DOI: 10.7763/IPEDR. 2012. V51.

43
Defining the Mind in Early Celestial Masters Daoism: Historical
Shifts in Early Daoist and Chinese Thought
Sara Elaine Neswald
+

Soochow University Taiwan
Abstract. The present paper seeks to define the concept of mind/xin in the early Celestial Masters tradition,
tracing the relationship between the mind and its associated functions and expressions: emotions/qing, inner-
nature/xing and intention/yi. Analysis of texts from the early Celestial Masters canon, Zhengyi fawen
, reveals that the earliest Celestial Masters manuscripts contains concepts of mind, emotions, will and inner
nature that are inconsistent with those found in the works of other scholars and thinkers such as Heshang
Gong (latter Han dynasty), Wang Bi (Jin dynasty), and later Daoist thinkers (Tang through Qing). The closest
affinity appears to be with concepts presented in late Warring States and Early Han texts, such as Huangdi
neijing lingshu and Guodian Confucian and Daoist manuscripts. However, concepts found in 5
th
-6
th
centuries
Celestial Masters manuscripts begin to draw closer to those presented by Sun Simiao and Tang dynasty inner
alchemists. The author tentatively concludes that the relationship of these concepts within the Celestial
Masters tradition itself appears to shift between the 3
rd
and the 6
th
centuries, following a trajectory previously
delineated by the author in reference to Daoist and proto-Daoist works of the 3
rd
c. BCE to 8
th
c. CE.
(Neswald 2012a) This suggests a culture-wide rather than sect-specific phenomenon may be at work.
Keywords: Daoism, Mind, Emotions, Inner Nature, Celestial Masters.
1. Introduction
The Guodian Confucian text Xingzhimingchu (6
th
3
rd
c. BCE) presents an inner-nature/xing
that is allied with emotions/qing and at odds with mind/xin . The correlates of Huangdi neijing
lingshu (DZ 1020) (hereinafter Lingshu; 770-220 BCE) generally agree. Han commentary
Daode zhangju (ascribed to Heshang Gong , 2
nd
c. CE) appears to possess its own set of
correlates that are not entirely consistent with Lingshu; inner nature appears at times emergent from
emotions/qing and at times a rarified element emergent from a purified mind/xin. Wang Bis 3
rd
c.
commentary, Daode zhenjingzhu , distinguishes a common and a rarified inner nature. Sun
Simiao (581-682?) sees inner nature as a kind of pure and original soul that emerges from
mind/xin when mind/xin frees itself of desires and worries; inner nature remains distinct from mind/xin. By
the Tang dynasty, Daoists such as Wu Yun (d. 778) see inner nature as an element of the emotional,
instinctual mortal disposition, but distinguish another soul-like element (shenming). By the 13
th
century,
further transformations have infused the concept of mind: Bai Yuchan (d. 1227) fully identifies
mind and inner nature, and even states that mind/xin IS inner nature/xing. These cases show distinct
understandings of how mind, emotions and inner nature relate, and present an historical trajectory in these
shifts (Cf. Neswald 2012); sect specific differences also present.
The early Celestial Masters tradition presents a case in which a shift in of concepts of mind/xin, inner
nature/xing and intention/yi emerge over time. Tracts of the early Celestial Masters canon, Zhengyi fawen
, display a closer affinity to Lingshu and to certain Guodian tracts, while later Celestial Masters
manuscripts begin to present concepts that draw closer to those found in the work of inner alchemists such as
Sun Simiao. Wu Yun, a Tang scholar trained in the Celestial Masters tradition, retains elements of the early
tradition, while embracing various aspects of mind and inner nature that appear to have developed in
response to influences from Buddhism and other Daoist influences.(Ibid) The present research suggests that
the relationship of mind, emotions, intention and inner nature within the Celestial Masters tradition itself

+
Corresponding author. Tel.: ++886 0988 200097; fax: +886 02.
E-mail address: chinesebodytech@gmail.com.
203
appears to shift between the 3rd and the 6th centuries, partially influenced by lexical shifts in society at large.
This suggests that culture-wide rather than sect-specific phenomena may be at work.
2. What is the Nature of Mind in China?
2.1. The Chinese Intellectual Toolbox
According to scholars in Philosophy of Mind, the concept of mind should be considered to include
minds associated functions and expressions (Lakoff and Johnson 1999, p. 4). In the Chinese tradition,
minds associated functions and expressions include qing/emotions, xing/inner-nature, jue/intellect,
lingshen/spirituality, zhi
1
/awareness, shi/consciousness, will/zhi
2
, intention/yi, etc. The network of related
concepts through which Chinese Daoists understand the word xin, include a) ideas of mind-body integration,
b) a variety of psycho-physical elements including qi/vital-essence), jing/conceptual-essence, shen/divine-
essence,
1
xing/inner-nature, qing/emotions, c) elements of intellect and spirit such as zhi/intellect),
jue/comprehension, zhijing/ultimate-spirituality, shenming/divine-illumination, Dao/Way or Godhead,
wushen/internal-spirits, and d) embodied cosmic elements such as wuxing/five-phases and yin/yang (cosmic
complementary phases, negative and positive, respectively). The term xin maintains no easily identifiable,
fixed meaning: one must eke meanings out through careful readings of each text, beginning with an
understanding of the inter-related concepts (above) as they present in the Chinese cultural framework, e.g., in
the series of contexts in which the term is used and understood in Chinese history. The relationship of
xin/mind to inner nature/xing and intention/yi forms one aspect in which inherent meaning of the term
xin/mind appears to diverge. (Cf. Neswald 2012)
3. Where is the Inner Nature in Early Celestial Masters Daoism?
The concept of the inner nature/xing is intimately entwined with the concept of mind/xin throughout
most of Chinese philosophy and religion. Indeed, it is largely in order to manage human nature that mind/xin
becomes significant. Throughout Chinese history, Daoism and Confucianism have thus worried over the
basic nature of human nature. Earlier tracts such as the Guodian text Xingchuzhiming and the Lingshu
associate inner nature/xing with emotions/qing, and place it in opposition to mind/xin. Inner nature/xing
constitutes a force which mind/xin must struggle to suppress. Wang Bi (3
rd
c. CE) and Guo Xiang (2
nd
c. CE)
devoted many pages to these issues. From the 13
th
century forward, cultivating mind/xin and revealing inner
nature/xing formed a single process that was central to Daoist self-cultivation and transcendence. Daoist
speculations held inner nature/xing to be key to Daoist goals. Startling, then, is the neglect of the term xing in
early Celestial Masters tracts: among the twelve Zhengyi fawen manuscripts surveyed, the character xing
only occurs once . A brief exploration of the canons contents may explain this neglect.
The idea of human or Inner Nature
2
is normally indicated by the character xing ; the character xing
occurs only once in this text and does not appear to hold a clear pedagological position in any of the early
Zhengyi texts analyzed to date; however, the idea of human nature and human behaviour are clearly
emphasized. In Wailuyi, in each instance where issues of quality of mind or human nature are implied,
individual traits (honesty, faith, greed, desire) are named in relation to the nature of Mind. The concept of
Inner Nature is described by a modifier-plus-xin, (shanxin, haoxin, xiexin, etc.). Inner Nature as a concept
does not appear to be expressed by the character xing ; rather, the concept of Inner Nature appears to be
fused with concept of mind/xin. This suggests that xing retains the Guodian Confucian association with
qing . The lone instance of the character xing appears in the phrase . If xing is read qing (cf. Chen
Ning), the phrase reads, If the individual is of correct emotional disposition , peaceful of will/zhi,
loyal and simple (Wailuyi 20) This reading follows the language and import of the Zhengyi texts as a
whole. In addition, it resolves the apparent neglect of Inner Nature in the early Zhengyi texts: Inner Nature is
in fact discussed, but the terminology is not yet fixed.

1
These first three items can also be classified as elements of intellect and as embodied cosmic elements.
2
The nature of the Chinese mind/xin is somewhat different from what Western scholars may conceive; for the sake of clarity, the
generalized concept Mind, is referred to in capitals; whereas the Chinese term mind/xin is set in lower case. The same is true of the
character xing and the concept Inner Nature.
204
3.1. Jialingjie
Like other tracts of the first canon, Commands and Prescriptions for the Families of the Dao (Dadao
jialingjie , DZ788
3
; hereinafter Jialingjie), never once refers to the xing. The text opens with a
description of the Dao creating all life through transmission of three qi, the mysterious azure qi of heaven,
white primal qi of the Dao, and the yellow generative qi of the earth. All living beings receive their life force
(jingshen) from these three qi. The Dao creates heaven, heaven creates earth, and earth produces beings.
All receive these three qi and are born. (DZ vol. 30, p. 12)
These three qi enter the bodies of beings through the nine orifices of the human body and pacify the organs.
When the organs are pacified, the viscera are secure, the individual attains divine illumination (shenming
) a characteristic that makes him kin to the Dao. The motivation for practicing goodness and protecting
the Dao is based on the value of life: those who practice correctly never lose the Dao of Life, because the
three qi are conserved within the body. The text continues, If the three qi do not depart (from the body), one
can transform alongside the heaven and earth., (Ibid) thus obtaining the
Daoist goal to live as long as heaven and earth.
Jialingjie refers to mind/xin in only two types of conditions. In the first condition, mind/xin is associated
with the negative emotional condition of beings. Whereas in the Xingzhimingchu would link this mind with
the nature of the inner nature/xing and emotions/qing, these terms never occur in the Jialingjie. Rather, the
mind appears to obtain an instinctual, emotional nature. This concurs with the findings in section 3 above.
(s1) (Ibid., p. 13)
(s2) (Ibid., p. 14)
(s3)
(s4) (Ibid., p. 18)
S4 demonstrates that negative emotional states of Mind do not extend to all emotions. In fact, individuals
are urged to pursue virtuous, good conduct, such as caring for the weak, the poor and the elderly, actions
that imply compassion and love. Indeed, throughout the Zhengyi fawen, emotions/qing as a class are only
referred to once; elsewhere, negative emotions are individually specified. Negative conduct and cravings are
specifically defined as, greed, sexual desire, pilfering the goods of the common lot (a form of greed), and
lacking faith. S4 specifically states that a rectified individual should properly pity the poor and love the
elderly.
However negative, emotional and corruptible the mind may be, passages s4 (above), s5 and s6 (below)
indicate that the mind is capable of reform. This indicates an understanding that negative emotions stand in
contradiction to the mind; but that the inherently corrupt mind is capable of reform.
(s5-s6)
(Ibid., p. 15)
Goodness is a practice that results in long life, and the continued abiding of the Dao within the human
being. When the Dao abides in the human being, divine brilliance (shenming ) manifests, making the
individual close to (a relative of) the Dao. (Ibid., p. 12) The presence of divine brilliance thus appears to be a
trace of the divine nature of the Dao extant or emergent in the individual possessed of the three qi; such a
reading is consistent with Wu Yun. (Cf. DeMeyer 2006, 260-261) Whether divine brilliance is extant or
emergent in the individual is unclear, but as Wu Yun understands it, it would be extant and active, bringing
about the prosperity and longevity of the individual only to the point where that individuals actions
correspond with their mind.(Ibid) Those of good actions but bad intentions would not be rewarded by
shenming.
The second situation in which the term mind/xin occurs is together with intention/yi. Throughout the text,
the terms mind/xin and intention/yi occur together in 4 of 9 instances: (s2) above; (s7)
(Daozang vol. 30, p. 16), (s8) (Ibid); the idea of will/intention is implied in one additional instance
(s9) (Ibid., p. 18). Similar ratios of occurrence continue throughout the twelve manuscripts reviewed.
A nature of the will/intention gives us a clue to how mind/xin may be understood, for, the text states,
Intention/yi delights in chaos . (Ibid., p. 14) (s10) Could it be that the nature of mind/xin, seat of

3
DZ refers to the Ming dynasty Zhengtong Daozang. DZ numbers follow Komjathy (2002).
205
intention/yi, is understood in terms of inintention/yi and will/zhi? Could it be that intention/yi has taken on
characteristics of the emotional inner nature/xing as found in Lingshu and Xingzhimingchu? Contextual
occurrence of both terms intention/yi and mind/xin, suggest that the two are closely associated. The final
phrase of the text strongly suggests such a possibility.
. (s11) (Ibid., p. 19)
Here the word mind/xin refers to Master Zhang Daolings intention or meaning. Thus, the term xin could
refer equally to mind or to will/intention (yi ).
This analysis shows that the emotions are not named as a group, but various emotional behaviours are of
great concern. The speaker seems particularly worried about greed, and to some extent laviscious behaviour,
but of particular importance is faith, or the lack of it. These are all spoken of in the same terms, and appear to
be understood as negative actions of mind and its intention. Inner nature/xing is never named.
3.2. Tianshijiao
In the very short Teachings of the Heavenly Master (Tianshijiao ), the character mind/xin appears
twice; in both instances, the characters mind/xin and intention/yi appear together.
(s12) (Tianshijiao., p. 19)
(s13) (Ibid., pp. 19-20)
The nature of mind/xin and intention/yi have an immediate physical impact on individuals which affects their
ability to attain goodness and obtain immortality. As discussed above, these goals are obtained through
retention of the vital energy or qi of the Dao within the body; retention of qi is caused by mental and physical
fidelity with the Dao, or faith.
Goodness is represented by three characters, Corpse, Sage Being, and Perfected Being. Corpse refers
to a person who has failed to seek refuge in the Dao and its teachings; the individuals organs are thus void
of the Daos blessing qi, their destiny is possessed by earthly hells, and their body is ghostly because they are
destined for the Yellow Springs (of hell). (Ibid, p. 20) Perfected Beings organs are filled with the three qi of
the Dao, Heaven and Earth, which, as noted above, constitute the Way of Life. They distinguish themselves
from the common people whose minds are filled with regret, tragedy and sleeplessness. (Ibid, p. 20) On the
other hand, Sage Being follow the Celestial Masters teachings; after death they rise to heave as an immortal
and, colourfully adorned in full regalia, will meet the Celestial Master in heaven. (Ibid)
3.3. Yangpingzhi
Yangpingzhi , the next title in the collection, contains three instances of the word mind/xin, and
one of the word emotions/qing. The first citation contains two occurrences of the term mind/xin and one of
the term emotions/qing. In this passage, members of the Daoist community, libations, men and women, the
firm and the infirm, are all faulted for being confused and not reforming their habits. What they say is correct
and good, but what they think is false and their heads are filled with worms. Their apartments are not
sectioned off such that men and women mingle. They are lead by emotions and are unable to correct one
another. They act befuddled and, in murky confusion, entrust the masses with the Way of the (Celestial)
Master.
(s14)(b)(a)
(Yangpingzhi, p. 22)
In this citation (s14) there is a clear association of mind/xin with an intentional mind, the mind as seat of
intention/yi. This is closely linked to the phrase about the emotions (a), which is usually translated to give
free reign to ones passions. Elsewhere we have seen this form of grammar in the phrase, giving free reign
to the will. (Cf. s7, s13 above) The interim phrase not sectioning off the rooms and apartments (b) is
clearly linked to the resultant effect of giving free reign to sexual passions, men and womens apartments
being undivided. The intention/yi that delights in chaos, the mind/xin that tends towards greed and sexual
indulgence, and the clearly sexual emotions/qing point to a consistent alignment of the elements of Mind to
negative emotional states. This relationship is maintained in passage s15:
(s15) (Ibid)
206
Throughout these manuscripts of the Zhengyi fawen, intention/yi and mind/xin are closely associated,
with the term mind/xin reflecting an attitude of negative intention and emotions, which are termed xing.
Inner Nature appears to have been absorbed into the instinctual Mind; what emerges as purified inner nature
in later Daoist tracts such as Yuletang and the inherently pure inner nature found in Sun Simiao does not
exist.
4. Emotions/Qing Disambiguation
In the tracts analyzed, term emotions/qing occurs three times, once each in Dadao jialingjie, Tianshijiao,
and Tianshi wuyan qian sanshi. In each instance, qing occurs in a list of specific negative emotional states,
such as greed and excess emotionalism. In each case, qing refers specifically to sexual desire. The
eradication of sexual desire and other negative emotional states is rewarded with long life, (Tianshijiao, p. 20)
and a place among the seed peoples those chosen to re-seed the earth following the imminent apocalypse.
(Ibid., p. 21) These various emotional states are spoken of in similar terms, and appear to be understood as
negative actions of the mind/sin and its intention/yi. Thus, the term qing is best translated not as emotions
but as sexual impulses or thoughts. Unless we accept xing as a general reference to emotions no class of
emotions presents.
5. Conclusion
It appears that the element of intention/yi displaces inner nature/xing in the earliest Celestial Masters
tracts. Xin appears to be a corruptible aspect of Mind, but does not hold the position of moral arbiter (cf.
Xingzhimingchu; Chen Ning, p.18; Guanzi). Xin is internally conflicted by an intention/yi that loves chaos
(DZ vol. 30, p. 14) and is given to negative emotional states such as greed and sexual desire. Individual
goodness (shan ) is actively achieved through good action and good intention, and includes positive
emotional states such as pitying the poor and loving the elderly (s4), and embrace of faith. When faith is
observed, the individual achieves emergence/arrival of shenming, affinity with the Dao and the Way of Life.
Thus, the individual is rewarded with the ability to transform alongside heaven and earth. (DZ vol. 30, p.
12) Mind is thus one aspect of the dual cultivation of mind/xin and intention/yi that leads retention of the
three sacred qi in the body, and eventually to physical immortality.
4

6. References
[1] Zhengyi fawen jing . In Zhengtong Daozang, Taipei: Zhonghua shuju,1962.
[2] Zhengyi fawen shilu zhaoyi . In Zhengtong Daozang, Taipei:
Zhonghua shuju,1962.
[3] Zhengyi fawen lubuyi . In Zhengtong Daozang, Taipei: Zhonghua shuju,1962.
[4] Zhengyi fawenjing chang guanpin . In Zhengtong Daozang, Taipei: Zhonghua shuju,1962.
[5] Zhengyi fawen wailuyi . In Zhengtong Daozang, Taipei: Zhonghua shuju,1962.
[6] Tianshi wuyan qian sanshi . In Zhengtong Daozang, Taipei: Zhonghua shuju,1962.
[7] Dadao jialingjie ). In Zhengtong Daozang, Taipei: Zhonghua shuju,1962.
[8] Tianshijiao . In Zhengtong Daozang, Taipei: Zhonghua shuju,1962.
[9] J. DeMeyer. Wu Yun's way: life and works of an eighth-century Daoist master. Leiden: Brill, 2006.
[10] L. Komjathy. Title Index to Daoist Collections. Boston: Three Pines Press, 2002.
[11] G. Lakoff, and M. Johnson (eds.) Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western
Thought. New York: Basic Books, 1999.
[12] S. Neswald. Ethical implications of changing concepts: concepts of mind and reality in Wang Bi, Heshang Gong,
Sun Simiao and Wu Yun. Proc. of Intl. Conf. on Asian Studies. Held July 26, 2012. Negombo, Sri Lanka,
September 2012. (Full version of the conference paper is available upon request from the author.)

4
For more on these topics, see my upcoming paper, Mind and Embodiment in Celestial Masters and Early Shangqing Daoism (2013).
207