Q.

1 Discuss the evolution of Human resource management by

drawing reference from the Hawthorne Studies.
ANS.

Evolution of the Human Resource Management

The historical development of human relations knowledge applied to job setting
warrants some attention in any book about human relations. Any history of the
application of systematic knowledge about human behaviour to the job must use
some arbitrary milestones. For instance, the crew chiefs concerned with constructing
the Egyptian pyramids must have had useful informal concepts of leadership
available to them. The Hawthorne Studies: As described in virtually every book
written about management, the human relations or behavioral school of
management began in 1927 with a group of studies conducted at the Hawthorne
plant of Western Electric, an AT&T subsidiary. Curiously, these studies were
prompted by an experiment carried out by the company's engineers between
1924 and 1927. Following the scientific management tradition, these engineers were
applying research methods to answer job related problems. Two groups were
studied to determine the effects of different levels of illumination on worker
performance. One group received increased illumination, while the other did not. A
preliminary finding was that, when illumination was increased, the level of
performance also increased. Surprisingly to the engineers, productivity also
increased when the level of illumination was decreased almost to moonlight levels.
One interpretation made of these results was that the workers involved in the
experiment enjoyed being the centre of attention; they reacted positively because
management cared about them. Such a phenomenon taking place in any research
setting is now called the Hawthorne effect. As a result of these preliminary
investigations, a team of researchers headed by Elton Mayo and F.J. Roethlisberger
from Harvard conducted a lengthy series of experiments extending over a six year
period. The conclusions they reached served as the bedrock of later developments
in the human relations approach to management. Among their key findings were the
following:

· Economic incentives are less potent than generally believed in influencing workers
to achieve high levels of output.

· Leadership practices and workgroup pressures profoundly influence employee

satisfaction and performance.

· Any factor influencing employee behaviour is embedded in a social system. For

instance, to understand the impact of pay on performance, you also have to
understand the climate that exists in the work group and the leadership style of the
superior. Leadership Style and Practices: As a consequence of the Hawthorne
Studies, worker attitudes, morale, and group influences became a concern of
researchers. A notable development of the nature occurred shortly after World War II
at the University of Michigan. A group of social scientists formed an organization,
later to be called the Institute for Social Research, to study those principles of
leadership that were associated with highest productivity. Based upon work with
clerical and production workers, an important conclusion was that supervisors of
high producing units behaved differently from those of low producing
units. Among the differences in style noted were that supervisors of productive
groups in comparison to their lower producing counterparts were:

· More emotionally supportive of subordinates.

· More likely to pay a differentiated role plan, regulate, and coordinate

the activities of subordinates, but not become directly involved in work
tasks.

· More likely to exercise general rather than close or light supervision.

· The origin and progress of the human relations movement (particularly in U.S.A.)
has been due to certain social and cultural forces working there, such as
Recognition of the dignity of the individual and his personality. The individual has a
lot of freedom of choice and the idea of decision-making by oneself is deep-rooted
in the national tradition.

· A child is brought up to value independence and encouraged to think on his own

and not to be dependent on parents.

· Virtual disappearance of owner managers and the growth of professional managers

capable of managing according to professional code.

· Strong organizations of labour, at all levels, calling for higher skills in

communication and participative behaviour on the part of the management.

· Shortage of labour led to skilled labour being treated as nearly irreplaceable.

Hence, much greater care in utilising this scarce and valuable resource had to be
thought of in the form of "Human Relations."

· Higher standards of living of American labour. Since their physical and security
needs were generally satisfied, increased participation alone could satisfy their
emerging social and ego needs.

· The possible weakening of work ethics, requiring managers to develop new

attitudes towards labour.

· The changing work environment greater specialization and a large scope of

operations which require a greater degree of managerial effectiveness with and
through workers.

· A significant increase in the general educational level of workers who, as a result,

demanded more from their employers. Concurrent with the growth of human
relations in work organizations, has been the burgeoning of techniques and
programmes to foster human growth off the job. In the last two decades,
millions of people seeking personal growth (or sometimes simply emotional arousal)
have participated in programmes such as encounter groups, marriage enrichment
groups, Erhard seminar training, couples groups, and transactional analysis.
During the early 1970s, the human potential (meaning development of one's
potential) movement began to appear in work settings. Management awareness
training and assertiveness training represent two other techniques related to the
development of human potential. Both are designed to deal with the problem of job
discrimination against women. In management awareness training, managers are
made more sensitive to their sexist attitudes (such as thinking of all engineers are
male) and in changing their attitudes. Assertiveness training has been widely used to
help women to be more direct in making known their demands for equal opportunity.
Career development programmes in industry are more prevalent today than at any
time in the past. Although varying widely in content, all these programmes are
designed to help the individual make career decisions that will move him or her
toward self-fulfillment. In the process, it is assumed that the person will make a
better contribution to the organization.
Q.2 Trace the significant aspects of Human Resource Movement
in India from the period of Kautilya till the implementation of the
Factories Act, 1948.

ANS.

Kautilya provides a systematic treatment of management of human resources as

early as 4th century B.C. in his treatise titled "ArthaShastra". As it has been described
in the book, there prevailed logical procedures and principles in respect of labour
organizations such as Shreni or guild system and cooperative sector. The wages
were paid strictly in terms of quantity and quality of work turned out and punishment
were imposed for unnecessarily delaying the work or spoiling it. The Government
used to take active interest in the operation of both public and private sector
enterprises and provided well enunciated procedures to regulate employer employee
relationship. Kautilya provides an excellent discussion on staffing and personnel
management embracing job descriptions, qualifications for jobs, selection procedure,
executive development, incentive systems (Sarasasaamadaanabhedadandacatura
or Carrot and Stick approach) and performance evaluation. We find several
indications of prevalence of guild system involving performance of work at the
residence of the entrepreneurs themselves. In course of time, the guild system was
followed by cooperative sector consisting of craftsmen and traders, and purporting to
promote their professional interests. Indeed, numerous professional societies were
formed on these lines with their own systematic procedures and policies to nurture
their own interests. Again, there are several indications regarding the operation of
principles of the division of labour.

The concept of "Varnashram" or caste system was originally based on these

principles. The individuals who used to earn their livelihood by engaging themselves
in activities such as teaching, sacrifice or state management were designated as
Brahmins while those specializing in fighting were termed as Kshatriyas. Moreover,
individuals engaged in the areas of trade, business and agriculture were called
Vaishyas and those devoting themselves in manual work were known as Shudras.
Later on, these professions emerged to be hereditary which facilitated the transfer of
skills and training from one generation to another. Numerous professions based on
such specialised transfer of skills became hereditary including goldsmiths, weavers,
potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, hunters, charioteers, snake charmers, architects,
sculptors, armourers and turned out to be separate communities by themselves.
From the 14th century B.C. to the later half of the 10th century A.D., the relationships
between the employer and employees were marked by justice and equity.

As regards Indian economy in Mediaeval India, although there was a lull because of
numerous foreign aggressions for around 700 years, during the Mughal rules, the
Indian trade and commerce were revived. Several "Karkhanas" were established at
Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Ahmedabad and various other places. However, majority of the
artisans and the craftsmen were extremely poor and lived on starvation level.
Therefore, it was not startling that the productivity of workers was very low.
Presumably, low wages, climate conditions and poor physique were the major
factors responsible for it. During early British rules, there prevailed a laissez-faire
policy towards the business. As it is evidenced in the report of the Indigo
Commission, the working conditions were appalling, living conditions were
subhuman and several abuses prevailed in indigo plantations. Again, as regards tea
plantation, we come across several inhuman cruelties caused to the workers. Even
the Plantation Act of 1863 makes provisions that if the workers failed to complete
their period of contract, they should be imprisoned for a period not exceeding three
months. Explicitly, the working conditions in the tea plantations were extremely bad.
The labourers who attempted to run away were subject to imprisonment, whipping
and allied extreme punishment. Accordingly, the workers were entirely helpless in
the face of the organized and powerful European planters.

The above conditions prevailed till the enactment of the Factory Act of 1881.
According to the Act, the workers employed in the factories were allowed a week off
day and provisions were also made for inspection as well as limiting the hours of
work for women workers to eleven per day. The act further provided that the
minimum age of children for employment should be seven years and that the
maximum working hours for them should not exceed seven hours a day and that too
in the dayshift. In 1890, the first labour organization designated as Bombay Mill
Hands Association was established. Subsequently, in 1905, the printers' Union at
Calcutta and in 1907, the Postal Union at Bombay were established.

The Madras Labour Union was organized thereafter in 1918. In 1922, the indentured
labour system involving migration of Indian labour to other countries on contract
basis was abolished as a result of a strong National Movement. In the same year,
the Central Labour Board was established to federate the different unions in the
Bombay city and the All India Trade Union Congress was organized. It may be noted
that the reliable statistics of trade union growth are not available for the period before
the formal implementation of the Indian Trade Unions Act, 1926, a landmark in the
history of industrial relations in this country. The early thirties witnessed a highly
weakened trade union movement. However, the conditions prevailing five
years before as well as during the Second World War, were conducive to the rapid
growth of the trade unionism. Between 1939-40 and 1944-45 the number of
registered trade unions increased from 66.6 to 86.5 (i.e., by 29.7 percent). There
was a large scale expansion of the trade union movement after the Second World
War especially after the independence. As Subramanian observes, there existed
fourfold reasons for this rapid growth. These were as follows:
(1) the cumulative impact of the acute economic distress stemming from war
conditions and the removal of the wartime restrictions on strikes,
(2) the development of three more central labour organizations and the competition
among them,
(3) the labour policy of the Government based on adjudication rather than collective
bargaining, and
(4) the growth of the spirit of trade unionism among the workers. Accordingly, during
the period 1947-1960 while, industrial employment rose by 2.8 times, the total
claimed union membership also went up by 2.3 times. In 1960, 45 percent of the
total industrial workforce was claimed to be unionised. Today, the total membership
is estimated to be around 4.3 million i.e., 28 percent of total workforce.
Explicitly, during post independence period, the activities of Personnel Department in
different public and private sectors have multiplied. According to the provisions of
section 49 of the Factories Act, 1948, it became obligatory for the employers
to employ a Welfare Officer in a factory employing 500 or more workers. Likewise,
section 58 of the Mines Act,
1952, empowers the Government to specify employment of welfare officer/officers.
However, it does not mean that the functions of Personnel Department are entirely
limited to welfare activities. Explain in detail different types and techniques of
Training.

Types and Techniques of Training

Training methods have a number of overlapping objectives. They have to be chosen in
relation to the programme design requirements. The main objectives of individual training
methods could be: demonstration value, developing interest and finally appeal to senses.

Demonstration Value: Complete demonstration of job requirements enables the trainee to

grasp the meaning of ideas, concepts, or procedures visually. Such a method can be used
effectively as an aid to overcome the "breakdown of communication". Trainees remember
things that they see and hear, much longer than they do information they receive through
talks or reading alone.

Developing Interest: One of the important factors to be kept in mind in choosing a method
is its ability to hold and arouse the interest of the trainee in the learning situation. A trainee
has to consider alternative methods of presenting training material to participants in order to
stimulate their interest and facilitate retention of the matter. For instance, if traditionally the
matter has been presented through lectures, perhaps audio visual methods could be used,
or instead project work be assigned which would mean learning by doing or researching the
subject oneself.

Appeal too many senses: From the trainer's point of view, it would be beneficial to utilize as
many of the trainer's senses as possible, in order to improve retention of learning. The
trainer has to understand and identify the problem area i.e., he has to examine whether there
is a problem with the manner in which the task is done. Secondly, selecting the appropriate
method would be dependent on the level of the trainee in an organization's hierarchy. Finally,
before selecting a training method, the trainer should keep in mind about cost effectiveness.
Depending on the learning outcome, and the process by which it is attained, it is possible to
categorize the various methods into several groups.

On the job trainings since most jobs in industry can be learned in a relatively short period of
time, this method is the most widely used. It has the advantage of strongly motivating the
trainee to learn since it is located in the artificial situation of a classroom. The fact that the
success of the system depends almost entirely upon the' immediate supervisor, the trainer,
means that the personnel unit has a major responsibility for making a good, effective teacher
out of every supervisor. The supervisor typically follows a set procedure (as illustrated in the
table) in training an employee to perform a particular task. The suggestions accompanying
each step are general guides evolved from both experience and research.
Table on Training Procedure

Step Suggestions

Instructor preparation 1. Divide task into logical parts to create

lesson plans.
2. Select teaching techniques e.g.,
demonstration.

Training preparation 1. Place trainee at ease.

2. Relate training to trainee needs e.g.
promotion.

Presenting the task 1. Present overview of task.

2. Proceed from known to unknown, easy to
difficult.
3. Adjust pace to individual differences.
4. Go through task and explain each step.
5. Have trainee tell instructor what to do.

Tryout Performance 1. Have trainee explain each step prior to

execution.
2. Be aware of learning plateaus to sustain
motivation.
3. Provide feedback on progress.

Follow-up 1. Positively reinforce continuously at start.

2. Move to variable positive reinforcement
schedule as trainee
matures.

Advantages: The main advantage of on-the-job training is that the trainee learns on the
actual
equipment in use and in the true environment of his job. Secondly, it is highly economical
since no additional personnel or facilities are required for training. Thirdly, the trainee learns
the rules, regulations and procedures by observing their day-to-day applications. Fourthly,
this type of training is a suitable alternative for a company in which there are almost as many
jobs as there are employees. Finally, it is most appropriate for teaching the knowledge and
skills which can be acquired in a relatively short period i.e., a few days or weeks.

Disadvantages: The principal disadvantage of on-the-job training is that instruction is often

highly disorganized and haphazard and not properly supervised. This is due to such reasons
as the inability of the experienced employee to impart skills to the trainee, the breakdown of
the job for the purpose of instructions, and the back of motivation on the part of the trainee to
receive training. Further, the other drawback is the low productivity, especially when the
employee is unable to fully develop his skills.

Vestibule Training: This method attempts to duplicate on-the-job situations in a company

classroom. It is a classroom training which is often imparted with the help of the equipment
and machines which are identical with those in use in the place of work. This technique
enables the trainee to concentrate on learning the new skill rather than performing an actual
job. In other words, it is geared to job duties. Theoretical training is given in the classroom,
while the practical work is conducted on the production line. The advantages of using the
vestibule training system are the disadvantages of specialization. The instructor, a specialist,
should be more skilled at teaching. The student avoids the confusion and pressure of the
work situation and thus is able to concentrate on learning. One can also often attain a
given level of skill more quickly in the specialized learning situation. We have more
assurance that adequate time and attention will be given to training and that it will not
slighted in favour of other problems. More individualized instruction can be given, and
training activities do not interfere with the regular processes of production. Among the
disadvantages are the splitting of responsibilities leads to organizational problems. Second,
an additional investment in equipment is necessary, though the cost may be reduced by
getting some productive work done by trainees while in the school. Third, this method is of
limited value for the jobs which utilize equipment which can be duplicated and finally the
training situation is somewhat artificial.

Apprenticeship programme: Apart from the requirements under Apprenticeship Act,

various industries have their own apprenticeship programme where in the workers are
employed on a small stipend to learn the job first and after satisfactorily completing the
training they are absorbed in the industry.

The advantages of this method are:

1. A skilled work force is maintained;
2. Immediate returns can be expected from training;
3. The workmanship is good;
4. The hiring cost is lower because of reduced turnover and lower production costs; and
5. The loyalty of employees is increased and opportunities for growth are frequent.

Simulation Methods: Simulation is a technique which duplicates, as nearly as possible, the

actual conditions encountered on a job. Generally, simulation techniques have been most
widely used in the aeronautical industry.

Knowledge based Methods: In this method of training, an effort is made to expose

participants to concepts and theories, basic principles, and pure and applied knowledge in
any subject area. Basically, it is aimed at creating an awareness of the knowledge of
fundamentals. The focus is essentially on transmission of knowledge which has been
imbibed by the participants. This knowledge is the base, the foundation, on which further
understanding can be built. The categories of this method are lectures, seminars,
workshops, films and training, group discussions etc.

Experiential Methods: The emphasis in this category is on achieving through group

processes and dynamics, a better understanding of oneself and others. It has been asserted
that attitudinal training helps and individual to improve his comprehension of self, others,
group behaviour and personal interaction. Such knowledge and understanding helps an
individual to understand the problems of human relationships in a work situation, including at
times his managerial style. Such training is imparted on the job by the workers' immediate
supervisors. It provides to the trainees opportunities for getting acquainted with their bosses.
The bosses, too, have an opportunity to judge the abilities and possibilities of trainees from
the point of view of their job performance. The success of this method depends upon the fact
that:
1. The experienced supervisors must be good teachers;
2. They should have incentives and sufficient time for carrying out the training programmes;
and
3. They should be provided with an accurate account of the training needs of the trainees
they are to teach.
Q.4 What is Performance Appraisal? Write a note on 360 degree
Appraisal.
ANS.

Performance Appraisal
Research shows that performance management, when done correctly, can affect
corporate performance and the bottom line. Despite the importance of performance
appraisal, few organizations clearly define what it is that they are trying to measure.
To design a system for appraising performance, it is important to first define what is
meant by the term work performance. Although a persons job performance depends
on some combination of ability, effort and opportunity, it can be measured in terms of
outcomes or results produced. Performance is defined as the record of outcomes
produced on a specific job function or activity during a specific time period. For
example a trainer working for the World Bank was evaluated on her “organization of
presentation,” which was defined as “the presentation of decisions such as
promotions training material in a logical and methodical manner.” They extent to
which she was able to make such “orderly” presentation would be one measure of
outcomes related to that function. A Sales representative could have some measure
of sales as an outcome for a primary function of that job. Customer service would
have very different outcome measures for defining performance. Collage professor
that typically were evaluated on three general work function: teaching, research and
service. Performance in each of these three areas is defined with different outcome
measures.

Performance on the job as a whole would be equal to the sum (or average) of the
performance on the job functions or activities. For example, the World Bank
identified 8 job functions for its trainers (example, use of relevant examples,
participant involvement, and evaluation procedures). The function has to do with the
work that is to be performance and not the characteristics of the person performing.
Unfortunately many performance appraisal systems confuse measures of
performance with measures of the person. The definition of performance refers to a
set of outcomes produced during a certain time period; it does not refer to the traits,
persona characteristics or “competencies” of the performer.
360 Degree Appraisal

Typically, performance appraisal has been limited to a feedback process between

employees and supervisors. However, with the increased focus on teamwork,
employee development, and customer service, the emphasis has shifted to
employee feedback from the full circle of sources depicted in the diagram below.
This multiple input approach to performance feedback is sometimes called
"360degree assessment" to connote that full circle. There are no prohibitions in law
or regulation against using a variety of rating sources, in addition to the employee's
supervisor, for assessing performance. Research has shown assessment
approaches with multiple rating sources provide more accurate, reliable, and
credible information. For this reason, Personnel Management supports the use of
multiple rating sources as an effective method of assessing performance for formal
appraisal and other evaluative and developmental purposes.

The circle, or perhaps more accurately the sphere, of feedback sources consists of
supervisors, peers, subordinates, customers, and one's self. It is not necessary, or
always appropriate, to include all of the feedback sources in a particular appraisal
program. The organizational culture and mission must be considered, and the
purpose of feedback will differ with each source. For example, subordinate
assessments of a supervisor's performance can provide valuable developmental
guidance, peer feedback can be the heart of excellence in teamwork, and customer
service feedback focuses on the quality of the team's or agency's results. The
objectives of performance appraisal and the particular aspects of performance
that are to be assessed must be established before determining which sources are
appropriate.

Superiors: Evaluations by superiors are the most traditional source of employee

feedback. This form of evaluation includes both the ratings of individuals by
supervisors on elements in an employee's performance plan and the evaluation of
programs and teams by senior managers.

Peers: With downsizing and reduced hierarchies in organizations, as well as the

increasing use of teams and group accountability, peers are often the most relevant
evaluators of their colleagues' performance. Peers have a unique perspective on a
coworker's job performance and employees are generally very receptive to the
concept of rating each other. Peer ratings can be used when the employee's
expertise is known or the performance and results can be observed. There are both
significant contributions and serious pitfalls that must be carefully considered before
including this type of feedback in a multifaceted appraisal program.

Subordinates: An upward appraisal process or feedback survey (sometimes

referred to as SAM for a "Subordinates Appraising Managers") is among the most
significant and yet controversial features of a "full circle" performance evaluation
program. Both managers being appraised and their own superiors agree that
subordinates have a unique, often essential, perspective. The subordinate ratings
provide particularly valuable data on performance elements concerning
managerial and supervisory behaviors. However, there is usually great reluctance,
even fear, concerning implementation of this rating dimension. On balance, the
contributions can outweigh the concerns if the precautions noted below are
addressed.

Customers: Setting Customer Service Standards, requires agencies to survey

internal and external customers, publish customer service standards, and measure
agency performance against these standards. Internal customers are defined as
users of products or services supplied by another employee or group within the
agency or organization. External customers are outside the organization and include,
but are not limited to, the general public.
Q. 5 Explain the guidelines of a Disciplinary Action.

ANS.

Guidelines of a Disciplinary Action

The principal ingredients of a sound disciplinary system are:

1. Location of responsibility: The responsibility for maintaining discipline should be

entrusted to a responsible person (e.g., a line executive), though it is the Personnel
Officer who should be entrusted with the responsibility of offering advice and
assistance. The Line Executive should issue only verbal and written warnings. In
serious cases, which warrant discharge or suspension, the Industrial Relations
Officer should be consulted.

2. Proper formulation and communication of rules: Since employees are expected to

conform to rules and regulations and behave in a responsible manner, it is essential
that these rules and regulations are properly and carefully formulated and
communicated to them. It would be preferable if a copy of these regulations, together
with any explanations there of, is included in their handbook; at any rate, they should
be put up on notice boards and bulletin boards. While finalising the rules, everyone
should be given the opportunity to express freely his views thereon.

3. Rules and regulations should be reasonable: Plant conditions and the

management climate should be such as would be conducive to the observance of
rules and regulations. The workload should be such as is practicable in normal
working conditions for an average employee.

4. Equal treatment: All defaulters should be treated alike, depending on the nature of
their offence. Identical punishment should be awarded for identical offences,
irrespective of the position or seniority of the employee.

5. Disciplinary action should be taken in private: This is essential because the main
objective of a disciplinary is to ensure that a wrong behaviour is corrected and not
that the wrongdoer should be punished, or held up to ridicule. If a disciplinary action
is taken in the presence of other employees, it may offend the sense of the
employee and impair his social standing with his colleagues. Such an action may
rouse resentment in the employee and his fellow workers, and make for a disturbed
climate in the organization.

6. Importance of promptness in taking disciplinary action: Justice delayed is justice

denied. If the penalty is imposed long after a violation of rules has been committed, it
loses its positive and corrective influence, and may even induce resentment, which
may not have developed if the penalty had been imposed in time. Care should,
therefore, be exercised to ensure that a penalty is imposed soon after an
infringement of a rule has occurred, and that the punishment is not unfair. If decision
has been justly taken for termination of an employee, it should be implemented
soon.
7. Innocence is presumed: An individual is presumed to be innocent until he is
proven to be guilty. The burden of profits is on the employer and not on the
employee. It is for the management to prove beyond a reasonable doubt, that a
violation or an offence has been committed before any punishment is awarded. The
kind of proof that would be needed for this purpose would depend on the gravity of
the offence that has been committed.

8. Get the facts: Before taking any disciplinary action, it should be made sure to get
and keep adequate records of offences and warnings. It is always better to let the
subordinate fully explain what happened and why it happened. It may then be
discovered that there were mitigating circumstances, or that he was not aware of the
rules; or that the person had conflicting orders or even permission to break the rule
for some reason. Getting facts is a good management practice, especially when
defending the decision, to superiors, union arbitrators and others.

9. Action should be taken in cool atmosphere: The action should be taken, not when
one is angry but when the anger has "cooled off" a bit so that rational and sensible
judgement could be taken.

10. Natural justice: A punitive action must satisfy the condition of natural justice. The
management must act without bias and without vindictiveness; it should always
indicate that its disciplinary action against an employee is based on justice and fair
play. The punishment should be commensurate with the gravity of the offence; and
it should be corrective or reformative rather than retributive. The employee should
be taught to behave better; he should be "rehabilitated", and not "injured".

11. After a disciplinary action has been taken by the supervisor, he should treat his
subordinate in a normal manner: The employee has paid the penalty for his violation
of a rule. He should, therefore, be treated as he would have been, had there been no
violation and no punishment. The attitude of the supervisor should be: "Forgive and
Forget."

12. Don't back down when you are right: When the supervisor knows he is right that
the rule was broken, that adequate warning is given, that the penalty is not too
severe he should not back down or compromise on penalty especially
once the decision is announced. In most cases "being soft" is not viewed as a virtue.
Instead, employees either assume that the rule itself is frivolous, or that the rules
and penalties are being applied inconsistently. In either case, backing down is not
advisable.

13. Negative motivation should be handled in a positive manner: The philosophy

behind administering a disciplinary action is that a negative motivation should be
handled in a positive manner, that is, it should be brought home to the employee that
a negative approach does not pay. Positively oriented managers generally feel that
discipline should not punish but instead be corrective and constructive. As far as
possible, disciplinary action should deal with specific rule in question, rather than
with the employee in general. The saying "let the punishment fit the crime" is
appropriate when disciplining the employee.
Q.6 Explain the different theories of leadership

ANS.

Theories of Leadership
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early
leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and
followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational
factors and skill level. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most
can be classified as one of eight major types:

1. “Great Man” Theories: Great Man theories assume that the capacity for
leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born not made. These theories often
portray great leaders as heroic, mythical, and destined to rise to leadership when
needed. The term “Great Man” was used because, at the time, leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

2. Trait Theories: Similar in some ways to “Great Man” theories, trait theory
assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited
to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioural
characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key features of
leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not
leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain
leadership.

3. Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular

variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of
leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership
style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including
the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

4. Situational Theories: Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best
course of action based upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may
be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

5. Behavioural Theories: Behavioural theories of leadership are based upon the

belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviourism, this leadership
theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states.
According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and
observation.

6. Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal

leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders
encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group
members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In
participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of
others.
7. Management Theories: Management theories (also known as “Transactional
theories”) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance.
These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial
theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are
rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

8. Relationship Theories: Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational

theories”) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These
leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance
and higher good of the task. Transformational leaders are focused on the
performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfil his or her
potential. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.