru#tion=. 8o Beigel) secrecy
is a de,initi1e ,eature o, corru#tion.
8he ty#ologies which #ay #articular attention to the actors in1ol1ed in corru#t transactions are those which
em#hasi/e moti1ations. 8he outstanding ty#ologies in the grou# are those 1iew corru#tion o, the indi1idual as a
conse-uence o, coo#tation into a de1iant subculture or as a beha1ior encourage by ongoing #ressure e7erted by
an immediate re,erence grou#.
@ost sociological and interactionist theories em#hasi/e the im#ortance o, a Gcode? o, beha1ior as the outward
mani,estation o, grou# 1alues. @any interactionist theories stress the im#ortance o, a gradual acce#tance o,
grou# 1alues and beha1ior) which are elsewhere considered as de1iant. 8hese theories ha1e been used as a basis
,or the conce#t o, a Gmoral career? which is used to trace the #rogress o, the corru#t o,,icer through a series o,
stages which re#resenting increasing le1el o, de1iance.
A number o, ty#ologies ,ocus on the actors in1ol1ed in the corru#t #ractices by listening o,,enses according to
their seriousness. @ost o, these recogni/e the Gmoral career? conce#t) at least im#licitly. All such ty#ologies are
moralistic in orientation. 8he ma>or ty#ologies which can be grou#ed within this classi,ication are those where4
!. Act and actors in1ol1ed)
2. Norms 1iolated)
. +egree o, #eer grou# su##ort)
4. 27tent to which de1iance is organi/ed) and
5. Nature o, de#artment reaction.
8he last ma>or ty#ology) used to draw attention to the moti1ations o, the actors) which includes an essentially
#sychological 1iew o, the corru#tion #rocess. +istinguishing between corru#tion and ine,,iciency) it states that
corru#t acts are) abo1e all #ersonal e7#eriences and that e1ol1ement in them re-uires the e7ercise o, #ersonal
choice. 8his ty#ology is a #sychological one) which re,lects attitude o, mind. 6ategories range ,rom a G#re-
corru#tion? stage) in which an honest o,,icer becomes susce#tible) to <4 benediction)= at which #oint the o,,icer
has made a com#lete ad>ustment to a corru#t li,e style. 'ther stages are <e7#erimentation=) <accustoming=)
<conce#tuali/ation= and <im#ro1isation=.
8he latter two are characteri/ed by acce#tance o, corru#tion as wides#read social #henomenon and de1elo#ment
o, a state o, mind rece#ti1e and re-uire the in1ol1ement o, other o,,icers.

). Conclusions
A constituent #art o, the de,initions is the allocation o, s#ace o, #roblem o, corru#tion by 1arious elites in their
res#ecti1e agendas o, societal #roblems. 8his is so because the elites selection o, a #articular #roblem ,ir s#ecial
attention ",rom a large uni1erse o, social #roblems$ along with actual de,initions o, the debated #henomenon)
suggest #ossible 1ariations in #olicy a##roaches. As #ong suggests) con,licts between 1arious claim ma3ers are
sometimes not o1er whether a condition should be identi,ied as a social #roblem) but o1er which #roblem is
Gmore critical) more urgently in need o, o,,icial attention) but more deser1ing o, resource allocation?. ;urther the
degree o, im#ortance accorded to the #roblem ser1es s#eci,ic instrumental as well as symbolic ,unctions ,or the
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*2
di,,erent elites.=
!

A##ro7imately three -uarters o, the entire *% res#ondent in this study either considered corru#tion to the most
im#ortant #roblem or one o, the ma>or #roblems. Khile a ma>ority o, >udges) >ournalists) and #oliticians labeled
corru#tion as the Gmost im#ortant? #roblem ,acing the country) a large numbers o, bureaucrats and industrialists
denied that it was a ma>or #roblem.
2mbedded in this designatory acti1ity is what calls as am#li,ication and eu#hemi/ation #ractices by which
in,luential elites attem#t either to ele1ate or diminish the seriousness o, a #roblem. 8he term am#li,ication and
eu#hemi/ation are not used to suggest any debun3ing o, the elites claims by com#aring them to some Gob>ecti1e
truths?. 8hey are merely meant to indicate the ,raming de1ice by some grou#s in order to em#hasi/e the #ercei1e
undesirability o, certain conditions in society.
Hudges and >ournalists) who largely gi1e moralistic de,initions o, corru#tion) tended also to engage in
am#li,ication by #ro1iding seemingly e7aggerated accounts o, corru#tion and by de#icting it the most im#ortant
#roblem. In this case who am#li,ied the #roblem articulated a Gdoctrine o, horrible conse-uences?
2
>udges and
>ournalists considered it to be the most im#ortant #roblem because among other things it destroys ci1ili/ed li,eD
threatens democratic institutions and 1ery way o, li,eD and undermined the 1alue system. A >udge o, high court
e7#lains in the ,ollowing words.
<6orru#tion is increasing ra#idly in all wal3s o, li,e and has become the most serious #roblem. An attem#t to
underestimate corru#tion is not a wise thing and will ha1e an ad1erse a,,ect on democracies. Also the entire
moral ,abric o, our country is torn to #ieces because o, corru#tionD our 1alues ha1e eroded to a great e7tant.=
@ost o, the #oliticians too e7#ressed an am#li,ied 1iew o, corru#tion as a corru#tion. 8he o##osition #oliticians)
by contracting a magni,ied image o, the #roblem see3 to delegitimi/e the e7isting regime) while the ruling #arty
leaders) also by according corru#tion similar im#ortance) try to sustain continued legitimacy. 8he latter
ob>ecti1e is o,ten achie1ed by #ortraying themsel1es as moral crusaders and allies o, the under #ri1ileged classes
who are committed to the cleaning o, #ublic li,e.
Bureaucrats and industrialists) neither whom are #articularly concerned about their legitimacy in the eye)
o1erwhelmingly asserted that corru#tion is not a ma>or #roblem. ;urther) by >oining the anti corru#tion rhetoric
they would be acting against their own interests L the bureaucrats) because when e1er corru#tion gains
im#ortance in the #ublic discourse) it is their grou# that becomes the target o, clean u# cam#aigns) and the
industrialists) because the status--uo according to their own statements) hel# them in achie1ing their ,inancial
ob>ecti1es without the #rocedural hassles o, go1ernment control. Actually corru#tion is seen only as an
additional #rice on ser1icesD and it is claimed that corru#tion has) in,ect) bene,icial conse-uence ,or o1ercoming
other Gmore im#ortant #roblem? such low #roducti1ity and ine,,iciency. Bureaucrats ha1e also) similarly)
ele1ated to a more im#ortant status then corru#tion) issue in which they ha1e no #ersonal or grou# interest at
sta3e) such as ethnic and religious con,licts.

!
Pong) Raymond K. <Social #roblems as a con,lict #rocess= in Hames Folstem and 9ale @iller "eds$ "!&A&$) #ers#ecti1es on
social #roblems4 A Research Annual ) (ol. !. 9reen Khich) 684 HAI Press ##. "5&-7*$.
2
Schur) 2dwin @) <8he Politics o, +e1iance4 Stigma contest and the uses o, #ower) 2nglewood 6li,,s NH Prentice Fall !&A%
# !45
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(ol.4) No.7) 2%!4

*
Table 1: *ating of corruption as a social proble& by elites
"lite group !ot a &a+or proble&$ot#er
&a+or proble&
,ne of t#e &a+or
proble&$ot#er &a+or
proble&s
(ost i&portant
proble&
Bureaucrats
"nO25$
!5D
religious con,licts) ethnicity
5D
#o1ertyD o1er#o#ulationD
illiteracy
5D
reasons corrodes our
culturesD retard
#rogress
Industrialists
"nO%5$
2D
corru#tion has #ositi1e e,,ects.
'ther ma>or #roblems
Jow #roducti1ity)
unem#loyment) ine,,iciency
2D
#o1erty) o1er#o#ulation)
underem#loyment
!D
ma3es country in
com#etiti1e in the
global mar3et
Hudges
"nO!%$
%D 4D
regionalism) se#aration
mo1ements) o1er
#o#ulation)
unem#loyment
*D
destroys ci1ili/ed
li,e) threats
democracy) threatens
the 1alue system
Hournalists
"nO%A$
%D D
#o1erty) in,lation
5D
+isaster ,or
democracy) threatens
our ways o, li,e)
sub1ersi1e rule o,
law) e1il ,acing the
nation
Politicians
"nO!2$
2D
#o1erty) communal 1iolence
4D
under em#loyment)
ethnicity)
*D
8hreatens our 1ery
e7istence)
marginali/ed
de1elo#ment) distorts
wel,are goals.
NO*% !& !A 2

-. *eferences
@c@ullan) @. <A theory o, 6orru#tion.= Sociological Re1iew) !&*!.
National 6ouncil on 6rime and +elin-uency) Jaw 2n,orcement 6ouncil. <',,icial 6orru#tion4 A Position
Statement)= 6rime and +elin-uency) !&74.
Pong) Raymond K. <Social #roblems as a con,lict #rocess= in Hames Folsterm and 9ale @iller "eds$ "!&A&$)
Pers#ecti1e on social #roblems4 A Research Annual) (ol. !. 9reenwich) 684HAI Press ##"5&-7*$
Schur) 2dwin @) <8he Politics o, +e1iance4 Stigma contest and the uses o, #ower) 2nglewood 6li,,s NH Prentice
Fall !&A% # !45
Sederberg) Petter 6. <8he Politics o, @eaning) Power and 27#lanation in the construction o, Social Reality=
8ucson Ari/ona) 0ni1ersity o, Ari/ona Press !&A4.
Souayal) Sa,wat S. <Stages o, 6orru#tion)= ) !&75
Kilson Hames .. <6orru#tion4 8he Shame o, the States) New Ior3 (intage Boo3s) !&**

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