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been shown to be a lower bound solution which gives the same result as
the upper bound solution. Hence, it is a mathematically valid solution
which correctly represents the failure load.
The variable angle truss model provides the designer with a
conceptual model to analyze the behavior of members subjected to
combined actions. The designer can visualize the effects that such
actions will have on the different components of the member. A more
complete understanding of this behavior should lead to a simpler and
more effective design process.
A thorough evaluation of the space truss model using test data
available in the literature and results from beams tested during this
research project at the Ferguson Laboratory was reported in Report 248-
3. The truss model predicted ultimate values, computed using the
relations and interaction equations derived from equilibrium conditions
in the truss model, were compared with test obtained results. Very good
and uniformly conservative correlations were found.
Once the general interaction behavior and expected ultimate
strength were confirmed by test results, the general procedures derived
from the truss model were translated into design recommendation and
draft AASHTO requirements. A review of some of the current design
procedures available in other codes was also conducted.
Finally, the proposed design procedurp. based on the truss model
was applied in a series of design examples. A comparison with the
current AASHTO requirements, wherever available, was conducted and a
comparison of the results using the two design methods was presented.
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5.2 Conclusions
The conclusions described in this section are based on the
overall study of reinforced and prestressed concrete one-way flexural
members subjected to shear and/or torsion.
In this study only underreinforced beams are being considered.
In such members the stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement yield prior
to failure of the concrete, and premature failures due to poor detailing
are prevented. The conclusions of this study should then be restricted
to such members. The findings of the investigation can be summarized as
follows:
1. Due to the complexity involved in explaining the behavior of
concrete members subjected to shear and torsion, and the lack of
adequate knowledge in this area, most research has tended to
concentrate on predicting the collapse load of such members on
an almost totally empirical basis. Unfortunately, the
empiricism of the analytical methods has led to design
procedures which are cumbersome and obscure.
2. It seems obvious that designers are not too eager to adopt new
complex design methods, even if these are accurate, when for
example they previously have ignored torsion without disastrous
consequences. For this reason, a rational and easy to apply
approximate design approach based on a simpli fied model,
considering only the main variables is necessary.
3. A design procedure for shear and torsion in reinforced and
prestressed concrete one-way flexural members based on
equilibrium conditions of a refined truss model with variable
inclination of the diagonal members is rational, simple, and
conservative.
4. The variable angle truss model provides the designer with a
conceptual model to analyze the behavior of members subjected to
shear and/or torsion. The designer can visualize the effects
that such actions will have on the different components of the
member. A more complete understanding of this behavior leads to
a simpler and more effective design process. It also shows some
possible economical advantages over the present AASHTO
procedures.
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Other conclusions based on the study of reinforced and
prestressed concrete members to shear and/or torsion with the
aid of the space truss model include:
a. Limits for the variation of the angle of inclination of the
diagonal compression members in the truss model must be
introduced to compensate for the fact that procedures based on
plastic analysis, such as this one, cannot distinguish between
underreinforcement and overreinforcement, Le. yielding of the
reinforcement prior to crushing of the concrete, because they do
not predict total deformations. Furthermore, the lower limit of
0' = 25 degrees, which is intended to ensure adequate inclined
crack width control at service load levels, made it necessary to
introduce a transition region between uncracked and fully
cracked behavior in order to avoid requiring excessive amounts
of transverse reinforcement in members subjected to low shear
stresses.
b. In the truss model approach, the inclination of the diagonal
compression strut is the inclination at ultimate and not first
inclined cracking. The inclination at ultimate may coincide
wi th the inclination at first diagonal cracking, but this does
not necessarely have to be the case. The change in the angle of
inclination or redistribution of forces in the members is
possible if contact forces act between the crack surfaces.
These contact forces will induce tensile stresses in the
compression struts, which must be taken by the concrete. Thus,
the change in the inclination of the diagonal compression strut
is possible due to the aggregate interlock forces and the
concrete tensile strength. Thus, crack limits must be
introduced indirectly by restrictions on 0', or else a much more
complex check of strain compatibility must be included as
suggested by Collins and Mitchell (17).
c. In the behavior of reinforced and prestressed concrete beams
subjected to shear and/or torsion, three failure states are
distinguished. The first is the uncracked state. This state is
limited in the case of shear, by the shear force at which first
inclined cracking of the web occurs. A second failure state is
the transition state in the section between the uncracked state
and the full truss action state. When a member fails in the
transition state, more cracking takes place and there is a
redistribution of internal forces in the member. With failure
at higher shear stresses in the transition state more cracking
takes place and/or the previously existing cracks grow and
become wider. As the crack width increases the mechanisms of
aggregate interlock diminish, the contact forces become smaller
and no further redistribution of forces in the member is
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possible. Therefore, in the transition state the concrete in
the web provides an additional continuously diminishing
resistance as failure occurs at higher shear stresses. In
practical terms the concrete contribution can be significant and
design for members with low shear stresses would be very
conservative if a concrete contribution was not allowed when
failure is the uncracked or transition states.
d. The use of the truss model with variable angle of inclination of
the diagonal struts in the design of reinforced and prestressed
concrete members requires that the steel reinforcement yield
prior to failure of the concrete in compression. Concrete
failure can be due to crushing of the bend ing compression zone
or the concrete compression diagonals. A check on web crushing
must be included in any design procedure.
e. The stresses in the bending compression zone can be determined
using the well-known bending theory. In the case where torsion
exists together with bending the situation is even less
critical. Since a torsional moment introduces longitudinal
tension in the member, it will raise the neutral axis in the
case of positive bending moment (tension at the bottom of the
member), therefore, reducing the compression stresses in the
bending compression zone. The same holds true for the ~ s e of a
negative bending moment (tension at the top), since now the
torque will lower the neutral axiS, hence reducing the
compression stresses in the bending compression zone.
Therefore, the flexural balanced reinforcement limits ensuring
yielding of the longitudinal steel prior to crushing of the
concrete in the case of pure bending constitute a safe lower
bound for the case of combined torsion and bending.
f. The space truss model approach is based on the assumption that
yielding of the reinforcement must take place at ultimate.
Thus, reinforced and prestressed concrete members not only have
to be designed as underreinforced sections, but in addition,
premature failures due to improper detailing of the
reinforcement must be avoided.
5.3 Recommendations for Further Research
Since the recent reinterest in the variable angle truss model,
considerable research has been conducted and only partly assimilated in
Am erican pr ac tice. Substantial new research has been reported,
particularly in German language reports and papers. In addition to the

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