Binder 1

Integration
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. The Indenite Integral
2.1. The Indenite Integral Notation
2.2. An Application: Velocity and Acceleration
3. Some Basic Integration Formulas
3.1. Specic Formulas
3.2. General Formulas
4. The Technique of Substitution
4.1. Developing the Idea: Substitution
4.2. Learning the Technique of Substitution
4.3. The Generalized Power Rule
4.4. Integration of Trig Functions
5. Substitution: Two Attitudes
5.1. Formula Checking
Table of Contents (continued)
5.2. True Substitution of Variables
6. Strategies for Integration
6.1. Knowledge of the Integral Formulas
6.2. Knowledge of the Techniques
6.3. Obtain a History of Problem Solving
6.4. Learn from Problem Solving
6.5. Patterned Thought: The Buttery Method
7. The Denite Integral
7.1. A Little Problem with Area
The Problem The Idea of the Solution The Technical
Details Passing to the Limit Solution to our Problem
7.2. The Denite Integral
7.3. The Existence of the Denite Integral
7.4. Summation Techniques
7.5. Evaluation by Partitioning
7.6. Properties of the Denite Integral
8. Evaluation of the Denite Integral
8.1. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Table of Contents (continued)
8.2. The Mechanics of Evaluation
9. Techniques of Evaluating Denite Integrals
9.1. EBLO Tricks
9.2. Denite Integration and Substitution
9.3. Taking Advantage of Symmetry
10. Presentation of the Theory
1. Introduction
Prerequisite: Limits, Continuity, Dierentiation.
2. The Indenite Integral
We begin, as always, with a denition.
Denition 2.1. Let f be a function dened over an interval ( a, b ).
A function F is called an indenite integral, or an antiderivative, of f
over the interval ( a, b ) provided
F
(x) = f(x) for all x ( a, b ).

Denition Notes: At our level of play, the reference to the interval
( a, b ) is suppressed; consequently, we speak of F as an indenite
integral, or antiderivative, of f.
An antiderivative of a function f is a function, F. This point
must always be kept in mind: The antiderivative of a function is a
function.
Section 2: The Indenite Integral
The term antiderivative is more descriptive of the concept than
the term indenite integral. An antiderivative of f is any function,
F, whose derivative is f. The term indenite integral comes from the
important role it plays in Denite Integration.
Lets have a quick example to illustrate the denition of antiderivative.
Illustration 1. For the function f(x) = 2x, the function F(x) = x
2
is an antiderivative of f since F
(x) = 2x = f(x), for all x R.

Question. Can a function have more than one antiderivative? If the
answer is yes, in general, how many antiderivative does a given func-
tion have? (Use f(x) = 2x as an example to help you reason.)
Lets look an elementary example before continuing.
Example 2.1. Consider the function f(x) = x
3
, nd an antideriva-
tive of f.
It is important that you understand the meaning of the term anti-
derivative and the relationship between a function and its antideriv-
ative; furthermore, the concept of antiderivative does not depend on
the letters used to describe the functions and the variables. The next
set of exercises is meant query you on the denition of antiderivative.
Exercise 2.1. Let h be a function of the variable t, write the deni-
tion of an antiderivative of h.
Review the reasoning of Exercise 2.1, as well as the denition of
antiderivative before answering the following quiz questions.
Quiz.
1. Given two functions f and g, f is an antiderivative of g provided,
(a) g
(x) = f(x) (b) f
(x) = g(x)
2. Given two function H and q, q is an antiderivative of H provided
(a) q
(t) = H(t) (b) H
(s) = q(s)
3. Dene a function f(s) = 4s
3
and another function F(t) = t
4
, is
F an antiderivative of f?
(a) Yes (b) No
End Quiz.
Exercise 2.2. Verify that an antiderivative of f(x) = 16(4x +1)
3
is
the function F(x) = (4x + 1)
4
.
Checking your answer.
To determine whether a function g is an antiderivative or
indenite integral of another function, we simple dierentiate
the function g we think is the antiderivtive and determine if
the result is equal to f. In symbols, g is an antiderivtive of
f provided,
g
(x) = f(x) for all x.

This is simply the denition.
Exercise 2.3. Determine whether the function f(t) = (t
2
+1)
2
is an
antiderivative of g(t) = 4t(t
2
+ 1).
Exercise 2.4. Determine whether the function H(s) = cos(2s) is an
antiderivative of the function g(s) = 2 sin(2s).
Lets now continue developing some of the basic ideas of the antideriv-
ative.
As we have seen in Example 2.1, once we have found one antideriva-
tive of a given function, we have found innitely many antiderivatives.
More precisely, if F is an antiderivative of f then for any constant C,
F + C is also an antiderivative of f. A natural question to ask: Sup-
pose F is an antiderivative of f, do there exist antiderivatives of f
that are not of the form F + C? The answer is no.
Recall a corollary to the Mean Value Theorem which states that
if F and G are two functions such that F
(x) = G
(x) for all x in

an interval I of numbers, then there exists a constant C such that
F(x) = G(x) + C for all x in the interval I.
Now, lets prove the answer to the question.
Theorem 2.2. Let f be a function having antiderivative F over an
interval I. If G is any other antiderivative of f over I, then there
exists a constant C such that F(x) = G(x) + C for all x I.
Proof. F is an antiderivative of f means
F
(x) = f(x) all x I.

G is an antiderivative of f means
G
(x) = f(x) all x I.

Therefore we have
F
(x) = f(x) = G
(x) all x I.
By the corollary to the Mean Value Theorem we then have
F(x) = G(x) + C all x I,
for some constant C.
Theorem Notes: This shows that once we nd an antiderivative, F, of
f, then we have found all antiderivatives. Any other antiderivative of
f must have the form: F(x) + C.
Let us agree on some terminology. If F is an antiderivative of f,
then F(x) +C will be referred to as the general antiderivative of f.
In the next few sections, antidierentiation formulas are developed.
Before we get to that point, try to solve each of the following exercises.
The trick is to imagine what the function F would have to look like in
order for its derivative to be the given function f. Use your knowledge
of the dierentiation formulas to construct the function F. You can
check your answers before jumping to the solutions.
Exercise 2.5. Find the general antiderivative of f(x) = x
7
.
Exercise 2.6. Find the general antiderivative of f(x) = 4x
5
.
Exercise 2.7. Find the general antiderivative of f(x) = 4x
5
+ x
7
.
Exercise 2.8. Find the general antiderivative of f(x) = 3 cos(x).
Exercise 2.9. Find the general antiderivative of f(x) = 3 cos(x) +
4 sin(x).
And nally, to illustrate that the ideas in this section are not de-
pendent on the name of the function and the variable name, try this
exercise.
Exercise 2.10. Find the general antiderivative of h(t) = 4t
7
6t
2
+10
The next few paragraphs can be skipped over on rst reading.
For those who want to know more. The next exercise is a natural
question: Must a function always have an antiderivative? The answer
is no, in general. Dont look at the solution, yet. Think about this
question, and as you progress through these notes and learn more
about antidierentiation, perhaps you can answer this question on
your own. Be aware that their are innity many examples, so even if
you produce an example, it may not be the same as mine.
Exercise 2.11. Give an example of a function f dened over the
interval ( 0, 1 ) such that f does not have an antiderivative over the
interval ( 0, 1 ). (See the commantary that follows the statement of
this problem.)
Thoughts on this Exercise. You have to create a function, f, that is
so weird that for any function F, F
(x) = f(x) for at least one x

( 0, 1 ). That seems simple enough. After you think of a candidate for
f, the interesting part is to prove your example has no antiderivative.
To do this, you must use the denition of derivative, some common
sense, and . . . the Mean Value Theorem.
Ive marked this exercise with a , meaning it is moderately dicult,
and requires some abstract thinking, and proof construction.
As you learn more about the dierentiation process, maybe you can
imagine such a function f would look like. Keep this exercise in mind
as you work through these tutorial. Come back soon!
For those who want to know more. If youve solved the last exercise,
or studied it in detail, here is another exercise for you. The function in
my solution to Exercise 2.11 had the property that antiderivatives
existed for it over the interval ( 0,
1
2
) and (
1
2
, 1 ), but not over ( 0, 1 ).
Now, construct a function f dened on the interval ( 0, 1 ) such that
f has no antiderivative over any subinterval of ( 0, 1 ); i.e., nd a
function f such that for any ( a, b ) ( 0, 1 ), f has no antiderivtive
over ( a, b, ). :-)
Ive marked this exercise with a , meaning it is more dicult and
can be skipped over on rst reading; however, by making a signicant
modication of my example in Exercise 2.11. (Hint: The example
that I have in mind only takes on the values of 0 and 1.)
Exercise 2.12. Give an example of a function, f, dened over the
interval ( 0, 1 ) such that f does not have an antiderivative over any
subinterval of ( 0, 1 ).
2.1. The Indenite Integral Notation
Notation. The notation, which is due to Leibniz, you will nd rather
unusual. Let f be a function of x, an indenite integral of f, denoted
by
_
f(x) dx, (1)
is any function whose derivative is f; that is, (1) is a symbol that
represents any antiderivative of f.
Notation Notes: The function, f, is called the integrand. Notice that
the indenite integral is a function this is an important point to
remember.
The symbol dx is called the dierential of x. See below for a
discussion of the role of dx.
The symbol x is called the variable of integraton.
Quick Response.
1. Consider the integral:
_
3x
4
dx. Which of the following is the
integrand?
(a) x
4
(b) 3x
4
(c) 3 (d) n.o.t.
2. Consider the integral:
_
a cos(z) + bz dz. What is the variable
of integration?
(a) a (b) b (c) x (d) z
3. What is the integrand of the integral in (2)?
(a) cos(z) (b) a cos(z) (c) a cos(z) + bz (d) n.o.t.
4. Complete the following phrase: An indenite integral is
(a) an antiderivative of its integrand.
(b) the derivative of its integrand.
(c) an antiderivative of the derivative of its integrand.
(d) the derivative of the antiderivative of its integrand.
Reading the Notation. The notation (1) is read as The integral of
f(x) with respect to x. The dierential notation, dx, in this context,
is read as with respect to x.
For example, consider the equation:
_
3x
2
dx = x
3
+ C.
This equation may be read from left to right as the integral of 3x
2
with respect to x is x
3
plus an arbitrary constant C. The function
3x
2
is the integrand. Youll notice that the indenite integral of 3x
2
is indeed a function of x.
When the integral notation is used by itself,
_
cos(x) dx,
it poses the question: What is the integral (antiderivative) of the
function cos(x) with respect to x? The integral also provides a handy
notation for presenting the answer:
_
cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C,
which reads: the integral of cos(x) with respect to x is sin(x) plus
any constant C.
Exercise 2.13. Write out a sentence which will be a precise English
translation of the equation
_
sin(t) dt = cos(t) + C.
Before trying the next exercise, review the denition of the indenite
integral and the description of the indenite integral notation.
Exercise 2.14. What is the evaluation of
d
dx
_
f(x) dx?
Exercise 2.15. Evaluate the expression:
d
dx
_
(x + sin(x))
10
dx.
Exercise 2.16. Evaluate the expression:
d
ds
_
tan
12
(s) ds.
The signicance of the dx. For right now, the role dx plays will
be three-fold. (Well get another fold later.)
1. An indenite integral is supposed to be a function, but a func-
tion of what variable? The dierential notation that is incorporated
into the integral answers this question.
For example, in the statement,
_
x
2
dx
the dx indicates that this indenite integral represents a function.
The dening property of this function (of x) is that its derivative with
respect to x is x
2
, the integrand. (Note:
_
x
2
dx =
1
3
x
3
+ C.)
The statement
_
t
3
dt
represents a function of t (as indicated by the dt) such that if we
dierentiate this function with respect to t we obtain the integrand,
t
3
. (Note:
_
t
3
dt =
1
4
t
4
+ C.)
The statement
_
zs
5
ds
is a function of s. Here, the symbol z may represent a constant or
another function; in any case, regardless of the meaning of the symbol
z, the integral represents a function of s (because of the ds).
2. The symbol dx tells us what variable we are to consider as the
variable of integration. Why is it important to know the variable of
integration? Read on.
Without the dierential notation, the following symbolism is am-
biguous
_
s cos(t).
Are we to consider the integrand a function of s (f(s) = s cos(t))
and integrate with respect to s, or should we consider the integrand
a function of t (f(t) = s cos(t)) and integrate with respect to t? De-
pending on what variable is the variable of integration, we would have
totally dierent answers:
_
s cos(t) ds =
1
2
s
2
cos(t) + C
_
s cos(t) dt = s sin(t) + C.
In each of the evaluations, we assumed all other algebraic symbols
were constants. To verify the correctness of these equations, simply
dierentiate the right-hand sides of these equations to obtain the in-
tegrand; remember, the derivative of an indenite integral is its in-
tegrand. (Dierentiate with respect to the variable indicated by the
dierential.)
It is true that in many situations we know the variable of integration
from the context. There can really be no dispute that in the integral
_
x
2
,
x is the variable of integration; however, mathematicians like to have
their notation tightly wrapped and addressed so that can be abso-
lutely no confusion as to the variable of integrationhence the use of
the dx notation.
By the way, evaluate
_
x
2
please.
3. The symbol dx also acts as a delimiter. It helps us to dene
the integrand. The integrand is the function that lies between the
_
symbol and the dx symbol.
_
. . . . . .
. .
integrand
dx
Without this delimiter, the integrand may not be identiable. For
example, in some applications we want to calculate in integral and
add it to another function. Consider the following integral without
the benet of the dx symbol
_
x
3
+ x
2
+ x.
Now do we want to calculate the integral of x
3
and then add it to the
function x
2
+x, or to we want to calculate the integral of x
3
+x
2
and
add this result to x?
Perhaps it would always be understood from the context of the prob-
lem what is meant, but mathematician like things more exactly orga-
nized.
2.2. An Application: Velocity and Acceleration
It seems that a student is always asking, Whats this good for? This
seems to me to be a fair and reasonable question.
Antidierentiation is nothing more than the reverse process to dif-
ferentiation. You have this fancy notation for an antiderivative that
doesnt make sense, and you have this term indenite integral, and
whats this +C bit?
The indenite integral has wide ranging applications, as does the def-
inite integral, yet to be taken up. In this section we look at a simple
application to the antiderivative, and see what the +C is all about.
There are many physical systems that must obey certain physical laws.
Many of these physical laws are described by mathematical formula.
By identifying the physical laws the system must obey, and writing
these laws mathematically, sometimes we can solve the equations and
obtain, as a result, extensive knowledge of the state of the system.
Analysis of Free Falling Body. Suppose you are standing on the
ground with a rock in your hand. At some instant in time (your choice)
you throw the rock vertically upward. When the rock leaves your hand,
the rock is s
0
feet above the ground, and it is going at a velocity of
v
0
ft/sec. It is our desire to have total knowledge of the motion of the
rock.
The rock must obey a certain physical law: Due to gravity, the rock
must accelerate towards the earth at a rate of 32 ft/sec
2
. To maintain
total abstraction, let g denote the acceleration due to gravity.
The motion of the rock must then satisfy,
a(t) = g, (2)
at any time t. Acceleration, then, is a constant function of time, t. I
have appended a minus sign to indicate that the rock is accelerating
downward toward the earth.
Recall that for a particle in motion, acceleration is the rate at which
velocity changes with respect to time. In terms of Calculus concepts:
a(t) =
d
dt
v(t).
In the language of this article, this means that v(t) is an indenite
integral, or antiderivative, of a(t). Symbolically,
v(t) =
_
a(t) dt. (3)
But by (2), a(t) = g. Substituting this into (3) we get,
v(t) =
_
g dt. (4)
The right-hand side of (4) is the integral of a specic function; namely,
the constant function equal to g. We can conjure up an antiderivative
of g: A function (of t) whose derivative (with respect to t) is equal
to g. After many hours of meditation we reach the result,
v(t) =
_
g dt = gt + C. (5)
You can check for yourself that the derivative of gt + C is the in-
tegrand, g. We have shown that the (unknown) velocity function
must be for the form gt + C, for some constant C. This doesnt do
us much good unless we can put our little phalanges on this C.
The value of C can be obtained by substituting some of the informa-
tion we have about our rock; in particular, at time t = 0, the rock has
a velocity of v
0
. Thus, from (5),
v
0
= v(0) = g(0) + C
or,
C = v
0
. (6)
Now update our equation (5) using (6) to get,
v(t) = gt + v
0
. (7)
We now have total knowledge of the velocity of the rock at any time
t.
But lets continue. What is the position of the rock at any time t?
Again, we have seen that velocity is the rate at which position changes
with respect to time. Let s(t) denote the height the rock is o the
ground at time t, then we know
v(t) =
d
dt
s(t).
But this says that s(t) is an indenite integral, or antiderivative, of
v(t). In the language of indenite integrals, this equation becomes
s(t) =
_
v(t) dt. (8)
But from (7), v(t) = gt + v
0
. Substituting this into (8) we get
s(t) =
_
gt + v
0
dt (9)
The right-hand side is the indenite of a concrete function, v
0
being
a symbol for a numerical constant. This can be calculated:
_
gt + v
0
dt =
1
2
gt
2
+ v
0
t + C. (10)
This can be veried by dierentiating the right-hand side with respect
to t to obtain the integrand. Putting this result into (9), we obtain
s(t) =
1
2
gt
2
+ v
0
t + C. (11)
Once again we have the enigmatic C. The equation (11) states the
functional form of s(t). We cant use this equation until we know C.
But again, at time t = 0, we have the information that the rock was
at a height of s
0
. Putting t = 0 in (11) we get
s
0
= s(0) = 0 + 0 + C
or,
C = s
0
.
Now, update equation (11) to get
s(t) =
1
2
gt
2
+ v
0
t + s
0
. (12)
Now we have total knowledge of the physical system.
Summary: A rock leaves your hand at time t = 0 at an initial height
of s
0
and an initial velocity of v
0
. Then, for any time t,
a(t) = g
v(t) = gt + v
0
s(t) =
1
2
gt
2
+ v
0
t + s
0
. (13)
An example will illuminate the concepts.
Example 2.2. You throw a rock is vertically at a speed of 50 ft/sec,
and the rock is initially 6 ft o the ground.
a. Find the equation (13) that species the height, s(t) of the rock
above the ground at time t.
b. How high is the rock o the ground 1 second after the rock
leaves your hand?
c. How long before the rock hits the ground?
d. What is the velocity of the rock when it hits the ground?
e. At what time is the rock 6 feet above the ground?
f. What is the velocity of the rock when the rock is 6 feet o the
ground?
g. How high does the rock go?
Section 3: Some Basic Integration Formulas
3. Some Basic Integration Formulas
We now turn to the task of developing form formula for evaluating
indenite integrals. Each rule must be memorized. It is important to
memorize and understand these formulas because they will represent
a base of knowledge upon with you can reason, solve problems, com-
municate with others, and expand to more complicated ideas without
being encumbered.
Heres an expansion that last point, for those who want to know
more.
Fundamentally, there are two types of integration formulas: specic
formulas and general formulas. In the next two sections we discuss
each of these types.
3.1. Specic Formulas
A specic formula for integration is an integral formula that actually
solves an integral problem. In this section we identify a few of the
more elementary ones.
The Integral of 0. The most elementary integral formula is
_
0 dx = C. (1)
The integrand is 0.
Exercise 3.1. Refer to equation (1). The integrand is suppose to be
a function of x, yet is state, and I quote myself, The integrand is 0.
But 0 is a number not a function, explain this paradox.
Why is this formula true? Because the derivative of a constant
is zero; therefore, any constant function C is an antiderivative of the
identically 0 function.
The Power Rule. Let r Q be a rational number, r = 1, then by
the Power Rule, we have
d
dx
x
r+1
r + 1
=
1
r + 1
d
dx
x
r+1
1
r + 1
(r + 1)x
r
= x
r
.
This says that an antiderivative of x
r
is
x
r+1
r + 1
. In terms of the indef-
inite integral notation, we have
_
x
r
dx =
x
r+1
r + 1
+ C.
Lets elevate this formula.
Power Rule Junior Grade:
Let r Q be a rational number, r = 1, then
_
x
r
dx =
x
r+1
r + 1
+ C.
Exercise 3.2. Why do you think that we require r = 1 in the
Power Rule?
At the beginning of this section, I remarked that specic integra-
tion formulas are formulas that actually solve integral problems. This
is apparent from the Power Rule Formula The left-hand side is the
statement of an integral problem, the right-hand side is the solution
to same.
The use of the Power Rule depends on your ability to identify power
functions. If you cannot recognize a power function, then you will not
be able to apply the power rule.
Quick Response. Which of the following functions is a power function
of x? (Or, simplies to a power function!)
(a) 5
x+1
(b) (x + 1)
x
(c)
x
x
3
n.o.t.
Here are some quick visual examples with positive integer exponents.
_
x
2
dx =
x
3
3
+ C
_
x
3
dx =
x
4
4
+ C
_
x
10
dx =
x
11
11
+ C
_
t
20
dt =
t
21
21
+ C
_
w
8
dw =
w
9
9
+ C.
Now for some quick visual examples with negative integer exponents.
_
x
3
dx =
x
2
2
+ C =
1
2
x
2
+ C
_
t
5
dt =
t
4
4
+ C =
1
4
t
4
+ C
_
w
23
dw =
w
22
22
+ C =
1
22
w
22
+ C.
How about fractional exponents?
_
x
2/3
dx =
x
5/3
5/3
+ C =
3
5
x
5/3
+ C
_
u
2/3
du =
u
1/3
1/3
+ C = 3x
1/3
+ C
_
z
11/4
dz =
z
7/4
7/2
+ C =
4
7
x
7/4
+ C.
Do you get the idea?
Important. In the above quick visual examples, I presented examples
with a variety of variables of integration. The application of the power
rule does not depend on the variable, x, that is used to write the
formula down. The power rule is
_
x
r
dx =
x
r+1
r + 1
+ C, r = 1.
On the left-hand side of this equation, the key point is this: the base
function of the power function being integrated is exactly the same
as the variable of integration as dened by the dx. If these two do
not match, then the power rule, as currently stated, does not apply!
A simple example of this observation is the following:
_
(2x + 1)
1/2
dx.
We are integrating a power function, but the base function, 2x + 1,
does not match the variable of integration, x, as dened by the dx
symbolism. Therefore, this form of the power rule does not apply.
Below you will nd a more general power rule that we can use here.
To summarize:
Key Point: When you are integrating a power function, in
order for the power rule to apply, the base of the power
function must be the same as the variable of integration.
Exercise 3.3. Calculate
_
x
3/4
dx.
_
w
7/3
dw.
Heres a slight variation on the previous exercises, see if you can think
your way through.
_
(2x)
4
dx.
Important. When applying the Power Rule, the power function must
be in the numerator. Move the power function into the numerator, for
the correct calculation of the exponent!
To illustrate this point, consider this . . .
Example 3.1. Evaluate
_
1
x
2
dx.
Exercise 3.6. Evaluate
_
1
u
du.
_
x
2
xdx.
_

t
t
3
dt.
(Hint: Make integrand into a power function.)
Heres a poser.
_
dx, and
_
du.
Trigonometric Functions. There are six formulas for solving inte-
grals involving trigonometric functions.
Trigonometric Integration Formulas: Junior Grade:
(1)
_
cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C
(2)
_
sin(x) dx = cos(x) + C
(3)
_
sec
2
(x) dx = tan(x) + C
(4)
_
csc
2
(x) dx = cot(x) + C
(5)
_
sec(x) tan(x) dx = sec(x) + C
(6)
_
csc(x) cot(x) dx = csc(x) + C
The student should verify these six formulas by dierentiating the left-
hand side of each formula, to obtain the integrand of the right-hand
side. See the exercise below.
Youll note that there are essentially three formulas here; the other
three are coed versions of the rst three. Formulas (2), (4), and (6)
can be constructed from (1), (3), and (5), by co-ing the functions
and appending a negative sign to the answer. For example, formula (3)
is
_
sec
2
(x) dx = tan(x) + C.
Now if we coed the functions, and appended a negative sign to the
answer we get
_
csc
2
(x) dx = cot(x) + C
This makes it very easy to remember these six (three) formulas.
These formulas must be memorized. There are two ways of remem-
bering something: sitting down and muttering to yourself, repeating
the formulas over and over again (not good); do many problems, each
time you use these formulas, verbalize the formula after awhile,
youll have them memorized.
The exercises are limited right now.
_
cos(t) dt.
_
csc
2
(s) dx.
_
sin
2
(x
3
) + cos
2
(x
3
) dx.
Exercise 3.13. Verify formula (4).
This is the sum total of the specic integration formulas. In Calculus
II, many more formulas of this type will be developed.
3.2. General Formulas
A general formula for integration is a formula that transforms the
integral into another integral or integrals. General formulas do not
solve an integral problem.
Homogeneous Property. The homogeneous property comes from
the corresponding property for dierentiation.
Homogeneous Property:
For any constant c and any function f, we have
_
cf(x) dx = c
_
f(x) dx.
If we think of the left-hand side as the given integral problem, then the
formula does not solve the problem; it merely transforms the problem
into another integral problem (the right-hand side).
This substance of the Homogeneous Property is that constants can be
taken outside an intgral.
Example 3.2. Verify the Homogeneous Property.
_
4x
6
dx.
_
6t
t dt
The Additive Property. A fundamental formula which, along with
the Homogeneous Property, delineates the algebraic stucture of the
indenite integral.
The Additivity of the Integral :
Let f and g be functions, then
_
f(x) + g(x) dx =
_
f(x) dx +
_
g(x) dx.
Again note that this formula does not solve integrals it merely
transforms the integral problem on the left-hand side into two integral
problems on the right-hand side. Solving integrals is the role of the
specic formulas.
The use of this formulas depends on your ability to realize that the
integrand is the sum of several functions. That shouldnt be too dif-
cult? Well nd out.
Example 3.3. (Skill Level 0). Evaluate
_
3x
4
+ 6x
2
dx.
Exercise 3.16. (Skill Level 0). Evaluate
_
2
3
x
6
8x
12
dx.
_
8 sec
2
(x) 6 sec(x) tan(x) dx.
Some integrals require you to manipulate the integrand algebraically
before attempting to integrate. Next up are a few examples of these
creatures.
_
(t
4
4t
3
)
2
dt.
_ _
w
3
1
w
2
_
2
dw.
_
(sec(x) + tan(x))
2
dx. (Hint: Square it,
and use the identity: sec
2
(x) tan
2
(x) = 1.)
4. The Technique of Substitution
The formulas and techniques already developed are useful and impor-
tant, but they are limited in their scope. For example, the power rule
can solve
_
x
1/2
dx,
but cannot solve the integral,
_
(2x + 1)
1/2
dx.
Do you know why? If not, review the discussion presented earlier.
Section 4: The Technique of Substitution
4.1. Developing the Idea: Substitution
If indenite integration is the reverse operation to dierentiation, then
substitution is the reverse operation of the Chain Rule.
Let f and g be are dierentiable and compatible for composition. Let
F be an antiderivative of f; this means that F
(u) = f(u). Since F is

an antiderivative of f, we have
_
f(u) du = F(u) + C. (1)
Now from the Chain Rule,
(F g)
(x) = F
(g(x))g
(x) = f(g(x))g
(x).
In the language of antiderivatives, this equation says that the left-
hand side is an antiderivative of the right-hand side. Therefore,
_
f(g(x))g
(x) dx = F(g(x)) + C. (2)

If we now take the right-hand side of (1), and replace u with g(x), we
obtain
_
f(u) du = F(g(x)) + C. (3)
Notice that the right-hand sides of (2) and (3) are identical; there-
fore, the left-hand sides are equivalent. What this means is that we
can solve the integral in (2), by rst solving the integral in (1), then
replacing u with g(x).
In fact, we equate (2) and (3) we obtain the classic substitution of
variable formula:
_
f(g(x))g
(x) dx =
_
f(u) du, (4)
where, u = g(x).
Equation (4) displays the principle of substitution. We can think of the
left-hand side or the right-hand side as our target, or given, integral.
The principle of substitution states then that the given integral is
equal to the integral on the other side of the equality.
Equation (4) is especially pleasing when we remember the concept of
the dierential:
If u = g(x), then du = g
(x) dx.
Thus, if
_
f(g(x))g
(x) dx is our given integral, we can let u = g(x)

and so du = g
(x) dx. Now replacing these symbolisms into our given

integral we obtain
_
f(g(x))g
(x) dx =
_
f(u) du.
On the other hand, if
_
f(u) du is our given integral, we can let u =
g(x) and so du = g
(x) dx. Now replacing these symbolisms into our

given integral we obtain
_
f(u) du =
_
f(g(x))g
(x) dx.
Before looking at an extensive collection of examples, lets highlight
this technique.
The Technique of Substitution:
Let f and g be functions. Let u = g(x) and du = g
(x) dx,
then
_
f(g(x))g
(x) dx =
_
f(u) du.
4.2. Learning the Technique of Substitution
Lets now examine the circumstances under which this principle can
be applied and exhibit the standard techniques of implementing the
formula.
_
(x + 1)
15
dx.
This example hopefully gives you a vision of the potential use of the
Substitution. The next examples will tend to expand your vision.
_
(2x + 1)
15
dx.
Now you try one.
_
(3x + 1)
20
dx.
(Hint: Consider the substitution u = 3x + 1.)
These examples and exercises were all the same. They were the inte-
grals of power functions. The technique of substitution is quite gen-
eral, and can be applied in a wide variety of problems.
_
cos(2x) dx.
_
sec
2
(3x) dx. Use the substitution u = 2x.
In the next two sections, we create specialized formulas for integrating
power functions and trigonometric functions. The new formulas are
created using the substitution formula applied to abstractions of the
examples and exercises we just nished.
4.3. The Generalized Power Rule
We can generalize the basic Power Rule using the technique of sub-
stitution.
Generalized Power Rule:
Let u be a function of some variable (perhaps x, or t, or s,
or any variable), and let r Q be a rational number, then
_
u
r
du =
u
r+1
r + 1
+ C r = 1.
The rst thing you will notice is that this formula is exactly the same
as our old Power Rule. The only dierence is the choice of the letter
to describe the formulas. Yes, thats true. But our interpretation of
this letter is dierent: We are thinking of u as a function of some
other variable, say, u = f(x), and so du = f
(x) dx. In this case, the

Generalized Power Rule actually becomes
_
[f(x)]
r
f
(x) dx =
[f(x)]
r+1
r + 1
+ C.
As you can see, this gives us the ability to solve the integrals of more
general power functions . . . if the conditions are right.
Lets take a look at an example in light of this new formula.
_
(5x 3)
9
dx.
Now, we raise the level of diculty a little, but not discouragingly so.
_
x(3x
2
5)
3/4
dx.
Strategy. When trying to use the Power Rule to solve an integral
involving power functions, let u be the base function of your power
function, if the power rule is to apply, the rest of the integrand must
be directly proportional to the du. If not there are two courses: (1)
Some integrands have several power functions in them, try another
choice; (2) The power rule does not apply, use another formula, or try
a technique.
Commentary on the Previous Example: In light of the Strategy, lets
look at the solution to Example 4.5. I let u = 3x
2
5, this was the
base of the power function. I calculated du to be du = 6xdx. Youll
notice that the rest of the integrand is directly proportional to the
calculate value of du:
_
(3x
2
5)
3/4
xdx.
I then factored in the constant of proportionality, 6, and compensated
for the insertion of this factor, by factoring in
1
6
, outside the integral.
The overall eect is to multiply by (6)(
1
6
) = 1. No damage done, but
a lot of good.
1
6
_
(3x
2
5)
3/4
6xdx.
The result is that I can not aect the substitution:
1
6
_
u
3/4
du,
and I am home free.
Keeping the Strategy in mind, solve following exercise, please.
_
x
8
(6x
9
+ 12)
1/3
dx.
The next example illustrate a case when the Power Rule does not
apply. This case is just as important because you need to learn to
recognize when the power rule does not apply, so you can move on to
another solution method rather than giving up.
Example 4.6. (Power Rule Does Not Apply.)
Evaluate
_
x
3
(2x
3
+ 1)
7
dx.
Here are some exercises that are solved directly by the Power Rule.
_
x
4 3x
2
dx. (Hint: Convert integrand to
a power function in the numerator!)
All these problems are pretty much the same. Youre words of advice
for today are
Identication and Implementation!
_
(3x
3
1)(3x
4
4x+1)
1.45
dx. (Hint: Keep
a cool head, and follow the strategy for the power rule.)
Quiz. Which of the following integrals can be solved by the Power
Rule, and which cannot. Before you begin you may want to review
the strategy for the Power Rule.
1.
_
(x
2
+ 1)
2
dx. (a) Yes (b) No
2.
_
x(x
2
+ 1)
2
dx. (a) Yes (b) No
3.
_
x
2
x
3
+ 1
. (a) Yes (b) No
4.
_
x 1
(x
2
2x 1)
2
. (a) Yes (b) No
5.
_
x
(x
3
+ 1)
100
. (a) Yes (b) No
6.
_
(x 2)(x
2
3x 1)
17
dx. (a) Yes (b) No
7.
_
x
x
2
+ 1
dx. (a) Yes (b) No
Passing Score: 5 out of 7.
Quiz Notes: The last answer was No because the power function is
(x
2
+ 1)
1
. We let u = x
2
+ 1 and so du = 2xdx, which is directly
proportional to the rest of the integrand, so why is No the correct
answer? Because the value of the exponent of the power function is
r = 1. This is the exceptional case to which the Power Rule does
not apply. Trick Question! You have to be on your Power Rule toes!
The case r = 1 is covered in Calculus II.
End Quiz
Finally, lets have a . . .
Period of Consolidation. Take a moment to consolidate your knowl-
edge by listing out the major points of this Generalized Power Rule
section.
4.4. Integration of Trig Functions
We have two sets of elementary integration formulas: The original
Power Rule and the set of Trigonometric. In the previous section, we
have generalized the old Power Rule using the Technique of Substitu-
tion to obtain a more general, more powerful Generalized Power Rule.
Now we do the same for the Trig formulas.
Before presenting the list of new formulas, you might review an earlier
example, Example 4.3, in which the technique of substitiution is
utilized to analyze a trigonometric integral.
Trigonometric Integration Formulas:
Let u be a function of some independent variable, then
(1)
_
cos(u) du = sin(u) + C
(2)
_
sin(u) du = cos(u) + C
(3)
_
sec
2
(u) du = tan(u) + C
(4)
_
csc
2
(u) du = cot(u) + C
(5)
_
sec(u) tan(u) du = sec(u) + C
(6)
_
csc(u) cot(u) du = csc(u) + C
Here is an example with extensive discussion concerning the back-
ground thinking that should be going on.
_
sin(5x) dx.
Strategy. Given that you have an integral to be solved that involve
any of the trigonometric function types sin, cos, sec
2
, csc
2
, sec tan,
or csc cot, then the Trig. formulas might apply. To verify that one of
the trig formulas apply, let u be equal to the argument of the trigono-
metric function. The rest of the integral must be directly proportional
to the du, the dierential of u. If this is so, then the formula applies,
if not, the formula does not apply.
_
xsec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) dx.
_
sec
2
(4x) dx.
_
sin
x
dx.
Example 4.9. (Trig. Formulas do not apply.) Evaluate
_
xcos(x) dx.
This next exercise may be a bit tricky.
_
xsec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) sec
2
(sec(x
2
)) dx.
(Hint: Follow the strategy.)
Section 5: Substitution: Two Attitudes
5. Substitution: Two Attitudes
The use we have made of the technique of substitution could be de-
scribed as formula checking. In all the examples and exercises given
so far, we have had an integral, and we have solved that integral us-
ing a formula. Before we can use a particular formula we must check
whether it applies. The checking process is carried out by the device
of substitution.
5.1. Formula Checking
Given that we have a integral problem:
_
x(3x
2
+ 4)
1/3
dx. (1)
We decide to try to solve this integral using the Power Rule:
_
u
r
du =
u
r+1
r + 1
+ C r = 1. (2)
Does this formula successfully solve the given problem, (1)? The way
we see this is to set up a correspondence between the given integral,
(1), and the selected formula. The formal mechanism for setting up
this correspondence is substitution. In the formula (2), the u is the
base of the power function; therefore, if (2) is going to solve (1), then
u must be the base of the power function in (1). This is why we would
naturally say,
Let u = 3x
2
+ 4, and so du = 6xdx. (3)
Rearrange the order of our integral so that the power function is listed
rst (as that is the way it is written in the formula we are trying to
use).
_
(3x
2
+ 4)
1/3
xdx (4)
We notice that everything in the formula integral, (2), following the
power function is the du of the integral; therefore, if the formula is
to apply, everything after our power function in our integral (4) must
be the du part. We notice that the expression that follows the power
function in (4) is directly proportional to the du, as calculated in (3).
Insert now, the appropriate fudge factor,
1
6
_
(3x
2
+ 4)
1/3
6xdx. (5)
Now, all the component parts of the formula integral (2) match up
with our integral (5): the integral in (5) has the form u raised to a
power times the dierential of that u. We know now that the Power
Rule does apply, but to make it absolutely clear, we can go ahead and
make the substitution:
_
x(3x
2
+ 4)
1/3
dx =
1
6
_
(3x
2
+ 4)
1/3
6xdx
=
1
6
_
u
1/3
du.
Now, we really can see that the Power Rule is applicable and we can
go on to evaluate the integral using that rule.
The formal substitution into the integral really isnt necessary:
_
x(3x
2
+ 4)
1/3
dx =
1
6
_
(3x
2
+ 4)
1/3
. .
u
r
6xdx
. .
du
=
1
6
3
4
(3x
2
+ 4)
4/3
+ C
=
1
8
(3x
2
+ 4)
4/3
+ C
(5)
Here, rather than making the substitution, I just invoked the Power
Rule: raise the function to one greater power, and divide by that
power.
Can you see how substitution is used to check whether a given formula
can solve a given integral? Once the determination has been made,
the actual formal substitution need not even take place, see (5).
The next example exhibits how substitution can be used to show that
a given formula does not solve a given integral.
Example 5.1. Argue that the Power Rule does not solve the integral
_
x(x
3
+ 1)
100
dx.
Example 5.2. Verify, through substitution, that
_
cos(2x) dx can be
solve using (1). Solve the integral without making the substitution.
Exercise 5.1. Verify, through substitution, that
_
sec
2
(3x
2
) xdx
can be solve using (3). Solve the integral without making the sub-
stitution.
5.2. True Substitution of Variables
The technique has more powerful uses than simple formula checking.
It can be used in the spirit of true substitution of variables. The
substitution formula is
_
f(g(x))g
(x) dx =
_
f(u) du. (6)
Then using this equation for formula checking, we usually use it from
left to right; that is, we think of our given integral as the left-hand
side, make a substitution, to obtain the right-hand side. Let me pull
some trick photography on you: In (6), interchange the roles of x and
u, and move each integral to the opposite side of the equation. If you
followed that description, you will get the equation,
_
f(x) dx =
_
f(g(u))g
(u) du. (7)

Again think of the left-hand side as the given integral. This will be
our working formula for these paragraphs.
True substitution of variables is performed with a dierent attitude
than in formula checking. In formula checking, we had a denite for-
mula in mind and we used substitution to check whether it applied
to our problem integral. In true substitution of variables, we have no
such formula in mind; in fact, we really dont know what to do or how
to solve the problem.
When in doubt, substitute!
Typically, when you have an integral
_
f(x) dx (8)
and you choose to make a substitution, the form of the substitution
is likely to look like
Let x = g(u), and dx = g
(u) dx, (9)

where g is some appropriately chosen function. Given this choice, then
it is a simple matter formally substitute (9) into (8) to obtain,
_
f(x) dx =
_
f(g(u))g
(u) du (10)
which is our working substitution formula (7).
Substitution Strategy. Quit often, we choose a substitution x = g(u)
that tends to simplify the function f(x). This simplication of f(x)
comes at the expense of making the dierential part of the integral
more complicated.
f(x) f(g(u))
. .
simpler
dx g
(u) du
. .
more complex
It is hoped that the overall eect is a successful continuation of the
problem ultimately to solution.
So much for abstractions and general principles, lets focus on an
example.
_
x(x + 1)
100
dx.
_
x
2
(2x + 1)
1/2
dx.
Try this exercise on for size.
_
x(3x 2)
4
dx.
(Hint: Let u = 3x 2.)
_
x
2
(6x + 1)
1/2
dx.
(Hint: Let u = 6x + 1.)
Generalizations. All these integral problems are all of the same type:
_
x
n
(ax + b)
m
dx,
where n N is a small positive integer. The change of variables
Let u = ax + b. Then, x =
1
a
(u b) and dx =
1
a
du.
This substitution will work nicely.
There are a number of situations where a substitution of variables is
productive. These will be surveyed in Calculus II.
Section 6: Strategies for Integration
6. Strategies for Integration
Often when a student looks at an integral problem, such as this one,
_
x
2
sec(3x
3
) tan(3x
3
) dx, (1)
the student takes one look and says, I dont know how to solve it!
The problem lies not in the diculty level of the integral, but is the
unfocused thinking of the student.
In this section I lay out some thoughts on the subject.
Keys to Success. Here are the keys to successfully solving integrals at
the Calculus level.
1. A denite and precise knowledge of the integral formulas and
how they are applied.
2. A denite and precise knowledge of the techniques used to ma-
nipulate integrals.
3. Acquisition of a history of problem solving.
4. The ability to learn from problem solving.
5. A developed pattern of thinking for analyzing integral problems.
6.1. Knowledge of the Integral Formulas
The best way to have knowledge of the integral formulas is by using
them many times. As you use them, verbalize them: The integral
of the sine of some function times the dierential of that function
is the minus the cosine of the function. Verbalizations are supplied
throughout these les. As you verbalize the formulas, you will in turn
hear them. It is the hearing yourself say the formula as you use them
that enables you to remember them: You can remember yourself say-
ing the formula as a result, just listen to yourself.
Knowledge of the formulas implies the ability of recognize them. For
example, if you have a knowledge of the formulas, then you would
know that the integral in (1) can be solved by one of the basic formu-
las:
_
sec(u) tan(u) du = sec(u) + C.
Whereas, this integral
_
x
2
sec(3x
3
) cot(3x
3
) dx
cannot be solved by any of the basic formulas.
Knowledge of the formulas means that when you look at these inte-
grals
_
x
x
2
+ 1
_
sin
4
(x) cos(x) dx
_
(w
3
+ 4)
3/2
w
2
du
_
(
x + 1)
20
x
dx
as all the same problem: Same in the sense that they can all be solved
by the Power Rule.
6.2. Knowledge of the Techniques
A integration technique in any process or activity that transforms
your integral problem into another integral problem. The idea is to try
to solve the new integral problem. There are two types of techniques.
Two Types of Techniques
1. The application of a formula in which the integral symbol ap-
pears on both sides of the equation; for example,
_
cf(x) dx = c
_
f(x) dx
_
f(x) + g(x) dx =
_
f(x) dx +
_
g(x) dx
_
f(g(x)) g
(x) dx =
_
f(u) du u = g(x)
Each of these general formulas can be looked on a techniques; they
transform your problem into another problem. In Calculus II we de-
velop more techniques.
2. Direct manipulation of the integrand. You can use algebra to
transform the integrand or, perhaps, trigonometric identities. The
heavy use if trigonometric identities will be delayed until Calculus
II, but algebraic manipulation of the integrand is always in order.
6.3. Obtain a History of Problem Solving
At this level of play, integration is really quite simple: You know the
problem is solvable, and there are only a nite number of formulas
and techniques you can use (where the nite number is small);
therefore, you just have to keep at it Itll come . . . eventually.
Do not give up: Each time you successfully solve a problem
you are learning something, you are acquiring a history of
problem solving, you increase your condence that you can
solve the next problem.
Do not treat each problem as an unique problem you have never seen
before; actually, the kinds of problems you see is extremely limited
but disguised! If you solve a hundred problems using the power rule,
then you have not solved one hundred distinct problems youve
basically solved the same problem over and over again with dierent
us.
Your job is to pull o the disguise to see the true identity of the
problem. The problem,
_
xsin(x
2
) cos(cos(x
2
)) sin
3
(cos(x
2
)) dx (2)
is a nasty looking one, but actually, it is just the
1
2
_
u
3
du
where u = sin(cos(x
2
)). Do you see now how simple the integral in (2)
really is?
Exercise 6.1. Solve the integral in (2)
Be like the Moray Eel. It is said that once the moray eel locks onto
its victim with its mighty jaws, it will not let its victim go until the
victim yields (dies sorry). You must be a moray eel, your victim
is any problem in mathematics. Clamp onto your victim and hold on.
Dont let your victim go until it yields. Itll wiggle and jerk. Itll strain
and struggle. Dont let it go until it capitulates! You are the master,
the problem must submit to you!
6.4. Learn from Problem Solving
As you solve problems, it would really be nice if you could learn from
your experiences.
6.5. Patterned Thought: The Buttery Method
When you look at a integral problem, how should you think? Well,
of course, you are at liberty to think anyway you wish as long
as it works for you. However, if do you lack a disciplined pattern of
thought, I would put forth my one suggestions: the Buttery Method.
Consider the following listing of formulas and techniques:
Integral Formulas and Techniques
Specic Formulas Techniques
Power Rule Homogeneity
Trig. (1) Additivity
Trig. (2) Substitution
Trig. (3) Algebraic Manipulation
Trig. (4) Trigonometric Manipulation
Trig. (5)
Trig. (6)
Buttery Method
Problem. Solve
_
f(x) dx.
Begin.
1. Beginning at the top of the left-hand column, labeled Specic
Formulas, go down the list. For each formula in the list, determine
whether that formula solves the Problem. Use the formula checking
technique here.
2. If successful, you are done, Go to End, else, Go to Step 3.
3. Beginning at the top of the right-hand column, labeled Tech-
niques, go down the list. Choose a technique and apply it. Applying
one or more techniques does not solve the Problem; what it does is
to create one or more new integral problems. Now Go to Step 1 and
apply the Buttery Method to each of unsolved integral problems.
End.
Buttery Notes: The rst formula in the list of Specic Formulas
is the Power Rule; this is the rst formula you check. The Power
Rule can solve a variety of diversely dierent looking integrals. Use
formula checking and use the Power Rule Strategy outlined earlier.
Never overlook the Power Rule.
Many formulas in the Specic Formula list can be eliminated
immediately. For example, if the integral does not have trig functions
in it, obviously, the only specic formula that could possibly apply is
the Power Rule. Of course, in Calculus II, we obtain more Specic
Formulas, but until then, this simplied thinking is valid.
Even if the integrand involves trigonometric functions, test out
the Power Rule. When testing whether one of the trig integral formu-
las apply, use the Trig Strategy.
At the Calculus I level, the Techniques used are fairly obvious:
Manipulate the integrand algebraically, separate the integrand, if pos-
sible, using the Additive Property and factor out any constants using
the Homogeneity Property. Manipulation by trigonometric identities
is an option youll see more often in Calculus II ; the same is true for
true substitution. The substitution technique is just formula checking.
We now present a series of examples to illustrate the Buttery Method
of solving indenite integrals. Following those, is a series of exercises
for the user thats you.
_
x
3
(x
4
+ 3)
1/3
dx.
_
x
2
(x
2
+ 1)
2
dx.
_
x + 1
x
dx.
Exercise 6.2. The previous example can be solved another way. Can
you?
Exercise 6.3. The last exercise and the last example yielded two
seemingly dierent answers for the same integral. Resolve this appar-
ent ambiguity. (Hint: Review Theorem 2.2)
_
x
2
x + 1
dx.
The above examples have concentrated exclusively on integrands that
were algebraic functions, heres a couple of examples involving trigono-
metric functions.
_
csc
2
(
1
x
)
x
2
dx.
One last example, and Ill turn it over to you.
_
xsin(x
2
)
_
cos(x
2
)
dx.
Verbalizations
Power Rule Junior Grade:
Let r Q be a rational number, r = 1, then
_
x
r
dx =
x
r+1
r + 1
+ C.
The integral of x raised to a power, is x raised to one greater
power, divided by that greater power . . . plus an arbitrary
constant.
Verbalizations
Homogeneous Property:
For any constant c and any function f, we have
_
cf(x) dx = c
_
f(x) dx.
The integral of a constant times a function is that contant
times the integral of the function.
Verbalizations
The Additivity of the Integral :
Let f and g be functions, then
_
f(x) + g(x) dx =
_
f(x) dx +
_
g(x) dx.
The integral of the sum of two functions is the sum of the
integrals of each.
Verbalizations
Generalized Power Rule:
Let u be a function of some variable, and let r Q be a
rational number, then
_
u
r
du =
u
r+1
r + 1
+ C r = 1.
The integral of u raised to a power times the dierential of
u is the base function u raised to one greater power, divided
by that greater power . . . plus an arbitrary constant.
Consolidations
The Generalized Power Rule
a. The Generalized Power Rule itself.
b. Recognition of a power function.
c. General Strategy. Can I get the du?
d. Use of fudge factors. Yes, put in fudge factors.
e. Recognition when Power Rule does not apply. In this case try
another technique.
f. Keep an eye out for the exceptional case r = 1. In this case,
survive Calculus I and go into Calculus II to see the solution.
Good Knowledge! (Not luck!)
Solutions to Exercises
2.1. A function H is said to be an antiderivative of h provided
H
(t) = h(t) for all t. Exercise 2.1.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)
2.2. We verify this by dierentiation. From the denition of anti-
derivative, all we must do is check whether
F
(x) = f(x).
Well,
F
(x) =
d
dx
(4x + 1)
4
= 4(4x + 1)
3
d
dx
(4x + 1) power rule
= 4(4x + 1)
3
(4)
= 16(4x + 1)
3
= f(x)
Exercise 2.2.
2.3. The answer is Yes. Ive switched letter on you, I hope that
didnt confuse youits the ideas not the letters; comprehend the
meaning of the ideas, dont be letter dependent.
Anyway, f is an antiderivative of g since
f
(t) =
d
dt
(t
2
+ 1)
2
= 2(t
2
+ 1)
d
dt
(t
2
+ 1) power rule
= 2(t
2
+ 1)(2t) power rule
= 4t(t
2
+ 1)
= g(t).
Exercise 2.3.
2.4. The answer is No. To see why, simply dierentiate the func-
tion that is postulated to be an antiderivative of the other function.
Indeed,
H
(s) =
d
ds
cos(2s) = sin(2s)
d2s
ds
= 2 sin(2s)
Observe that the derivative of H is not the same as g:
H
(s) = 2 sin(2s) = 2 sin(2s) = g(s).

Therefore, we are entitled to say that H is not an antiderivative of
g. Exercise 2.4.
2.5. F(x) =
1
8
x
8
+ C. (Check the answer by dierentiating F. It
should be true that F
(x) = f(x)) Exercise 2.5.

2.6. F(x) =
4
6
x
6
+C =
2
3
x
6
+C. (Check the answer by dierentiating
F. It should be true that F

2.7. F(x) =
2
3
x
6
+
1
8
x
8
+C. (Check the answer by dierentiating F.
It should be true that F
(x) = f(x).) Exercise 2.7.

2.8. F(x) = 3 sin(x) +C. (Check the answer by dierentiating F. It
should be true that F

2.9. F(x) = 3 sin(x) 4 cos(x) + C. (Check the answer by dieren-
tiating F. It should be true that F

2.10. H(t) =
1
2
t
8
2t
3
+ 10t + K, where K is a constant. (Check
the answer by dierentiating H. It should be true that H
(t) = h(t))
Exercise 2.10.
2.11. Dene the function f by
f(x) =
_
0 if 0 < x
1
2
1 if
1
2
< x < 1
Now for the interesting parttrying to explain why no antiderivative
of f over the interval ( 0, 1 ) exists.
Suppose such a function F did exist; that is suppose F is a function
such that F
(x) = f(x) for all x ( 0, 1 ). Lets calculate the right-

hand derivative of F as x =
1
2
and see something weird happen!
Right-hand derivative:
0 = f(
1
2
) = F
(
1
2
) = F
+
(
1
2
)
= lim
h0
+
F(
1
2
+ h) F(
1
2
)
h
(A-1)
For h > 0, by the Mean Value Theorem, there is a number c
h
,
1
2
< c
h
<
1
2
+ h such that
F(
1
2
+ h) F(
1
2
)
h
= F
(c
h
) = f(c
h
) = 1. (A-2)
The last equaltiy follows since c
h
>
1
2
. (The notation c
h
is designed
to suggest that the value of c given to us by the Mean Value
Theorem depends on the interval (
1
2
,
1
2
+ h). The latter interval is
ever changing since we are taking the limit as h 0
+
; hence the value
of c
h
changes with h.)
Thus, from (A-1) and (A-2), it follows
0 = f(
1
2
) = F
+
(
1
2
) = lim
h0
+
f(c
h
) = lim
h0
+
1 = 1.
Oops! 0 = 1denitely a contradiction! A contradiction has insinu-
ated itself into our logical system. How could that have happened? It
comes from the assumption that an antiderivative for f existed! An
antiderivative does not exist!.
Exercise Notes: The function f does have an antiderivative over the
interval ( 0,
1
2
) and f has an antiderivative over the interval (
1
2
, 1 ),
but not a single function F that is an antiderivative over the whole
interval ( 0, 1 ).
Find the antiderivative of f over the interval ( 0,
1
2
) and nd the
antiderivative of f over the interval (
1
2
, 1 ).
Go through the above proof and justify each equality by citing
denitions and theoremsmake sure that you know the why of each
step.
Exercise 2.11.
2.12. One such example is the salt and pepper function. Dene
the function f, for x ( 0, 1 ), by
f(x) =
_
0 if x is a rational number
1 if x is an irrational number
Note: There is nothing special about the interval ( 0, 1 ).
The next question: How to prove that no antiderivative exists for this
function?
This is the second challanging part of this problem. Try to do it your-
self. Use the tools of Calculus I to make an argument. Hint: Assume
there is a function F such that F
(x) = f(x) for all x ( 0, 1 ) and

try to get a contradiction. You will nd the Mean Value Theorem
quit useful.
Proof that f has no antiderivative.
Exercise 2.12.
2.13. The integral of sin(t) with respect to t is cos(t) plus an
arbitrary constant C. Exercise 2.13.
2.14. Here we are playing mind games with you. The symbol
_
f(x) dx, (A-3)
by the description of the notation, represents an antiderivative of f.
An antiderivativeof f is any function whose derivative is f; therefore
the derivative of (A-3) is f, i.e., in symbolics,
d
dx
_
f(x) dx = f(x).
The derivative of an indenite integral is the integrand.
Notice that you were not asked to evaluate the integral, but to dier-
entiate it. This could be done without even without precise knowledge
of the denition of the integrand function. Exercise 2.14.
2.15. Because of the presence of the symbol dx, we know that the
variable of integration is x. This means that the indenite integral
_
(x + sin(x))
10
dx (A-4)
is considered to be a function of x. The integral (A-4) represents any
function (of x) whose derivative (with respect to x) is the integrand
(which is (x + sin(x))
10
). Therefore,
d
dx
_
(x + sin(x))
10
dx = (x + sin(x))
10
.
Exercise 2.15.
2.16. An indenite integral is an antiderivative of its integrand:
d
ds
_
tan
12
(s) ds = tan
12
(s).
Exercise 2.16.
3.1. You should have deduced: By your phrase, The integrand is
0, you obviously mean, Sir, that the integrand is the zero function
dened by, if memory serves, f(x) = 0, for all x. Exercise 3.1.
3.2. The condition that r = 1 is necessary in order to avoid divid-
ing by 0. Exercise 3.2.
3.3. Notice that the base of the power function is x, the same as the
variable of integration, as dened by dx.
_
x
3/4
dx =
x
1/4
1/4
+ C = 4x
1/4
+ C.
Division by 1/4 is the same as multiplication by 4. Exercise 3.3.
3.4. The problem is to calculate
_
w
7/3
dw.
The base function, w, is the same as the variable of integration, w, as
determined by the dierential dw. The power rule can safely applied:
_
w
7/3
dw =
w
10/3
10/3
+ C =
3
10
w
10/3
+ C.
Division by 10/3 is the same as multiplication by 3/10.
Exercise 3.4.
3.5. Now heres a bit of a spanner in the works! The given integral
problem,
_
(2x)
4
dx,
is the integral of a power function; however, the base of the power
function (2x)
4
is 2x which does not match the variable of integration,
x, as dened by the dx. In this simple case, we can easily remove the
spanner. Proceed as follows:
_
(2x)
4
dx =
_
2
4
x
4
dx
= 2
4
_
x
4
dx
= 16
x
5
5
+ C Power Rule
=
16
5
x
5
+ C.
When we applied the power rule, we did so to the problem of inte-
grating x
4
. Now the base of this power function matches the variable
of integration. Exercise 3.5.
3.6. Ill follow my own advice. Hope you did too. We proceed in a
methodical and organized way. Note that

u = u
1/2
.
_
1
u
1/2
du =
_
u
1/2
du
=
u
1/2
1/2
+ C Power Rule
= 2
u + C.
Notice that the base of the power function u
1/2
is u, the same as the
variable of integration, as dened by du. Exercise 3.6.
3.7. The integrand is f(x) = x
2
x. We cannot integrate this func-

tion as it is now expressed because it is not written as a power func-
tion. We must do that
f(x) = x
2
x = x
2
x
1/2
= x
5/2
.
Thus,
_
x
2
xdx =
_
x
5/2
dx
=
x
7/2
7/2
+ C
=
2
7
x
7/2
+ C
=
2
7
x
3
x + C
We have a limited number of formulas to evaluate an integral; there-
fore, we must sometimes manipulate the integrand so that the problem
ts into one of our formulas. Practically, the only formula we have is
the Power Rule so we must try to make the integrand into a power
function. Exercise 3.7.
3.8. The only way we can solve this problem is if the integrand is a
power function. It is . . . trust me; I know the person who made this
problem up!
_

t
t
3
dt =
_
t
1/2
t
3
dt
=
_
t
5/2
dt
=
t
3/2
3/2
+ C Power Rule
=
2
3
t
3/2
+ C
=
2
3t
t
+ C
Here is an important point: When you use the Power Rule, your power
function must be in the numerator.
The ideas and techniques do not depend on the variable of integration.
Exercise 3.8.
3.9. Just apply the Power Rule for the case r = 0.
_
dx = x + C
_
du = u + C.
Stare at these equations. One gets the feeling that the Int symbol
cancels out the d to get x and u.
_
dz = z + C
_
dw = w + C.
Exercise 3.9.
3.10. We use (1),
_
cos(t) dt = sin(t) + C.
The formulas are independent of the choice of the symbol to denote
the variable of integration. Exercise 3.10.
3.11. We use (4),
_
csc
2
(s) ds = cot(s) + C.
The formulas are independent of the choice of the symbol to denote
the variable of integration. Exercise 3.11.
3.12. None of the formulas apply. This is, in fact, a trick question.
You should have realized that
sin
2
(x
3
) + cos
2
(x
3
) = 1,
thus,
_
sin
2
(x
3
) + cos
2
(x
3
) dx =
_
1 dx =
_
dx = x + C,
by the Power Rule. Exercise 3.12.
3.13. Formula (4) claims that
_
csc
2
(x) dx = cot(x) + C.
The right-hand side is supposed to be an antiderivative of the inte-
grand.
d
dx
_
cot(x) + C
_
=
d
dx
cot(x) =
_
csc
2
(x)
_
= csc
2
(x),
where we have used the fact that the derivative of a constant term,
C, is zero, so we dropped it out of the calculations early; and the trig
dierentiation formulas (6). Thus the derivative of the answer is the
integrand; this means that the answer is, indeed, an antiderivative of
the integrand.
This is how you verify an integration formula. Exercise 3.13.
3.14. We use good notation and techniques:
_
4x
6
dx = 4
_
x
6
dx Homog. Prop.
= 4
x
7
7
+ C Power Rule
=
4
7
x
7
+ C.
Above is the proper presentation and thinking. You should consciously
think the thoughts that justify each step that will reenforce the
rules. Exercise 3.14.
3.15. The height of triviality. We concentrate, therefore, on style.
_
6t
t dt = 6
_
t
t dt Homogen. Prop.
= 6
_
t
3/2
dt
= 6
2
5
t
5/2
+ C Power Rule
=
12
5
t
2
t + C.
I have left the answer in the same radical notation in which the original
problem was posed. Nu said. Exercise 3.15.
3.16. We utilize our tool kit of techniques.
_
2
3
x
6
8x
12
dx =
_
2
3
x
6
dx
_
8x
12
dx Additive Prop.
=
2
3
_
x
6
dx 8
_
x
12
dx Homogen. Prop.
=
2
3
x
7
7
8
x
13
13
+ C Power Rule
=
2
21
x
7
8
13
x
13
+ C.
I hope you used good techniques. Exercise 3.16.
3.17. We use standard techniques,
_
8 sec
2
(x) 6 sec(x) tan(x) dx
=
_
8 sec
2
(x) dx
_
6 sec(x) tan(x) dx Additive Prop.
= 8
_
sec
2
(x) dx 6
_
sec(x) tan(x) dx Homogen. Prop.
= 8 tan(x) 6 sec(x) + C Trig. (3) & (5)
All these demonstrations are alike! Exercise 3.17.
3.18. None of our specic integral formulas apply immediately: The
integrand is not a power function, the integrand does not involve
trigonometric functions. These are the types of functions we can in-
tegrate.
Whenever the specic integration formulas do not apply, we must
transform the problem into another problem or problems using the
general formulas, or by directly manipulating the integrand, then ap-
plying the general formulas. We elect the latter.
The Integrand:
(t
4
4t
3
)
2
= t
8
8t
7
+ 16t
3
,
where, I have squared the binomial by verbalizing: The square of a
sum is the square of the rst plus twice the product of the rst and
second, plus the square of the second.
Thus
_
(t
4
4t
3
)
2
dt =
_
t
8
8t
7
+ 16t
3
dt
=
1
9
t
9
t
8
+ 4t
4
+ C
Exercise 3.18.
3.19. You should not have encountered any technical diculties pre-
venting the successful completion of this problem.
The Integrand:
_
w
3
1
w
2
_
2
= (w
3
w
2
)
2
= w
6
2w + w
4
Evaluation:
_ _
w
3
1
w
2
_
2
dw =
_
w
6
2w + w
4
dw
=
1
7
w
7
w
2
+
w
3
3
+ C
=
1
7
w
7
w
2
1
3
w
3
+ C
=
1
7
w
7
w
2
1
3w
3
+ C
Exercise 3.19.
3.20. We must square the integrand.
(sec(x) + tan(x))
2
= sec
2
(x) + 2 sec(x) tan(x) + tan
2
(x).
Keeping in mind we want to integrate the above function, we realize
that the integrals of the rst and second terms are exact integral
formulas; the third term, tan
2
(x) is a problem. However,
sec
2
(x) tan
2
(x) = 1
or,
tan
2
(x) = sec
2
(x) 1.
We can integrate the constant 1, and we can integrate the function
sec
2
(x). I leave the rest of the demonstration to you.
Answer:
_
(sec(x) + tan(x))
2
dx = 2(tan(x) + sec(x)) x + C.
Exercise 3.20.
4.1. If u = 3x + 1, then du = 3 dx, or dx =
1
3
du. Thus,
_
(3x + 1)
20
dx =
_
u
20
1
3
du Substitution
=
1
3
_
u
20
du Homogen.
=
1
3
1
21
u
21
+ C Power Rule
=
1
63
(3x + 1)
21
+ C since u = 3x + 1
Exercise 4.1.
4.2. Let u = 2x, so du = 2 dx, or dx =
1
2
du. Then
_
sec
2
(3x) dx =
_
sec
2
(u)
1
3
du Substitution
=
1
3
_
sec
2
(u) du
=
1
3
tan(u) + C Trig. (3)
=
1
3
tan(3x) + C since u = 3x
Thus,
_
sec
2
(3x) dx =
1
3
tan(3x) + C.
Did you check your answer before reading the solution?
Exercise 4.2.
4.3. If we want to solve the integral,
_
x
8
(6x
9
+ 12)
1/3
dx,
using the Power Rule, then we must choose u to base of a power
function. The rest of the integrand must be directly proportional to
the du of your chosen u.
Let u = 6x
9
+ 12, then du = 54x
8
dx. Now, taking the integral and
rearranging the integrand,
_
(6x
9
+ 12)
1/3
x
8
dx,
we see that the x
8
dx is directly proportional to the du. Success! Con-
tinuing now,
_
(6x
9
+ 12)
1/3
x
8
dx
=
1
54
_
(6x
9
+ 12)
1/3
54x
8
dx insert fudge factors
=
1
54
_
u
1/3
du substitution
=
1
54
u
4/3
4/3
+ C Power Rule
=
1
54
3
4
(6x
9
+ 12)
4/3
+ C re-subsititute
=
1
72
(6x
9
+ 12)
4/3
+ C
I hope your arrived at the conclusion:
_
(6x
9
+ 12)
1/3
x
8
dx =
1
72
(6x
9
+ 12)
4/3
+ C
By the way, let us agree that the insertion of the constant of propor-
tionality into the integral be referred to as the fudge factor.
Exercise 4.3.
4.4. We proceed along standard lines,
_
x
4 3x
2
dx =
_
(4 3x
2
)
1/2
xdx
Let u = 4 3x
2
, du = 6xdx. The Power Rule is applicable since
every thing left over after the power function part, (4 3x
2
)
1/2
is
directly proportional to the du. All we have to do is insert our fudge
factors:
_
(4 3x
2
)
1/2
xdx
=
1
6
_
(4 3x
2
)
1/2
(6x) dx fudge factors
=
1
6
_
u
1/2
du Substitituion
=
1
6
u
1/2
1/2
+ C Power Rule
= 2
1
6
(4 3x
2
)
1/2
+ C re-substitution
=
1
3
_
4 3x
2
+ C
Exercise 4.4.
4.5. Let
u = 3x
4
4x + 1
du = 12x
3
4 dx
or,
du = 4(3x
3
1) dx
Write the power function rst,
_
(3x
4
4x + 1)
1.45
(3x
3
1) dx.
Is the rest of the integrand, following the power function, directly
proportional to the du? Yes! The Power Rule applies, and we are
home free,
_
(3x
4
4x + 1)
1.45
(3x
3
1) dx
=
1
4
_
(3x
4
4x + 1)
1.45
4(3x
3
1) dx fudge
=
1
4
_
u
1.45
du Sub.
=
1
4
u
2.45
2.45
+ C Power Rule
=
.25
2.45
(3x
4
4x + 1)
2.45
+ C re-sub.
=
5
49
(3x
4
4x + 1)
2.45
+ C
This problem is the same as the previous problems. The only dier-
ence is a more complicated base function u, which lead to a more
complicated du. If you kept a cool head and followed the strategy you
should have come out ne. Exercise 4.5.
4.6. Let u = 4x, du = 4 dx. Then,
_
sec
2
(4x) dx =
1
4
_
sec
2
(4x) 4 dx rearrange and fudge
=
1
4
_
sec
2
(u) du substitute
=
1
4
=
1
4
tan(4x) + C re-substitute
Exercise 4.6.
4.7. You were asked to integrate the sine of some function of x: try
the sine formula.
Let u =
x, du =
1
2
x
dx. Then
_
sin
x
dx =
_
sin
x
1
x
dx re-arrange integrand
= 2
_
sin
x
1
2
x
dx fudge
= 2
_
sin(u) du substitution
= 2 cos(u) + C Trig. (2)
= 2 cos
x + C re-substitute
Exercise 4.7.
4.8. Here, there are two possibilities for u.
First Analysis: We have a sec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) combo; this is a form that
appears in Trig. (5). In this case we are forced to say: Let u = x
2
, since
this is the argument of the trig functions, and du = 2xdx. Looking at
our integral,
_
xsec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) sec
2
(sec(x
2
)) dx
=
_
xsec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) sec
2
(sec(x
2
)) xdx
=
1
2
_
sec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) sec
2
(sec(x
2
)) 2xdx.
Thus, we can get our du, but we still have stu left over. The factor
sec
2
(sec(x
2
)) is left unaccounted for. Therefore, this attempt at using
the Trig. formulas does not work.
Rather than throwing down our pencils and giving up, well try again.
Second Analysis: We have a sec
2
function with a complicated argu-
ment sec(x
2
). Lets try to use Trig. (3). In that case, we are forced to
let u be equal to the argument of the sec
2
function. Let
u = sec(x
2
)
du = sec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) 2xdx.
Lets re-arrange our integral in an esthetically pleasing way:
_
xsec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) sec
2
(sec(x
2
)) dx
=
_
sec
2
(sec(x
2
)) sec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) xdx.
Notice, everything following the sec
2
factor is directly proportional to
our du. Therefore, Trig. (3) will apply.
_
xsec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) sec
2
(sec(x
2
)) dx
=
1
2
_
sec
2
(sec(x
2
)) sec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) 2xdx fudge it
=
1
2
_
sec
2
(u) du substitution
=
1
2
=
1
2
tan(sec(x
2
)) + C re-substitute
Despite the ugliness of the original problem, the given integral was
just
_
sec
2
(u) du,
we just had to nd the correct u. Exercise 4.8.
5.1. The referenced formula is
_
sec
2
(u) du = tan(u) + C. (A-5)
Our given integral is
_
sec
2
(3x
2
) dx. (A-6)
Now, in the formula (A-5), the u is the argument of the secant. If
(A-5) is to solve our given integral, then we are forced to say
Let u = 3x
2
and du = 6xdx.
If the formula (A-5) is to apply, everything following the sec
2
(3x
2
)
must by the du. We dont have the du, but what we do have is o by
a multiplicative constant that good enough.
_
sec
2
(3x
2
) xdx =
1
6
_
sec
2
(3x
2
) 6xdx
All the parts of the given integral are properly lined up with the cor-
responding parts of our chosen integral formula. (The correspondence
being setup by the device of substitution.) Therefore,
_
sec
2
(3x
2
) x, dx =
1
6
_
sec
2
(3x
2
)
. .
sec
2
(u)
6xdx
. .
du
=
1
6
tan(3x
2
) + C.
There is no real need to make the substitution. Exercise 5.1.
5.2. As suggested in the Hint:
Let u = 3x 2, or x =
1
3
(u + 2), and so dx =
1
3
du,
Take our integral now and replace the xs with the us, and substitute
for dx very important!
_
x(3x 2)
4
dx
=
_
1
3
(u + 2)u
4
1
3
du
=
1
9
_
u
3
+ 2u
4
du
=
1
9
_
1
2
u
2
2
3
u
3
_
+ C
=
1
9
_
1
2
(3x 2)
2
2
3
(3x 2)
3
_
+ C
Same problem as my two examples previously. Exercise 5.2.
5.3. Again, we can check that the power rule does not solve the
integral:
_
x
2
(6x + 1)
1/2
dx.
If you tried the suggested substitution, and followed the previous ex-
amples, you should be reading what you already know. So,
Let u = 6x + 1. Thus, x =
1
6
(u 1), and so dx =
1
6
dx.
The purpose of this substitution is to shift the binomial expression
(6x +1) from underneath the 1/2 power, and move a new binomial
expression to the squared term. Lets see if this, if fact, happens:
_
x
2
(6x + 1)
1/2
dx
=
_
1
36
(u 1)
2
u
1/2
1
6
du substitution
=
1
216
_
(u
2
2u + 1)u
1/2
du
=
1
216
_
u
3/2
2u
1/2
+ u
1/2
du
=
1
216
_
2
5
u
5/2
4
3
u
3/2
+ 2u
1/2
_
+ C
=
1
108
u
1/2
_
1
5
u
2
2
3
u + 1
_
+ C
=
1
108
(6x + 1)
1/2
_
1
5
(6x + 1)
2
2
3
(6x + 1) + 1
_
+ C
Exercise 5.3.
6.1. Let u = sin(cos(x
2
)). Then
u = sin(cos(x
2
))
du = cos(cos(x
2
))(sin(x
2
))(2x) dx
= 2xsin(x
2
) cos(cos(x
2
)) dx
Thus,
_
xsin(x
2
) cos(cos(x
2
)) sin
3
(cos(x
2
)) dx
=
_
sin
3
(cos(x
2
)) xsin(x
2
) cos(cos(x
2
)) dx
=
1
2
_
sin
3
(cos(x
2
)) (2x) sin(x
2
) cos(cos(x
2
)) dx
=
1
2
_
u
3
du
=
1
2
1
4
u
4
+ C
=
1
8
sin
4
(cos(x
2
)) + C.
Exercise 6.1.
6.2. We manipulate algebraically the integrand.
x + 1
x
= 1 +
1
x
= 1 + x
1/2
.
The power rule can be applied the ball is in your court.
Exercise 6.2.
6.3. Lets summarize the results.
Example 6.3:
_
x + 1
x
dx = (
x + 1)
2
+ C.
Exercise 6.2:
_
x + 1
x
dx = x + 2x
1/2
+ C.
If both of these answers are correct, they should both be antideriva-
tives of the integrand. By Theorem 2.2, these two answers should
dier by a constant (actually, the way I phrased it in the theorem was
that one function is equal to the other plus a constant). Lets check
it out:
(
x + 1)
2
(x + 2x
1/2
) = (x + 2
x + 1) (x + 2
x)
= 1
The two answers indeed dier by a constant completely consis-
tent with general theory. Thank goodness. DPS Exercise 6.3.
Solutions to Examples
2.1. Dene F(x) =
1
4
x
4
. Then by the rules of dierentiation, F
(x) =
x
3
= f(x); therefore, by Denition 2.1, we are entitled to say that F
is an antiderivative, or that F is an indenite integral, of f.
Notice that we could have dened F(x) =
1
4
x
4
+ 1, then this new
function F would still be an antiderivative of f since F
(x) = f(x) as
well. (This is because the derivative of a constant term is 0.)
More generally, and function of the form F(x) =
1
4
x
4
+ C, there C is
any constant is an antiderivative of f. Example 2.1.
Solutions to Examples (continued)
2.2. The rock has an initial velocity of v
0
= 50 (feet per second) and
is initially, s
0
= 6 (feet) o the ground. Therefore,
s
0
= 6 v
0
= 50. (S-1)
Solution to (a): Find the equation (13) that species the height s(t)
of the rock above the ground at time t.
We know from (13) that
s(t) =
1
2
gt
2
+ v
0
t + s
0
.
Update this equation using the data in (S-1):
s(t) =
1
2
gt
2
+ 50t + 6.
Because the scale of measurement is in the English system of mea-
surement, we know that g = 32 ft/sec
2
. Substituting this in we get
s(t) = 16t
2
+ 50t + 6. (S-2)
Solution to (b): How high is the rock o the ground 5 seconds after
the rock leaves your hand?
We are being asked to take our mathematical model (S-2) and sub-
stitute t = 1 into it.
s(1) = 16(1)
2
+ 50(1) + 6
s(5) = 40 feet
Solution to (c): How long before the rock hits the ground?
The rock hits the ground when the distance o the ground is 0. The
function s(t) is the distance of the rock from the ground; therefore,
we put
s(t) = 0.
This equation asks the question: At what time t is s(t) = 0? Replace
s(t) with (S-2):
16t
2
+ 50t + 6 = 0.
This is a second degree polynomial put equal to zero: This is a job for
the quadratic formula:
t =
50
_
50
2
4(16)(5)
32
=
50
2820
32
=
50
2820
32
There are two solutions. We are interested in the one where t > 0
since the rock is thrown at time t = 0, it will hit the ground sometime
after time 0. Whipping out my calculator and choosing the positive
solution we get,
t 3.322 sec. (S-3)
Here, it have used the symbol to indicate that my calculated value
of t is only approximate; it is accurate to 3 decimal places.
Solution to (d): What is the velocity of the rock when it hits the
ground?
The velocity of the rock at any time t is v(t) =
ds
dt
.
s(t) = 16t
2
+ 50t + 6 from (S-2)
v(t) = 32t + 50 (S-4)
Taking our velocity expression for the velocity of the rock, (S-4), and
putting in the time value, (S-3), of when the rock hit the ground we
get,
v(3.222) 32(3.222) + 50 = 53.104.
Thus,
v(3.222) 53.104 ft/sec
Again, the means approximately equal to, this notation is called
for in the velocity calculation because the value of t inserted was only
approximate. The interpretation of the negative velocity, is that the
rock is going 53.104 ft/sec downward
Solution to (e): At what time is the rock 6 feet above the ground?
This problem asks the question: For what value of t is it true that
s(t) = 6?
Or,
16t
2
+ 50t + 6 = 6.
This is just an exercise in solving equations.
16t
2
+ 50t + 6 = 6
16t
2
+ 50t = 0
2t(25 8t) = 9
Therefore, t = 0 or t = 25/8. At time t = 0 the rock is at 6 feet when
it left your hand that makes sense. The rock goes up, then comes
down. Eventually, it attains a height of 6 feet again at time
t = 25/8 = 3
1
8
. (S-5)
seconds after it leaves you hand.
Solution to (f): What is the velocity of the rock when the rock is 6
feet o the ground?
The velocity equation is v(t) = 32t + 50. From the previous part,
the time when the rock reaches a height of 6 feet is t = 25/8, (S-5);
therefore,
v(25/8) = 32
25
8
+ 50 = 50
v(25/8) = 50 ft/sec.
The interpretation of the negative sign is that the rock is moving
downward when it attains a height of 6 feet.
Solution to (g): How high does the rock go?
We can determine how high the rock goes by making this simple
observation: When the rock reaches its highest point, its velocity is 0.
We then ask ourselves the question: At what time is v(t) = 0?
v(t) = 0
32t + 50 = 0
t =
50
32
t =
25
16
.
How high now is the rock with the time is t = 25/16? From (S-2)
s(26/16) = 16(25/16)
2
+ 50(25/16) + 5
=
721
16
.
Thus,
s(26/16) =
721
16
feet
is how high the rock goes. Example 2.2.
3.1.
_
1
x
2
dx =
_
x
2
dx
=
x
1
1
+ C Power Rule
=
1
x
+ C.
Notice the base, x, of the power function, x
2
, is x, the variable of
integration. Example 3.1.
3.2. We must argue that the right-hand side of
_
cf(x) dx = c
_
f(x) dx.
is an antiderivative of the integrand of the left-hand side. Indeed,
d
dx
c
_
f(x) dx = c
d
dx
_
f(x) dx (S-6)
= cf(x). (S-7)
The equality in line (S-6) comes from the Homogeneous Property for
dierentiation. The equality of line (S-7) comes from the denition of
the symbolism. The symbol
_
f(x) dx stands for any function whose
derivative is f(x); consequently, if we dierentiate it, we get f(x). See
Exercise 2.14 for more details if you have forgotten them.
Example 3.2.
3.3. As always, we use good techniques.
_
3x
4
+ 6x
2
dx =
_
3x
4
dx +
_
6x
2
dx Additive Prop.
= 3
_
x
4
dx + 6
_
x
2
dx Homogen. Prop.
= 3
x
5
5
+ 6
x
3
3
+ C Power Rule
=
3
5
x
5
+ 2x
3
+ C.
Do you see how we are slowly building up a kit of tools to handle
integration problems?
There is a temptation to skip many of these steps, but I would advise
against such a course. At rst, methodically, go through all the steps,
let the proper thinking ow through your brain a number of times be-
fore embarking on the potentially more dangerous course of skipping
steps. Example 3.3.
4.1. The integral,
_
(x + 1)
15
dx (S-8)
can be evaluated using our current techniques: multiply out the inte-
grand and integrate each term separately using the Power Rule. Good
Luck! But I dont want to do it that way.
Ill make a substitution. Let u = x +1 and so du = dx. Now formally
substituting these into the given integral we obtain,
_
(x + 1)
15
dx =
_
u
15
du.
This new integral can be solved by the basic Power Rule,
_
(x + 1)
15
dx =
_
u
15
du Substitution
=
1
16
u
16
+ C Power Rule
=
1
16
(x + 1)
16
+ C since u = x + 1
Example 4.1.
4.2. The integral problem
_
(2x + 1)
15
dx, (S-9)
is conceptually the same as the previous problem: It is a degree one
polynomial raised to a large degree. Make a substitution: Let
u = 2x + 1,
then,
du = 2 dx.
We want to make the substitution. The strategy is to replace the
variable x and the dierential dx with the new variable u and du.
Note that
du = 2 dx = dx =
1
2
du.
Now lets substitute the pair,
u = 2x + 1
du =
1
2
dx
into (S-9):
_
(2x + 1)
15
dx =
_
u
15
1
2
du Substitution
=
1
2
_
u
15
du Homogen
=
1
2
1
16
u
16
+ C Power Rule
=
1
32
(2x + 1)
16
+ C sinceu = 2x + 1
Thus,
_
(2x + 1)
15
dx =
1
32
(2x + 1)
16
+ C.
Example 4.2.
4.3. Youll notice that our cosine integral formula (1) does not apply.
That formula states
_
cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C.
The choice of the variable of integration is unimportant. The key
point is that the argument of the cosine function x matches the dx;
by match I mean that the argument of x is the variable of integration,
as dened by the dierential dx. In our problem
_
cos(2x) dx, (S-10)
the argument of the cosine function 2x does not match the dx; that
is, we are not taking the cosine of the variable of integration, but
the cosine of twice the variable of integration; therefore, the formula
does not apply. However, we can make is apply using the technique
of substitution. Let
u = 2x
du = 2 dx
or,
u =
1
2
du
Now substituting these equations into (S-10) to get,
_
cos(2x) dx =
_
cos(u)
1
2
du Substitution
Notice now that the argument of the cosine function in our new inte-
gral is u, which exactly matches the du. Continuing now,
_
cos(2x) dx =
_
cos(u)
1
2
du Substitution
=
1
2
_
cos(u) du
=
1
2
sin(u) + C Trig. (1)
=
1
2
sin(2x) + C since u = 2x
Thus,
_
cos(2x) dx =
1
2
sin(2x) + C.
You can always check your answer by dierentiating the answer to
obtained the integrand:
Check:
d
dx
1
2
sin(2x) + C =
1
2
cos(2x)
d
dx
2x = cos(2x).
Checked! Example 4.3.
4.4. The problem is
_
(5x 3)
9
dx. (S-11)
The rst observation is that this is the integral of a function raised
to a xed power: a power function. The Power Rule for integration is
designed to integration power functions; therefore, we investigate the
power rule.
Look at the new Generalized Power Rule,
_
u
r
du =
u
r+1
r + 1
+ C r = 1.
and compare it with your integral (S-11). We want to use the power
rule to solve our problem. To do this, you have to set up a correspon-
dence between your problem and the power rule; this correspondence
is setup through the technique of substitution.
What should u in the Power Rule be. Just look at the rule. The
variable u is the base of the power function. Therefore, in our problem,
(S-11), we would set u equal to the base of the power function. Let
u = 5x 3
du = 5 dx
and so,
dx =
1
5
dx
We now take our integral, and substitute for x and for dx.
_
(5x 3)
9
dx =
_
u
9
1
5
du Substitution
=
1
5
u
10
10
+ C Power Rule
=
1
50
(5x 3)
10
+ C resubstitute
Thus,
_
(5x 3)
9
dx =
1
50
(5x 3)
10
+ C.
Example 4.4.
4.5. Now the integrand of the problem
_
x(3x
2
5)
3/4
dx,
consists of two factors: x and (3x
2
5)
3/4
. Both are power functions,
the latter one more complicated than the former. We are determined
to use the Power Rule. How should we assign the value of u in the
formula? Keeping in mind that in the power rule formula, u is the
base of the power function, we try letting
u = 3x
2
5
du = 6xdx
In order to aect the substitution, we must get rid of all xs and the
dx, replacing them with our new variable u and our new du. We can
get rid of the (3x
2
5)
3/4
with u
3/4
. But what about the left over x
and dx? There are several ways of handling this situation; here is one
such.
_
x(3x
2
5)
3/4
dx =
_
(3x
2
5)
3/4
xdx rearrange integrand
=
1
6
_
(3x
2
5)
3/4
6xdx cleverly insert 1
=
1
6
_
u
3/4
du sub. for u,du
=
1
6
u
7/4
7/4
+ C Power Rule
=
1
6
4
7
u
7/4
+ C
=
2
21
(3x
2
5)
7/4
+ C. resubstitute
Thus,
_
x(3x
2
5)
3/4
dx =
2
21
(3x
2
5)
7/4
+ C.
The student should assure the self of the student that the answer is
correct. Dierentiate the answer to obtain the integrand.
Example 4.5.
4.6. The problem is to integrate
_
x
3
(2x
3
+ 1)
7
dx.
This integral looks like the several ones already seen. The strategy is
to set u equal to the base of a power function. We have two power
functions; the one to try rst is the more complicated of the two.
Let,
u = 2x
3
+ 1
du = 6x
2
dx
Now examining and rearranging the integral we get,
_
x
3
(2x
3
+ 1)
7
dx =
_
x(2x
3
+ 1
. .
u
)
7
x
2
dx.
. .
k du
As you can see, our du calculation is du = 6x
2
dx. To make the du
we need an x
2
dx which we have by breaking x
3
into xx
2
and moving
the x
2
over next to the dx. But, we still have an x left over! This
means that this integral cannot be solved by the Power Rule! For the
Power Rule to apply, your entire integrand must be either part of the
u
r
or part of the du; we have an x that belongs to neither.
Normally, we would not set our minds to pondering how to solve this
integral. You can solve this integral: Multiply everything out to obtain
a polynomial, and integrate each term. Good luck, son. DPS
Example 4.6.
4.7. I look at the problem,
_
sin(5x) dx, (S-12)
and I see that we are asked to integrate the sine of some function of
x. We have a formula for integrating the sine of some function of an
independent variable, x in this case.
_
sin(u) du = cos(u) + C.
I reason as follows: If I am going to use this formula to solve problem
(S-12), then u must be 5x; this is because in the formula, u is the
argument of the sine function (i.e. u is the quantity that we are taking
the sine of).
Let, therefore,
u = 5x
du = 5 dx.
Substituting this into our problem, (S-12),
_
sin(5x) dx =
1
5
_
sin(5x) 5 dx fudge factors
=
1
5
_
sin(u) du substitution
=
1
5
cos(u) + C Trig. (2)
=
1
5
cos(5x) + C re-substitute
Thus,
_
sin(5x) dx =
1
5
cos(5x) + C.
Example 4.7.
4.8. We have the integral of the sec tan function with a common
argument of x
2
. Try to use Trig. (5):
_
sec(u) tan(u) du = sec(u) + C.
Our problem is
_
xsec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) dx.
Following my own advice in the strategy, let
u = x
2
du = 2xdx
Now, is the rest of the integrand directly proportional to du? Yes.
_
xsec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) dx =
_
sec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) xdx
=
1
2
_
sec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) 2xdx insert fudge
=
1
2
_
sec(u) tan(u) du substitution
=
1
2
sec(u) + C Trig. (5)
=
1
2
sec(x
2
) + C re-substitute
Thus,
_
xsec(x
2
) tan(x
2
) dx =
1
2
sec(x
2
) + C.
Verify the answer through dierentiation. Example 4.8.
4.9. If we let u be the argument of the trigonometric function, the
du must be directly proportional to the rest of the integrand: this is
the Trig. Strategy.
In this problem,
_
xcos(x) dx,
we would naturally let u = x and so du = dx. We have an x left over:
du is not directly proportional to the rest of the integrand.
This problem cannot be solved by any of the Trig. formulas. In Cal-
culus II, we get some techniques that solve this integral; meanwhile,
you can verify that
_
xcos(x) dx = xsin(x) + cos(x) + C,
by dierentiating the right-hand side to obtain the integrand.
Example 4.9.
5.1. We reason as above. The power rule is
_
u
r
du =
u
r+1
r + 1
+ C r = 1.
and the given integral is
_
(x
3
+ 1)
100
xdx. (S-13)
No if the formula is to solve the above integral, we are forced to say
Let u = x
3
+ 1, and du = 3x
2
dx.
In order for the power rule to apply, everything following the power
function must be part of the du. The du is 3x
2
dx. In our integral,
(S-13), we need at least an x
2
but we have only an x. We cannot,
therefore, get the du. The expression that follows the power function
in our integral (S-13) is not directly proportional to the calculated
value of du. Example 5.1.
5.2. The referenced formula is
_
cos(u) du = sin(u) + C. (S-14)
Our given integral is
_
cos(2x) dx. (S-15)
Now, in the formula (S-14), the u is the expression we are taking the
cosine of (we say that u is the argument of the cosine). If (S-14) is to
solve our given integral, then we are forced to say
Let u = 2x and du = 2 dx.
If the formula (S-14) is to apply, everything following the cosine must
by the du; at the bear minimum, what follows the cosine must be
directly proportional the du. Staring at the given integral for many
hours, you make the following move,
_
cos(2x) dx =
1
2
_
cos(2x) 2 dx
All the parts of the given integral are properly lined up with the cor-
responding parts of our chosen integral formula. (The correspondence
being setup by the device of substitution.) Therefore,
_
cos(2x) dx =
1
2
_
cos(2x)
. .
cos(u)
2 dx
..
du
=
1
2
cos(2x) + C.
There is no real need to make the substitution. Example 5.2.
5.3. The given integral is
_
x(x + 1)
100
dx.
The function f in (8) is f(x) = x(x + 1)
100
. This integral cannot be
solved by a simple application of the power rule. (Use the techniques
of formula checking.) We can solve this integral using the power rule
by multiplying everything out! No way!
Alternately, we can do a substitution of variables. One natural substi-
tution is to dene a new variable u so as to simplify the (x+1)
100
part
of the integrand. To do this, we could let u = x + 1, then (x + 1)
100
becomes u
100
now thats a simplication. Lets complete the sub-
stitution and see what we get,
u = x + 1 and du = dx
or
x = u 1 and dx = du. (S-17)
The latter set of equations, (S-17), is a set of equations of the recom-
mended form (9).
Take our integral and get rid of all xs and dxs using (S-17):
_
x(x + 1)
100
dx =
_
(u 1)u
100
du
This last integral can be solved!
_
x(x + 1)
100
dx
=
_
(u 1)u
100
du
_
x = u 1
dx = du
=
_
u
101
u
100
du multiply out
=
u
102
102

u
101
101
+ C Power Rule
=
1
102
(x + 1)
102
1
101
(x + 1)
101
+ C
In the last we returned to our original variable x, by resubstituting:
u = x + 1.
Example Notes: Notice the eect of this substitution. We transferred
the binomial from the factor that had large power to the factor that
had small power. This made it practical to multiply out the inte-
grand. You can check that this is a correct answer by dierentiating
the answer.
Algebra Fanatics: If there are any left, the answer can be simplied
slightly by factoring out (x+1)
101
, and combining the left-overs. The
nal, simplied answer is
_
x(x + 1)
100
dx =
1
(101)(102)
(101x 1)(x + 1)
101
+ C.
Waiter! Check please! Example 5.3.
5.4. The given integral
_
x
2
(2x + 1)
1/2
dx,
cannot be solve using any of the integral formulas surprise! Try a
substitution.
Let u = 2x + 1, or x =
1
2
(u 1), and dx =
1
2
du.
Substitute these into our integral, see what we get,
_
x
2
(2x + 1)
1/2
dx
=
_
1
4
(u 1)
2
u
1/2
1
2
du
=
1
8
_
(u
2
2u + 1)u
1/2
du
=
1
8
_
u
5/2
2u
3/2
+ u
1/2
du
=
1
8
_
2
7
u
7/2
4
5
u
5/2
+
2
3
u
3/2
_
+ C
=
1
8
_
2
7
(2x + 1)
7/2
4
5
(2x + 1)
5/2
+
2
3
(2x + 1)
3/2
_
+ C
Some additional simplication is possible Ill leave that to you.
Example 5.4.
6.1. Look that the problem
_
x
3
(x
4
+ 3)
1/3
dx.
Begin with the rst formula in the left-hand column. That rst for-
mula is the Power Rule. Does the power rule solve this problem?
Formula Checking for Power Rule: The power rule addresses integrals
of the form
_
u
r
du.
Taking into consideration the Power Rule Strategy, there are two
choices for u: u = x (because we have a x
3
factor in our integral), or
u = x
4
+3 (because we have a (x
4
+3)
1/3
). Both of these choices are
candidates for the u
r
part in the power rule. Given the choice, the
rest of the integrand must be the du. I mentally take note that the
derivative of x
4
+3 is directly proportional to the x
3
factor. Through
this observation, I determine to say,
Let u = x
4
+ 3, and so du = 4x
3
dx.
Our integral becomes,
_
x
3
(x
4
+ 3)
1/3
dx =
1
4
_
(x
4
+ 3)
1/3
. .
u
r
4x
3
dx
. .
du
We conclude that the Power Rule will solve this problem. Lets solve
it!
Evaluation:
_
x
3
(x
4
+ 3)
1/3
dx =
1
4
_
(x
4
+ 3)
1/3
4x
3
dx
=
1
4
3
4
(x
4
+ 3)
4/3
+ C Power Rule
=
3
8
(x
4
+ 3)
4/3
+ C.
Where we have not bothered to make the substitution a waste of
electronic bytes I just applied the power rule. Example 6.1.
6.2. We start with the rst formula in the left-most column of the
table of Integral Formulas and Techniques. The rst formula on that
list is the Power Rule. Does the power rule solve this problem?
The Problem:
_
x
2
(x
2
+ 1)
2
dx. (S-18)
Formula Checking for Power Rule: Again, we have two choices for u:
u = x and u = x
2
+ 1.
(1) Let u = x, then du = dx.
The u
r
= x
2
. Is it true that everything after the u
r
is directly pro-
portional to du? Ans: No. Therefore, the power rule does not apply
for this choice of u.
Try again.
(2) Let u = x
2
+ 1, then du = 2xdx.
Rearrange the integral,
_
(x
2
+ 1)
2
x
2
dx.
The u
r
= (x
2
+1)1/2. Is it true that everything after the u
r
is directly
proportional to du? Ans: No. Therefore, the power rule does not apply
for this choice of u.
I conclude that the Power Rule does not solve this problem.
Continue: We still want to solve the problem, right? Continue on
down the list of formulas. We skip over the rest of them because they
all have trig functions in them. Our integral does not have any trig
functions in it. We move over to the techniques column.
Apply a Technique: The original integral (S-18) has no multiplicative
constants to factor out (thats the rst technique on the list), the
integrand has no terms in it so we cannot separate using additively
(thats the second technique on the list). The remaining choices are
to apply a true substitution of variables or manipulate the integrand
algebraically.
As a pseudo-rule, substitution is a technique that we apply as a last
resort. Ill choose to manipulate the integrand algebraically. The only
thing that can be done is to expand the integrand.
x
2
(x
2
+ 1)
2
= x
2
(x
4
+ 2x
2
+ 1) = x
6
+ 2x
4
+ x
2
.
Thus,
_
(x
2
+ 1)
2
x
2
dx =
_
x
6
+ 2x
4
+ x
2
dx
=
1
7
x
7
+
1
5
x
5
+
1
3
x
3
+ C.
Once we determined our course of attack, we follow through. Expand-
ing the integrand yielded a polynomial, to which we applied the Power
Rule.
The point of this problem is that it illustrates a natural pattern
of thinking. Methodically, we go down the list of integral formulas.
We check each candidate using formula checking technique. Having
reached the bottom of the list of integral formulas, we go over to the
other column (Im referring to the two-column list Integral Formulas
and Techniques.). Once we applied a technique (algebra: expanding
out the integrand), we separated integrals and factored out constants
(though these simple steps are were not explicitly shown), and nally
we jumped back to the left-hand column to apply the Power Rule
the rst formula on our list to each of the resulting integrals. This is
the Buttery Method.
Its as simple as that! Example 6.2.
6.3. We apply the Buttery Method. We go to the rst formula
on the left-hand column of the list of Integral Formulas and Tech-
niques. That formula is the Power Rule. Does the Power Rule solve
this problem?
The Problem:
_
x + 1
x
dx.
Formula Checking for Power Rule: We must choose the u in the for-
mula
_
u
r
du =
u
r+1
r + 1
r = 1.
The only choice for u is u =
x + 1. (Why?)
let u =
x + 1,and so du =
1
2
x
dx.
Keeping in mind the Power Rule Strategy, rewrite the given integral
as follows,
_
x + 1
x
dx =
_
(
x + 1)
1
x
dx.
Is it true that everything that follows the u
r
factor (here r = 1) is
directly proportional to the calculated value of du? Ans: Yes. There-
fore, the Power Rule solves this problem.
Evaluation:
_
x + 1
x
dx =
_
(
x + 1)
1
x
dx
= 2
_
(
x + 1)
. .
u
r
1
2
x
dx
. .
du
insert fudge factor
= 2
1
2
(
x + 1)
2
+ C Power Rule
= (
x + 1)
2
+ C.
Buttery works again. Example 6.3.
6.4. We proceed along standard lines of inquiry: The Buttery pat-
tern of thought.
Can the integral
_
x
2
x + 1
dx (S-19)
be solved by the Power Rule? We must rst ask ourselves. Put it in
the proper form:
_
(x + 1)
1/2
x
2
dx
If we think of u = x + 1, then du = dx. We have our du, but we have
the x
2
unaccounted for. Therefore, the Power Rule does not apply at
this time.
The other integral formulas in the list do not apply as we have no trig
functions.
We must, therefore, do a technique. Homogeneity and Additivity can-
not be used at this time. That leaves substitution or some direct
manipulation of the integrand.
In terms of direct manipulation, there is nothing much to do: the
integrand is a fairly compact expression. No wiggle room.
Im left with the only alternative: Substitution. Now, this will be a
true substitution of variables, not merely formula checking. (We dont
have an integral formula to check.)
As for a substitution choice, that square root in the denominator of
our problem (6) is the problem child. Ill use substitution to make it
go away! You can usually make part of the integrand go away at
the expense of another part of the integrand. Lets hope the price is
not too high.
The Substitution: Let u =
x + 1, so
x = u
2
1 and dx = 2udu,
where I have dened my new variable u to be the oending expression
(so it will now become u), and then I solved for x in order to calculate
dx.
Substitute In:
_
x
2
x + 1
dx =
_
(u
2
1)
2
u
2udu
= 2
_
(u
2
1)
2
du.
The integral we get after substitution and simplication is the integral
of a polynomial in the variable u solvable! Theoretically done! All
we need to do is to multiply out (a technique), separate integrals
(a technique), and apply the power rule to each term (an integral
formula).
Evaluation:
_
x
2
x + 1
dx = 2
_
(u
2
1)
2
du
= 2
_
u
4
2u
2
+ 1 du
= 2
_
1
5
u
5
2
3
u
3
+ u
_
+ C
= 2u
_
1
5
u
4
2
3
u
2
+ 1
_
+ C
Resubstitute: Recall that u =
x + 1.
_
x
2
x + 1
dx = 2u
_
1
5
u
4
2
3
u
2
+ 1
_
+ C
= 2
x + 1
_
1
5
(x + 1)
2
2
3
(x + 1) + 1
_
+ C
=
2
15
x + 1(3x
2
4x + 8) + C.
In the last line, I felt that I had to be true to my algebraic heritage
I simplied to a nal magnicent answer. (Yes, I checked to see
whether 3x
2
4x +8 can be factored some more. Did you, can you?)
Example 6.4.
6.5. We use the Buttery pattern of thinking.
Begin at the top of the left-hand column of the list: the Power Rule.
Does the power rule solve this problem?
If we designate u = csc(1/x), then we are trying to make our given
integral
_
csc
2
(
1
x
)
x
2
dx (S-20)
look like
_
u
2
du. Does it? If we put u = csc(1/x), then we calculate
du = (1/x
2
) csc(1/x) cot(1/x) dx (You had better check this, in case I
made a mistake, thanks.) We dont have the du; therefore, the Power
Rule does not apply.
Moving on down that list, skipping over the integral formulas that
dont apply: we dont have any sines, no cosines, no secant squares,
(Im going down the list). Lets see where was I, no cosecant squared,
no . . . Wait! I do have cosecant squared in my integral. STOP.
Lets investigate whether Trig. (4):
_
csc
2
(u) du = cot(u) + C.
Looking at this formula, we see that u is the argument of the cosecant
squared function. Compare this formula with our given integral (S-20),
we see that we must let u be
u =
1
x
and so du =
1
x
2
.
Rearrange our given integral (S-20) to make it look more like the
formula integral:
_
csc
2
(
1
x
)
1
x
2
dx.
Is it true that everything after the csc
2
(u) is directly proportional to
the calculated value of du? Ans: Yes. Therefore, the formula solve the
problem.
Evaluation:
_
csc
2
(
1
x
)
1
x
2
dx =
_
csc
2
(
1
x
)
. .
csc
2
(u)
1
x
2
dx
. .
du
insert fudge
= (cot(
1
x
)) + C Trig. (4)
= cot(
1
x
) + C.
Example Notes: Dont forget the Power Rule. It can potentially solve
any integral no matter what kinds of functions are involved.
The dialog that I carried on above represents the simple minded
approach of the Buttery Method. Go down the list, stop at a formula
that has some of the attributes of your own integral problem in
this case, it was the cosecant squared. Use formula checking to check
it out.
Do not get bothered by the ugliness of the integrals. Just pick
out the most important components of your integral: the expression
csc
2
(of something) in the numerator and the x
2
in the denominator.
Despite its initial ugliness, this problem was almost an exact
integral formula integral. We just had to see that it was.
Example 6.5.
6.6. The problem is
_
xsin(x
2
)
_
cos(x
2
)
dx,
a mean-looking dude, if I may say so. But, lets not panic. Pro-
ceed along our proven standard technique of analysis: the Buttery
Method.
Go the rst formula on the left-hand column of the list of formulas
and techniques. This is the much often repeated and used Power Rule.
Does the power rule solve this problem?
Formula Checking for Power Rule: The only thing that is being raised
to a power, other than power 1, is the cosine function in the denomi-
nator. Rewrite the integral to make it look more Power Rule-ish:
_
xsin(x
2
)
_
cos(x
2
)
dx =
_
(cos(x
2
))
1/2
xsin(x
2
) dx
Now let us meditate upon the possibilities. If we let
u = cos(x
2
), and du = sin(x
2
) 2xdx = 2xsin(x
2
) dx,
then is it true that everything that follows our power function is di-
rectly proportional to the calculated value of du? Ans: YES. There-
fore, the Power Rule solves this problem.
Evaluation:
_
(cos(x
2
))
1/2
xsin(x
2
) dx
=
1
2
_
(cos(x
2
))
1/2
. .
u
r
(2x) sin(x
2
) dx
. .
du
fudge factor
=
1
2
(cos(x
2
))
1/2
1/2
+ C Power Rule
=
_
cos(x
2
) + C.
Example 6.6.
Important Points
Important Points (continued)
Generally, if a function has one antiderivative, then it has innity
many. (Some functions have no antiderivativecan you give an ex-
ample of one such creature?)
In the case of f(x) = 2x, each of the functions are antiderivatives of
f:
F
1
(x) = x
2
+ 1
F
2
(x) = x
2
+ 2
F
3
(x) = x
2
1
2
F
4
(x) = x
2
+ 100
F
5
(x) = x
2
234.12
F
6
(x) = x
2
More generally, a function of the form F(x) = x

2
+ C, where C is
any constant, is an antiderivative of f(x) = 2xbecause, in all cases,
F
(x) = f(x), for all x R.

Given the observation that any function of the form F(x) = x
2
+ C
is an antiderivative of f(x) = 2x, what is a natural question to ask
yourself in this regard? Important Point
The answer is Yes. The denition requires that
F
(x) = f(x) for all x,

well, lets check it out.
The denition of f is f(s) = 4s
3
and so f(x) = 4x
3
.
The denition of F is F(t) = t
4
and so, by the rules of dierentiation,
F
(t) = 4t
3
. Thus, F
(x) = 4x
3
.
Therefore,
F
(x) = 4x
3
= f(x) for all x,
as required by the denition. Important Point
This problem was given to me by a colleague. When he/she gave it
to me, he/she left explicit instructions that I was to integrate with
respect to the variable z. Therefore,
_
x
2
= x
2
z + C.
If you missed this problem, it was probably because you werent
around when my colleague communicated to me what the variable
of integration was to be . . . sorry! DPS Important Point
As you work your way through calculus, what is the one big thing
that prevents your success? What one thing do your always struggle
with? What one thing requires most of your time and concentration
perhaps ultimately taking away from your study of the calculus itself?
The answer, most probably, Algebra!
Imagine how things would be if you where an algebraic whiz. You
could concentrate more on the ideas and techniques of calculus. Since
algebra is no problem, you could do more problemsthat would help
your problem solving abilities, give more practice to the dierent tech-
niques, and increase the speed at which you solve problems (thats
always good).
Algebra is a foundation block of higher mathematics; it is the language
of mathematics. If you dont know the language, you cant operate
eectively in a mathematics environment.
So it goes with, in this instance, the integral formulas. If you dont
know the formulas, you can solve problems. (If you know the formulas,
and dont know algebra, you still cant solve the problems!)
Finally, having a solid knowledge increases the rate at which you can
learn new ideas! The more you know, the faster you can learn. Knowl-
edge builds on itself.
My advice to you is Know the Formulas! Important Point
Here are a few more details from a slightly dierent point of view.
The integrand is f(x) = 0. Dene the function F(x) = 0 as well. We
know from dierential calculus that
F
(x) = 0 = f(x)
therefore, from the denition of antiderivative, F is an antiderivative
of f. Hence, we are entitled to say
_
0 dx =
_
f(x) dx = F(x) + C = C.
The equality of the extreme left side with the extreme right side is
the substance of (1). Important Point
Proof that f has no Anti-Derivative
Choose an irrational number x
0
( 0, 1 ). Then F
(x
0
) = f(x
0
) = 1.
For any h = 0, the Mean Value Theorem states that there is a
number c
h
between x
0
and x
0
+ h such that
F(x
0
+ h) F(x
0
)
h
= F
(c
h
) = f(c
h
). (I-1)
(I have used the notation c
h
because the value of c as given to us
by the Mean Value Theorem depends the value of the endpoint
x
0
+ h, which depends, in turn, on the value of h. So c will depend
on the value of h.)
Since the limit of the left-hand side of (I-1), as h 0, is F
(x
0
) = 1,
we deduce for h small enough, say < h < , for some positive
number , that
F(x
0
+ h) F(x
0
)
h
= f(c
h
) = 1. (I-2)
Remember that f only takes on values of 0 and 1. If f(c
h
) in equa-
tion (I-2) is equal to 0 for values of h arbitrarily close to 0, that
would imply F
(x
0
) does not exist. (Why?)
Given the validity of (I-2), we now see that
F(x
0
+ h) = F(x
0
) + h < h < . (I-3)
Dierentiate both sides of (I-3) with respect to h to obtain,
F
(x
0
+ h) = 1 < h < .
But F
(x
0
+ h) = f(x
0
+ h), and so,
f(x
0
+ h) = 1 < h < . (I-4)
To obtain our contradiction, we simply choose a value for h
0
, such
that < h
0
< and x
0
+ h
0
is a rational number. (Is it always
possible to do that?) Thus,
f(x
0
+ h
0
) = 1 from (I-4)
but,
f(x
0
+ h
0
) = 0 since x
0
+ h
0
is rational
This is a contradiction. Therefore, there is no function F such that
F
(x
0
) = f(x
0
) for any irrational number x
0
( 0, 1 ).
A similar argument can be made in the case that x
0
is a rational num-
ber. I now claim that f is a function having all the stated properties.
Important Point
Index
Index
All page numbers are hypertext
linked to the corresponding topic.
Underlined page numbers indicate a
jump to an exterior le.
Page numbers in boldface indicate
the denitive source of information
about the item.
axis of abscissas, c1i:15
axis of ordinates, c1i:15
Buttery Method, c1i:77
Euclid, c1i:207
index, c1i:35
integrable, c1i:26
integrand, c1i:15, c1i:27
interval of integration, c1i:27
limits of integration, c1i:27
norm, c1i:17
piecewise continuous, c1i:32
piecewise monotone, c1i:32
regular partition, c1i:48
Riemann integrable, c1i:26
right cylindrical solid, c1i:38
rule, c1i:14
rule function, c1i:15
Section 7: The Denite Integral
_
_
toc
7. The Denite Integral
The Denite Integral has wide ranging applications in mathematics,
the physical sciences and engineering.
The theory and application of statistics, for example, depends heavily
on the denite integral; through statistics, many traditionally non-
mathematical disciplines have become heavily dependent on mathe-
matical ideas. Economics, sociology, psychology, political science, ge-
ology, geography, and many others professional elds utilize calculus
concepts.
Unlike the Indenite Integral, which is a function, the Denite Integral
is a numerical value. As we shall see, on rst inspection, there seems
to be no relation between these two mathematical objects, but as the
theory unfolds, their relationship will be revealed.
The Denite Integral, as has been stated already, has wide-ranging
application; however the problem is the diverse backgrounds of stu-
dents taking Calculus. Some may know a lot of physics, while others
may have good knowledge of electrical circuits. In a Calculus course,
no general background in the sciences is assumed, as a result, the
applications that tend to be presented are of two types:
1. Geometric Applications: All students have a general background
in geometry. Drawing curves should be your fortee. Consequently,
many of the applications to the Denite Integral seen in traditional
Calculus courses are geometric: Calculation of Area, Calculation of
Volume, Calculation of Surface Area, and calculation of Arc Length.
These applications are good in the sense that they allow the student
to see some useful applications, but more importantly, the students
sees the process of constructing the application.
2. Physical Applications: There are some physical applications to
the Denite Integral usually seen in a course on Calculus. Because
of the diverse backgrounds of students, these applications tend to be
easily accessed by everyone: The physical notions of work, hydrostatic
pressure, mass, and center of mass.
The point I am trying to make is that there are many, many more
uses of the Denite integral beyond what you will see in a standard
Calculus course. Do not leave Calculus with the false impression of
the range of application of the integral.
The Denite Integral is dierent from the Indenite Integral in that
the former requires an elaborate construction. It is the construction
process that is key to many applications. In subsequent sections you
will see this construction process unfold in many ways.
7.1. A Little Problem with Area
We begin by motivating the construction of the Denite Integral with
a particular application to that of the Area problem.
Like, what is it? Throughout your school experiences, the notion of
area has been a fundamental one. Area is a concept whose meaning has
been built up through a series of denitions and deductions through
the years of your education. Area has been inculcated into you through
these years until it has become second nature to you.
Area though is limited in its application because it is only (mathe-
matically) dened for a limited number of geometric shapes. Did you
know that?
Here is a brief genesis of the notion of area. It outlines the devel-
opment of the idea from the very rst time you encountered it to the
present.
The Problem
In this section, we mean to extend the notion of area to more compli-
cated regions.
Given. Let y = f(x) be a nonnegative function that is dened and
bounded over the interval [ a, b ].
Problem. Dene/Calculate the area of the region R bounded above
by the graph of f, bounded below by the x-axis, bounded to the left
by the vertical line x = a, and bounded on the right by the vertical
line x = b.
Lets elevate this problem to the status of a shadow box.
The Fundamental Problem of Integral Calculus:
Figure 1
Let y = f(x) be a nonnegative function that is de-
ned and bounded over the interval [ a, b ]. Dene
and/or calculate the area of the region R bounded
above by the graph of f, bounded below by the x-axis,
bounded to the left by the vertical line x = a, and bounded
on the right by the vertical line x = b.
The idea of solving the Fundamental Problem is straight forward
enough; unfortunately, in order to put down in written word this idea,
it is necessary to introduce a morass of notation.
The Idea of the Solution
If you were asked to approximate the area of region R, you would
probably have enough understanding of the notion of area, despite
the irregular shape of the boundary, to make a good approximation.
How would you do it?
Figure 2
One obvious way of approximating the area of an irregularly
shaped region is to use paper strips. Get paper and scissors
and cut out a series of rectangles that span the height of the
region. Overlay the region using these paper strips. The heights of the
rectangles need to be cut to better t into the region. That having
been done, calculate the area of each rectangle (base times height of
each), then sum up all the area calculations: This will be an approxi-
mation of the area of the region.
Intuitively, the more rectangular strips you use (their widths would
necessarily be getting shorter), the better approximation of the area
under the graph you paper rectangular strips would yield.
This then is the basic idea behind solving the Fundamental Problem:
Overlay the region with a larger and larger number of narrower and
narrower paper strips!
Important. In what follows, all the terminology, notation, and the
basic concepts are introduced in much detail . . . detail that you wont
see elsewhere. Therefore, if you are interested in understanding the
ideas that go into the making of the Denite Integral, do not skip over
this section. The details of this construction are key to the application
of the denite integral !
The Technical Details
The details of the above described construction are involved but im-
portant and we present them here.
Let the interval [ a, b ] be given, let n N be a natural number, and
P be a partition of the interval [ a, b ]:
P = { x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
}.
It is assumed that the labeling of the elements of P is such that
a = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< x
3
< < x
n1
< x
n
= b. (1)
These points are called partition points, or nodes of the partition.
The nodes of the partition P subdivide the interval [ a, b ] into n subin-
tervals, the endpoints of which are the nodes.
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
i1
x
i
x
n
Partitioning Scheme
Lets clarify the discussion and terminology. We have divided [ a, b ]
into n subintervals. The partition points given in (1) will be the end-
points of these subintervals. Lets count the intervals o.
First Sub-interval : I
1
= [ x
0
, x
1
].
Second Sub-interval : I
2
= [ x
1
, x
2
].
Third Sub-interval : I
3
= [ x
2
, x
3
].
Fourth Sub-interval : I
4
= [ x
3
, x
4
].
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
The i
th
Sub-interval : I
i
= [ x
i1
, x
i
].
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
The n
th
Sub-interval : I
n
= [ x
n1
, x
n
].
These subintervals are generally of dierent lengths. Lets establish
the standard notation for the lengths of these intervals and calculate
their lengths.
i Interval Length
1 I
1
= [ x
0
, x
1
] x
1
= x
1
x
0
2 I
2
= [ x
1
, x
2
] x
2
= x
2
x
1
3 I
3
= [ x
2
, x
3
] x
3
= x
3
x
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
i I
i
= [ x
i1
, x
i
] x
i
= x
i
x
i1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
n I
n
= [ x
n1
, x
n
] x
n
= x
n
x
n1
As the notation suggests, x (with a subscript) is used to reference
the length of an interval. (The value of the subscript is the ordinal
number of the corresponding subinterval.) Thus, x
2
is the length of
the second subinterval, or, more generally,
x
i
= x
i
x
i1
is the length of the i
th
subinterval.
Exercise 7.1. Consider the 5
th
subinterval in a partition. Write
down the two endpoints of this interval and calculate the length of
this interval. (Be sure to write the correct x notation.)
Exercise 7.2. What is the sum of
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ + x
n
?
(Assume we have subdivided the interval [ a, b ] into n subintervals.)
Summary: This tabular approach takes a lot of time to construct and
a lot of room. Lets use a dierent approach. Let the symbol i be used
as an index for the interval number. If there are n intervals then we
can keep track of them by the index: i = 1 is the rst interval; i = 5
is the fth interval. The preceding discussion and notation can then
by more eciently abbreviated by
i
th
interval: I
i
= [ x
i1
, x
i
]
length: x
i
= x
i
x
i1
, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
Figure 3
One role these intervals play is that they subdivide the region
R into n subregions; lets name these n subregions as
R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, . . . , R
n
.
Each of these subregions has area. Denote the areas of these regions
by, you guessed it,
A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, . . . , A
n
.
Thus,
A
i
= the area of subregion R
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Exercise 7.3. What is the sum of
A
1
+ A
2
+ A
3
+ + A
n
?
Another role these subintervals play in the construction process is
that they form the bases of rectangles that will overlap the target
area. A rectangle is characterized by its location, orientation, width
and height; the area of a rectangle only depends on the latter two
quantities.
On each of the n subintervals, construct a rectangle sitting on the
subinterval, and extending vertically upward. How high vertically?
(That will be the height of the rectangle.) The decision about the
height of the rectangle is made by choosing a point out of the subin-
terval; the height of the rectangle will then be the distance up to the
graph of f at that point. Here are the technical detailswith a morass
of notation.
For each i, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, choose a point x
i
from the i
th
subinterval
I
i
= [ x
i1
, x
i
]; i.e., choose
x
i
such that x
i1
x
i
x
i
.
Now, on the i
th
subinterval, I
i
, construct a rectangle sitting on the
subinterval I
i
, and so has base of length x
i
, and extending vertically
upward a height of f(x
i
).
Figure 4
It is important to note that the i
th
rectangle overlays (almost)
the i
th
subregion R
i
. The area of the i
th
rectangle is used
to approximate the area of the i
th
subregion R
i
. (Recall, we
have dened A
i
to be the area of R
i
.)
For each i, the area of the i
th
rectangle is
f(x
i
) x
i
, (2)
for this last calculation, the formula for the area of a rectangle was
used: height times base.
Since the area of the rectangle is thought of as an approximation of
the area, A
i
, of R
i
, we have
A
i
f(x
i
) x
i
. (3)
What we now have is a sequence of n rectangles all standing on the
x-axis on their little subintervals extending vertically upwards to the
graph of f. Intuitively, the total area of all the rectangles approximates
the true area of the target region. Lets sum up all the area calculations
in (3), to obtain,
A f(x
1
)x
1
+ f(x
2
)x
2
+ f(x
3
)x
3
+ + f(x
n
)x
n
. (4)
Sigma Notation. Notice, in (4), all the numbers we are adding up
have the same form: f(x
i
)x
i
, for i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n. In this situation,
the sigma notation can be used to abbreviate this sum. The notation
is
A
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
(5)
The capital Greek letter connotes summation. The notation in (5)
is meant to state that we are adding up the numbers f(x
i
) x
i
, for
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n. Additional details on the sigma notation will be
given in Section 7.4.
The expression on the right in (5) represents the total area of our
rectangles, and is, in my mind, an approximation of the area we are
trying to dene/calculate.
The right-hand side of (5) has its own name. The expression
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
(6)
is called a Riemann sum. Youll learn more about Riemann sums later.
In our setting, the Riemann sums are approximating the area under
the graph of f.
Exercise 7.4. You, theoretically, have just waded through (some)
of the technical details, and, no doubt, you have read The Idea of
the Solution concerning paper strips. Draw the parallel between the
paper strip construction and the details of the technical construction.
In particular, identify each of the quantities: n, i, x
i
, f(x
i
), and
f(x
i
)x
i
.
Passing to the Limit
Now, heres were the advanced notions of Calculus come in. Up to
this point, it has been all notation and algebra. We must make the
leap from the approximate to the exact.
What we want to do, at least conceptually, is to continue the process of
approximation: partition the interval into a larger and larger number
of intervals (n +); the length of the intervals must necessarily
get smaller and smaller; overlay our approximating rectangles; add up
the areas of same; and so on. We then want to look for any trends
in our rectangular approximation . . . we want to be able to discern a
limit of these calculations. The formal details follow.
Exercise 7.5. Contrary to my statement in the last paragraph, par-
titioning an interval into a larger and larger number of subintervals
does not necessarily imply that all the subintervals are small. Your
assignment, should you decide to take it, is to partition the interval
[ 0, 1 ] into 100 subintervals such that the largest one is length 0.9.
(Think about how this is possible! Dont look at the solution until
you have thought it through.)
The results of Exercise 7.5 suggest that we need a better under-
standing of the process of partitioning. In particular, we need a way
of expressing the idea that we want to subdivide the target interval
into a large number of small subintervals.
In fact, what we want to do is to take the limit of the Riemann sums
as the partitions upon which the Riemann sums are computed become
ner and ner; that is, as the number of subintervals, n, gets larger
and larger, we want the lengths of each of the subintervals in the
partition to be getting smaller and smaller.
A numerical gauge is used to control this subdivision business. Re-
call that if we have a partition P of the interval [ a, b ], then the usual
notation is
a = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< x
3
< < x
n1
< x
n
= b.
For each i, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, the length of the i
th
subinterval is given
by x
i
= x
i
x
i1
. We now make the following denition: The norm
of the partition P is dened to be
P = max{ x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
n
}. (7)
The left-hand side is a symbolism for the norm of the partition P,
and the right-hand side is the dening expression. In words, the norm
of a partition P is the width of the widest subinterval.
The norm P is used to control the subdivision process. The pro-
cess of subdividing the interval [ a, b ] into a larger and larger number
of smaller and smaller subintervals can be more succinctly described
as P 0. Indeed, as we look at partitions P whose norm P get-
ting smaller and smaller, the width of the widest subinterval must be
going to zero. This implies that the length of all intervals in the par-
tition must be going to zero, and, as the sum of their length must be
ba (see Exercise 7.2), it must be true that the number of intervals
in the partition is increasing to innity.
Solution to our Problem
The concept now is to take the limit of the Riemann sums as the norm
of the partition, P, tends to zero. Keeping in mind equation (5), dene
the area under the graph of f over the interval [ a, b ] to be
A := lim
P0
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
. (8)
Furthermore, because of the arbitrary way in which we chose the
heights of our approximating rectangles (by choosing the x
i
from the
i
th
subinterval I
i
, and taking f(x
i
) as the height), we require that the
limit of the right-hand side of (8) be independent of the choice of the
points x
i
.
As mathematicians often do, lets formalize this into a . . .
Denition 7.1. Let y = f(x) be a nonnegative function over the
interval [ a, b ]. The area of the region under the graph of f and above
the x-axis is dened to be
A := lim
P0
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
. (9)
provided the limit exists and does not depend on the choice of the
points x
i
.
Denition Notes: The limit given in Denition 7.1, equation (9), is
a type of limit essentially discussed earlier. The Riemann sum is,
roughly speaking, a function of the variable ||P||; consequently, in the
article on Limits, the meaning for the limit of a function was given in
Denition 8.1.
For Those Who Want to Know More. Actually, Riemann sums
are not a function of the norm of the partition upon which they are
based; consequently, a variation of Denition 8.1 needs to be stated.
In the Section 7.5 below, Evaluation by Partitioning, the tech-
niques of working with this limit are illustrated.
This denition is the culmination of the constructive process
laboriously given above, and represents a half-solution to the Funda-
mental Problem. The problem was to dene/calculate area; well, we
have dened area under an arbitrary curve (with provisos), but we
have no formal mechanism for the calculation of samethat comes
later.
With all the provisos, one would wonder whether any function
is of such a nature that the limit in Denition 7.1 exists. I assure
you that there are plenty of such functions. Indeed, any continuous
function will due the trick.
Introduction of Denite Integral Notation. We now introduce
the notation for the ultimate outcome of the constructive process. Our
basic denition is
A := lim
||P||0
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x,
We used the letter A because of the nature of the problem we were
solving: An area problem. The right-hand side is the important ex-
pression. Because of its importance in modern analysis, it has its own
notation to refer to it: The Leibniz Notation.
Denition 7.2. Let y = f(x) be a nonnegative function over the
interval [ a, b ]. The area of the region under the graph of f and above
the x-axis is dened to be
_
b
a
f(x) dx := lim
||P||0
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x, (10)
provided this limit exists and does not depend on the choice of the
points x
i
.
Denition Notes: The symbolism on the left-hand side should be fa-
miliar to you. It is actually the source of the notation for the Indenite
Integral that we have already been using. Leibniz thought of the limit
process on the left-hand side of (10) as an innite summation process;
correspondingly, he created the notation
_
, which is an exaggerated
version of S for summation. The notation,
_
b
a
, he thought of as
a process of summation from a to b. The symbolism,
_
b
a
f(x) dx, he
viewed as a transnite summation process of adding up areas of rect-
angles whose areas are f(x) dx. This view is technically incorrect, but
it serves as good intuition.
In certain simple cases, the limit in (10) can be calculated di-
rectly from the denition by using summation rules. (See Section 7.5
entitled Evaluation by Partitioning for more details.)
For Those Who Want to Know More. For completeness sake,
we give the reference to the precise denition of limit used above in
equation (10).
With this notation under our belt, we can summarize:
Solution to the Fundamental Problem:
Figure 5
Let f be a nonnegative function dened over an inter-
val [ a, b ]. The area under the graph of f and above
the x-axis is given by
A =
_
b
a
f(x) dx.
An aesthetically pleasing formula, isnt it? (Provided the limit exists
in the sense described in Denition 7.2).
Example 7.1. Consider the function f(x) = x
2
, 0 x 1. Use the
integral notation to represent the area under the graph of f and above
the x-axis.
Example 7.2. Symbolically represent, in terms of the denite inte-
gral, the area under the graph of f(x) = 3x
3
+ x over the interval
[ 1, 4 ].
Exercise 7.6. Consider the function f(x) = x
4
+ x restricted to
the interval [ 1, 5 ]. Represent symbolically, in terms of the denite
integral, the area under the graph.
7.2. The Denite Integral
We have seen in Section 7.1 the constructive process in the case of
analyzing the area problem. That was just a representative application
of how the constructive process is used to solve certain problems.
Dont worry, Ill not go through that morass again, but we can abstract
the process itself . . . in summary form.
Denition 7.3. (The Denite Integral) Let y = f(x) be any
function (not necessarily nonnegative) on the interval [ a, b ].
1. Partition [ a, b ]
a = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< x
3
< < x
n1
< x
n
= b,
into n subintervals. The i
th
subinterval has the form [ x
i1
, x
i
],
and has length x
i
= x
i
x
i1
, for i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
2. Choose Points x
i
from each interval:
x
i1
x
i
x
i
, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
3. Form Riemann Sums:
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
.
This sum is a Riemann sum of the function f over the interval
[ a, b ].
4. Pass to the Limit: Dene integral by,
_
b
a
f(x) dx := lim
||P||0
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x. (11)
As before, the limit must exist and not depend on the choice
of the arbitrarily chosen points x
i
.
Denition Notes: A function f dened over an interval [ a, b ] is said
to be Riemann integrable over [ a, b ] provided the limit in (11) exists.
The term Riemann Sum is important and worth making special
note. Basically, a Riemann Sum is a sum of a function, f, being evalu-
ated at certain intermediate points, x
i
, times the width of the interval
of partition, x
i
. The limit of Riemann Sums is an integralthis is
equation (11). We shall return to the important notion of Riemann
sum later; one of the basic skills needed by the Calculus student, thats
you, is the ability to recognize a Riemann Sum.
For Those Who Want to Know More. Here is the technical def-
inition of the limit given in (11).
Parsing the Notation. The basic notation for the denite integral
is
_
b
a
f(x) dx.
Here are some points concerning this notation.
Notational Notes: The numbers a and b are called the limits of inte-
gration: a is the lower limit of integration and b is the upper limit of
integration.
The limits of integration form an interval [ a, b ]. This interval is
referred to as the interval of integration.
The function f(x) is called the integrand.
The symbol, dx, the dierential of x, plays the same role as it
did for the indenite integral. (See the discussion of the signicance
of dx.) The symbol, dx, tells us that x is the variable of integration.
The variable of integration is a dummy variable. The variable
of integration tells us what variable the integrand is a function of;
otherwise, the actual letter has no signicance. For example, each of
the integrals is the same as all the others:
_
b
a
f(x) dx =
_
b
a
f(s) ds =
_
b
a
f(t) dt =
_
b
a
f(u) du.
Or, if you are having trouble thinking abstractly, all these integrals
are the same:
_
1
0
x
2
dx =
_
1
0
s
2
ds =
_
1
0
t
2
dt =
_
1
0
u
2
du.
In each instance, the integrand is the same function (its just dened
or represented using dierent letters). The corresponding dierential
notation has been changed to reect the dierent dummy variable
used in the denition of the integrand. This is an important point to
remember.
Purely Geometric Interpretation of the Denite Integral. Let
y = f(x) be (Riemann) integrable over the interval [ a, b ]. It is possible
to give a purely geometric interpretation of
_
b
a
f(x) dx,
based on the graph of f; this is an important and fundamental inter-
pretation.
Figure 6
Here we do not assume that f is nonnegative. Imagine the
graph of f. It may vary above or below the x-axis. Now imag-
ine the rectangles sitting on the subintervals. If the graph is
above the x-axis, then the rectangle extends upwards; if the graph
is below the x-axis, then the rectangle extends vertically downward.
When we form the Riemann Sums,
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x, (12)
some of the values of f(x
i
) will be positive and some negative. For
the rectangles that are hanging downward, the f(x
i
) x term for that
rectangle will be negative: It represents the negation of the area of that
rectangle. We then sum up these positive and negative terms (12) and
pass to the limit to obtain the integral of f.
If you have followed this discussion, the bottom line is that the integral
treats areas below the x-axis as negative and areas above the x-axis
as positive. Of course, when I refer to area as negative, that does not
correspond to the usual notion of area. It is just a convenient device
on my part to convey the idea.
To repeat, the integral treats regions below the x-axis as negative
area, and regions above the x-axis as positive area, then adds all
calculations together; consequently it is possible for
_
b
a
f(x) dx > 0 or
_
b
a
f(x) dx < 0 or
_
b
a
f(x) dx = 0
Perhaps I can use the term Relative Area or Signed Area to describe
what the denite integral is calculating.
Consider the discussion in the previous paragraphs, then thoughtfully
answer each of the following.
Exercise 7.7. Consider each of equation or inequality that follows.
What is the most general statement that can be made about each?
(a)
_
b
a
f(x) dx > 0 (b)
_
b
a
f(x) dx < 0 (c)
_
b
a
f(x) dx = 0
7.3. The Existence of the Denite Integral
Because of the complicated nature of the denition of the Denite
Integral, one may wonder whether it is possible for any function to
be integrable. In this section we briey catalog types of functions
that survive the rigors of the constructive denition, to emerge as
integrable.
Theorem 7.4. (The Existence Theorem) Let f be a function that
is either continuous or monotone over the interval [ a, b ], then f is
integrable over [ a, b ], i.e.
_
b
a
f(x) dx exists.
Proof. Beyond the scope of these notes.
Theorem Notes: This theorem justies the earlier interest in continu-
ous functions, and monotone functions. Identifying a function as one
whose integral exists often depends on the ability to recognize these
basic function types.
The conclusion of the Existence Theorem is also valid if the
function f is piecewise continuous. A function f is piecewise contin-
uous over an interval [ a, b ] provided f has only a nite number of
discontinuities within the interval [ a, b ].
The conclusion of the Existence Theorem is also valid if the
function f is piecewise monotone. A function f is piecewise monotone
over the interval [ a, b ] provided we can partition the interval
a = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< x
3
< < x
n
= b
such that f is monotone over each subinterval [ x
i1
, x
i
]. for i = 1, 2,
3, . . . , n.
Virtually all functions encountered in a typical calculus course
are piecewise continuous or monotone.
A monotone function may have innitely many discontinuities,
yet still has a nite integral!
Example 7.3. Piecewise Continous Function. A piecewise con-
tinuous function can easily be constructed using piecewise denitions
of functions. For example,
f(x) =
_
x
2
x < 1
3 x x 1
is piecewise continuous on [ 2, 2 ]. (There is a single discontinuity
within this interval at x = 1.)
Exercise 7.8. Is the function f dened in Example 7.3 piecewise
monotone over the interval [ 2, 2 ]?
Exercise 7.9. Think about dierent piecewise continuous functions
and piecewise monotone functions (Example 7.3 and Exercise 7.8
and all possible variations). Are these types of functions one in the
same? That is, is it true that every time you write down a piecewise
continuous function that function must be piecewise monotone? More
precisely, can you give an example of a piecewise continuous function
that is not piecewise monotone?
Exercise 7.10. Give an example of a function that is monotone but
not piecewise continuous.
(Hint: Sit back and try to imagine such a function.)
7.4. Summation Techniques
Earlier in these notes, the sigma notation was introduced. In this
section we survey some common and useful properties of summation
and introduce some famous summation formulasall in preparation
for the Section 7.5, entitled Evaluation by Partitioning.
The sigma notation is a way of conveying to the reader a summa-
tion process. It is important to learn to read this notation so that
you can understand the thoughts that the writer is trying to commu-
nicate to you. The sigma notation is used throughout mathematics,
engineering, physics, statistics, and any other elds of study that use
mathematicsso pay attention!
The Notation. Suppose we have a collection of numbers
a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, . . . , a
n
(13)
we wish to sum. The notation for summing these numbers is
n
i=1
a
i
= a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
+ + a
n
(14)
Sometimes we want to sum over a subset of the numbers (13). Let k
and m be integers such that 1 k < m n. Now suppose we want
to sum the numbers
a
k
, a
k+1
, a
k+2
, . . . , a
m
.
The notation of the sum of these numbers is
m
i=k
a
i
= a
k
+ a
k+1
+ a
k+2
+ + a
m
. (15)
Notational Notes: The letter i in (14) is referred to as the index of
the sum. In (14), the index ranges from an initial value of i = 1 to a
terminal value of i = n.
The index is a dummy variable. It is a symbol that is used to
describe the numbers to be added. The choice of the letter used to
describe the summation process is not important. For example
n
i=1
a
i
n
j=1
a
j
n
=1
a
all represent the sum of the same set of numbers.

Algorithm For Expanding the Sigma Notation. There is
a (simple) way of expanding the sigma notation. (By expanding the
sigma notation I mean taking the left-hand side of (14), and writing
it as the right-hand side of (14).)
The sigma notation is used in several ways: (1) As a way of summing
symbols, as is the case in (14), for example; and (2) as a way of
summing a particular set of numbers. We have yet to see examples of
(2)that comes now. Here are a few visual examples:
1.
5
i=1
i
3
= 1
3
+ 2
3
+ 3
3
+ 4
3
+ 5
3
.
2.
3
j=1
j
j + 1
=
1
2
+
2
3
+
3
4
.
3.
n
k=1
2k = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + + 2n.
Notice that use of dierent indices in each of the examplesthis is
just to emphasize the point that any symbol can be used to index the
sums. To fully understand these expansions, study the Algorithm for
Expanding the Sigma Notation. Use this algorithm to expand the
left-hand sides of each of the above examples. If you understand the
algorithm, you will obtain the right-hand sides.
Exercise 7.11. In item (1) above, name the index, the initial value
of the index and the terminal or nal value of the index.
Exercise 7.12. To test your understanding of the Algorithm for
Expanding the Sigma Notation, expand each of the following
summations:
1.
4
i=1
(i
2
2i) 3.
5
j=1
j
(j
2
+ 2)
2.
4
=1
(5 + 1) 4.
7
i=4
i
2
The Algebraic Properties of Summation. When we manipulate
sums of quantities we frequently take advantage of certain useful re-
lationships the summation process enjoys.
Let a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
and b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
be (possibly) two sets
of numbers. Let c R be considered a constant. Then
1.
n
i=1
ca
i
= c
n
i=1
a
i
2.
n
i=1
(a
i
+ b
i
) =
n
i=1
a
i
+
n
i=1
b
i
Verbalizations. The rst equation states that the sum of some numbers
all of which have the same factor of c is that constant, c, times the
sum of the numbers. The second equation states that the sum of a
sum is the sum of the sums.
Exercise 7.13. Meditate on the phrase: the sum of a sum is the
sum of the sums. Attempt to understand its meaning in relation to
(2).
To illustrate these properties, suppose I tell you that
20
i=1
i = 210 and
20
i=1
i
2
= 2,870. (16)
Exercise 7.14. Utilizing (16), as well as the properties of summa-
tion, (1) and (2), calculate the sum of the following:
1.
20
i=1
(i
2
2i) 2.
20
=1
(3
2
4)
Exercise 7.15. Prove the Algebraic Properties of Summation:
(1) and (2).
Some Common Summation Formulas. Here are some famous
summation formula that we will be using in this section. Here are the
same formulas expanded out.
1.
n
i=1
c = nc 3.
n
i=1
i
2
=
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
2.
n
i=1
i =
n(n + 1)
2
4.
n
i=1
i
3
=
_
n(n + 1)
2
_
2
Keys to Success. To master the use of these summation formulas,
you have to understand their meaning. For example, summation for-
mula (3) enables us to calculate the sum of the squares of the rst
so many integers. Therefore, whenever you are summing up sums of
squares of integers, you should think of this formula. Of course, the
rst task is to realize that you are summing up the rst so many
squares of integers!
Example 7.4. Here is a few sample calculations to illustrate the
above formulas. Problem: Calculate each of the following:
1.
40
i=1
2 2.
20
i=1
i 3.
10
i=1
i
2
4.
15
i=1
i
3
.
(You might what to try them yourself before looking at the solution.)
In the examples above, the index has been the letter i. Of course,
there in no signicance to that particular letter. The index can be
any letter.
Exercise 7.16. Calculate each of the following sums.
1.
20
i=1
3 2.
33
j=1
j 3.
15
k=1
k
2
4.
20
=1
3
Exercise 7.17. In Exercise 7.16, you just calculated sums by for-
mulas. Do you understand what numbers you just added up? In this
exercise, write out the numbers and their sums using the following
format:
a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
+ + a
n
= calculated sum. (17)
That is, write out the rst four numbers, put . . . then write out
the last number and put the sum equal to the . . . sum!
Exercise 7.18. If you were cornered by a terrible monster and he is
forcing you to write the expression (17) in terms of the sigma notation,
how would you do it to get out of the predicament?
The summation formulas can be combined with the algebraic proper-
ties of summation to solve more complex summation problems.
Example 7.5. Compute the sum of each:
1.
10
i=1
i(3i + 2) 2.
15
j=1
(4j
3
9j
2
+ 2) 3.
n
k=1
(3k
2
k)
Now try doing some problems yourself. Work them out rst before
looking at the solutions. Just because you are working at home and
not turning in the problems for credit is no reason not to be neat.
Follow my examples for presenting mathematics.
Exercise 7.19. Calculate the sum each of the following:
1.
12
i=1
(4i
2
6i) 2.
15
j=1
(6j
3
4j
2
12) 3.
n
k=1
(2k
2
3k)
References: The Properties of Summation and the Summation For-
mulas.
All the formulas given above sum from 1 to n, where n is any positive
integer. What if we wanted to sum over a dierent range of values for
the index? Heres the critical but trivial observation:
n
i=k
a
i
=
n
i=1
a
i

k1
i=1
a
i
(18)
Read this equation and try to understand its meaning, then use it
along with the algebraic properties of summation and the basic sum-
mation formulas to solve the next exercise.
Exercise 7.20. Find the sum of the following terms:
1.
40
i=20
i 2.
20
j=12
j
2
3.
10
k=5
k
3
Writing the Sigma Notation. Given a sum, already written in the
sigma notation, we have concentrated, up to this point, on expanding
the notation and calculating its value using the summation formulas.
It is also important to be able to write a series of numbers that follow
some discernible pattern in terms of the sigma notation.
Illustration 1. For example, consider the following:
1
1 + 1
+
2
1 + 2
+
3
1 + 3
+ +
n
1 + n
.
There is an obvious pattern here. It should clear to you that
1
1 + 1
+
2
1 + 2
+
3
1 + 3
+ +
n
1 + n
=
n
i=1
i
1 + i
.
Heres an in-line example.
Example 7.6. Write the series in sigma notation:
1 + 2 + 2
2
+ 2
3
+ 2
4
+ + 2
n
.
Exercise 7.21. Write the sum in sigma notation:
1 + 1 +
1 + 4 +
1 + 9 +
1 + 16 + +
_
1 + n
2
.
Use good and proper notation.
In some problems in Calculus, the level of abstraction is a little higher.
Try solving the one.
Exercise 7.22. Let f be a function. Write
(1 + f(1))
3
+ (1 + f(2))
3
+ (1 + f(3))
3
+ + (1 + f(n))
3
.
Lets abstract a little more.
Exercise 7.23. Let f be a function. Write
sin(f(x
1
)) + sin(f(x
2
)) + sin(f(x
3
)) + + sin(f(x
k
)),
where x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
n
are a pre-selected set of numbers.
The last exercise is a kind of sum that appears in the constructive
denition of the Denite Integral. Recall the form of a Riemann Sum:
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
= f(x
1
) x
1
+ f(x
2
) x
2
+ f(x
3
) x
3
+ + f(x
n
) x
n
.
Reading from left to right, the left side can be expanded using the
algorithm to obtain the right-hand side. Now if you start from the
right-hand side, you should be able to see the pattern and should be
able to construct the sigma notation that is the left-hand side.
7.5. Evaluation by Partitioning
Certain integrals can be evaluated directly from the denition. Cal-
culating an integral from its denition brings alive this constructive
denition and helps us to better understand the denite integral.
In applied elds, the denite integral is estimated using numerical
techniques. All of these techniques are founded on the constructive
denition. Even though we will learn a very slick method of evaluat-
ing a denite integral in Section 8, this method cannot be applied
to every denite integral. Some integrals have to be estimated using
numerical techniques. Knowledge of the constructive denition of the
denite integral is essential to better understanding numerical meth-
ods that are so important in the applied diciplines.
That having been said, lets pause a little while to compute a few
integrals.
General Problem: Compute
_
b
a
f(x) dx from the denition.
The rst step in this process is to subdivide the interval of integration,
[ a, b ], into subintervals. Very often, it is convenient to subdivide the
interval [ a, b ] into subintervals of equal length.
Denition 7.5. A regular partition of [ a, b ] is a partition,
P = { x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
}
such that,
x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= = x
n
,
where x
i
= x
i
x
i1
is the width of the i
th
subinterval, i = 1, 2,
3, . . . , n. In this case, the partition, P, has subdivided the interval
[ a, b ] into n subintervals all of the same length.
Important Point. If we want to partition the interval [ a, b ] into n
subintervals of equal length (a regular partition) then the common
width of these subintervals will be (b a)/n; that is
x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= = x
n
=
b a
n
. (19)
As a shorthand notation, write x = (b a)/n (without a subscript)
to represent this common length.
Note also that the norm of a regular partition P is ||P|| = (ba)/n =
x.
Calculation of x for a Regular Partition:
If we want to subdivide the interval [ a, b ] into n subinter-
vals all having the same length, the common length of these
subintervals is given by
x =
b a
n
Take some time out to make sure you believe equation (19).
Exercise 7.24. Verify, in your own mind, equation (19).
Exercise 7.25. Suppose we have the interval [ 1, 4 ] and we want to
partition it into n = 6 subintervals of equal length. What is the value
of their common length?
Steps for Calculating
_
b
a
f(x) dx from the Denition.
The calculation of an integral from its denitional roots generally
takes ve steps:
1. Calculate the value of x = (b a)/n (the n is kept symbolic);
2. calculate the partition points (nodes);
3. choose the intermediate points x
i
;
4. given that choice, calculate the exact sum of the corresponding
Riemann Sum; and
5. having calculated the Riemann Sums; calculate the limit of the
Riemann sums as the norm of the partition tends to zero. (See
constructive denition of the denite integral.
Some Notes on the Calculation of the Partition Points. When
using a regular partition, it is actually very easy to compute the nodes.
Let me explain through a series of exercises that you should solve. Be
sure to read the solutions to these exercise because they contain some
standard techniques for computing the nodes of a regular partition.
Try to gure this one out on your own . . . it is important, not very
dicult.
Exercise 7.26. The endpoints of the interval, a and b, are known.
Generally, we decide to subdivide the interval into n equal subinterval,
so n is known, what is unknown is the values of the partition points
or nodes:
x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, . . . , x
n
.
Heres a visualization for your viewing pleasure:
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
i1
x
i
x
n
Partitioning Scheme
Determine how to calculate these points using the known information:
a, b, and n.
Exercise 7.27. We want to subdivide the interval [ 1, 4 ] into 6 subin-
terval all of the same length. Calculate the partition points or nodes
of this partition. (Hint: Consult Exercise 7.26)
Here is an (optional) exercise of the same type.
Exercise 7.28. Subdivide the interval [ 1, 5 ] into 8 equal subinter-
vals. Calculate the nodes of this partition. Use good notation.
Exercise 7.29. A friend of mine has partitioned an interval into 20
equal subintervals and has obtained a formula for each partition point:
x
i
= 4 +
4i
5
i = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 20.
The problem is that he wont tell me which interval he subdivided.
Can you help me out?
Partition Limits and Regular Partitions. The kind of limit that
appears in the denition of the denite integral is a fairly complicated
one:
_
b
a
f(x) dx = lim
||P||0
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
. (20)
Let f be integrable over the interval [ a, b ], this means that the limit
in equation (20) exists and does not depend on the choice of the
intermediate points x
i
. Focus in on the ||P|| 0 in (20). When P is
a regular partition, ||P|| = (b a)/n. As ||P|| gets closer and closer
to zero, it must be true that n, the number of subintervals into which
we have subdivided [ a, b ], must be getting larger and larger. Observe,
therefore, that for regular partitions:
||P|| 0 is equalivalent to n .
Consequently, when working with regular partitions, equation (20) is
rewritten as
_
b
a
f(x) dx = lim
n
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x. (21)
Notice not only the replacement of ||P|| 0 with n in (21), but
also the replacement of x
i
with just x. Both of these replacements
tend to simplify the (complex) task of calculating a denite integral
from its denition.
For Those Who Want to Know More. Here is the technical denition
of the limit given in (21).
Lets elevate equation (21) to the status of a shadow box for easy
reference later. The notation within the box is the standard notation
of the constructive denition.
Regular Partitions: Calculating a Denite Integral :
Let f be integrable over the interval [ a, b ]. Then
_
b
a
f(x) dx = lim
n
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
Calculation of Denite Integrals. Lets begin evaluating denite
integral by checking for internal consistency. Consider the function
f(x) = 3, 0 x 2. Graph this function up over this interval. The
region under the graph is a rectangle. The base, b, of the rectangle is
the length of the interval [ 0, 2 ], which is b = 2. The height, h, of the
rectangle is h = 3. Therefore, the area under the graph of f graphed
over the interval [ 0, 2 ] is A = bh = (2)(3) = 6. Will the denite
integral yield this same value? Lets see.
Example 7.7. Calculate
_
2
0
f(x) dx, where f(x) = 3, using the con-
structive denition of the denite integral.
Exercise 7.30. Compute
_
4
1
f(x) dx, where f(x) = 5 using the con-
structive denition of the denite integral.
(Hint: Follow the steps of Example 7.7)
Here is the same problem but abstracted. The end result of the exer-
cise is to assure ourselves that the integral always gives us back the
area of rectangle.
Exercise 7.31. Let b and h be positive numbers. Dene a function
by f(x) = h. Show, from basic principles, that
_
b
0
hdx = bh.
(Hint: Follow Example 7.7.)
Lets move on to something a little more challenging: The area of a
triangle. We still want to check whether the denite integral produces
the answer we would expect it to produce. If it does, it will give us
more and more condence that the constructive denition is correct;
that is, it denes what we think it denes.
Example 7.8. Consider the function f(x) = 4x over the interval
[ 0, 5 ]. The region under the graph of f and above the x-axis is a
triangle with base 5 and height 20 (f(5) = 20). The area under the
graph can be expressed by
A =
_
5
0
4xdx.
Calculate the value of this integral from basic principles.
We have seen now several examples of how to calculate the value of
a denite integral. A natural question arises: In Example 7.8, we
obtained a value of 50, how do we know that the is really the value of
the integral?
In that example, we chose as the intermediate values, x
i
, the right-
hand endpoints. The denition requires that the limit of the Riemann
sums be the same value no matter the what choice of the intermediate
points. How do we know that if we had chosen the left-hand endpoints
or the midpoints of each interval, or some randomly chosen points
taken from each interval, we would always come out with a limit of
50?
Exercise 7.32. Read the discussion of the previous paragraphs and
determine the reason why no matter how we would have chosen, the
limit of the corresponding Riemann Sums would have still come out
to be 50.
Exercise 7.33. In Example 7.8 we calculated the value of
_
5
0
4xdx = 50.
Review the solution to that example, and based on your review de-
termine the value of the integral:
_
5
0
4xdx.
Exercise 7.34. Use the constructive denition of the denite inte-
gral to calculate the integral
_
2
0
3x + 1 dx.
Take the intermediate points to be the right-hand endpoint of each
subinterval. Before you get started, can you predict the answer based
on geometric interpretation?
Lets try another where the lower limit of integration is nonzero. This
exercise is done the same way as the previous; however, there is con-
siderably more algebragood thing you are a master of algebra!
_
2
1
3x
2
2xdx using the constructive def-
inition of the denite integral.
7.6. Properties of the Denite Integral
In this section we take a survey of the general properties of the Def-
inite Integral. These properties are very useful in the calculation of
the integral, as well as completing your understanding of the basic
integral.
All the following properties can be readily deduced form the construc-
tive process. The rst few properties will be quite familiar to you, as
they are shared properties of the Indenite Integral.
Homogeneous Property. Suppose the f is integrable over the in-
terval [ a, b ] and c R, then cf is integrable over the interval [ a, b ],
and
_
b
a
cf(x) dx = c
_
b
a
f(x) dx.
The Additive of Integrand. Suppose the functions f and g are
integrable over the interval [ a, b ], then f + g, is integrable over the
interval [ a, b ], and
_
b
a
f(x) + g(x) dx =
_
b
a
f(x) dx +
_
b
a
g(x) dx
Of course, a similar statement is true for the dierence of two func-
tions.
Additivity of Limits. Suppose f is integrable over the interval
[ a, b ], and let c [ a, b ], then
_
b
a
f(x) dx =
_
c
a
f(x) dx +
_
b
c
f(x) dx.
Nonnegativity of the Integral. Suppose the function f is inte-
grable over [ a, b ] and that f(x) 0 over [ a, b ], then
_
b
a
f(x) dx 0.
Monotone Property of the Integral. Suppose f and g are inte-
grable over the interval [ a, b ] and that f(x) g(x) for all x [ a, b ],
then
_
b
a
f(x) dx
_
b
a
g(x) dx.
Absolute Integrability. Suppose f is integrable over the interval
[ a, b ], then |f| is integrable over the interval [ a, b ] too, and
_
b
a
f(x) dx
_
b
a
|f(x)| dx.
Integral over Interval of Zero Length. We occasionally come
across the problem in integrating over an interval of zero length. We
make the following denition: For any number a Dom(f),
_
a
a
f(x) dx = 0.
Reverse Order of Integration. When we perform substitution, the
limits of integration sometimes get mixed around. In order to make
valid the substitution method with denite integrals, we make the
Section 8: Evaluation of the Denite Integral
following denition: Suppose f is integrable over the interval [ a, b ],
then
_
a
b
f(x) dx =
_
b
a
f(x) dx.
8. Evaluation of the Denite Integral
Despite the very complicated nature of the construction of the denite
integral, there is an elementary technique for its evaluation. That is
the topic if this section.
8.1. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
There is a surprising relationship between the divine simplicity of an-
tidierentiation and the infernal construction of the denite integral;
a relationship that is set forth in the two theorems.
Theorem 8.1. (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I.) Let f be
continuous over the interval [ a, b ], then antiderivatives of f exist. In
particular, dene a new function F on the interval [ a, b ] by,
F(x) =
_
x
a
f(t) dt,
then F is an antiderivative of f; this means that for any x ( a, b ),
F
(x) = f(x).
Proof.
Theorem 8.2. (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II.) Let f
be integrable over the interval [ a, b ], and suppose there is an anti-
derivative F of f over the interval ( a, b ). Then,
_
b
a
f(x) dx = F(b) F(a).
Proof.
8.2. The Mechanics: Simple Demonstrations
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is our big weapon for evaluat-
ing denite integrals:
_
b
a
f(x) dx = F(b) F(a), (1)
where F is any antiderivative of f.
Exercise 8.1. We have learned that the most general antiderivative
of a function f(x) has the form F(x) +C. In the above statement, we
emphasize the word any antiderivative. Show that the inclusion of
the constant C has no eect on the value of the integral in equation
(1).
Notational Conventions.
The right-hand side of the above equation is often abbreviated to
F(x)|
b
a
= F(b) F(a) (2)
thus,
_
b
a
f(x) dx = F(x)|
b
a
.
The function F is an antiderivative of f. The techniques for con-
structing antiderivatives was discussed exhaustively earlier. Recall,
an antiderivative of f is the same as the indenite integral of f:
_
f(x) dx,
and so, equations (2) becomes
_
b
a
f(x) dx =
_
f(x) dx
b
a
.
Lets look at a series of examples.
_
3
2
x
2
dx.
_
4
0
x
xdx, and interpret its value.

_
1
2
x
4
2xdx.
Summary: Denite Integration problem,
_
b
a
f(x) dx
consists of two distinct steps:
1. Evaluate an Indenite Integral:
_
f(x) dx
This step was discussed extensively earlier. The evaluation of an
indenite integral is a function whose derivative is f(x).
Section 9: Techniques of Evaluating Denite Integrals
2. Evaluate Indenite Integral between the Limits:
_
f(x) dx
b
a
This step is merely numerical, and, as such, is conceptually
rather simple; however, this step must be given your fullest at-
tention as there are plenty of opportunities for error.
The rst step can be rather dicult; the second, given the rst step
has been completed, is trivial. (Yet, error can occur, be careful).
Therefore, the emphasis in Calculus I and Calculus II is on devel-
oping the techniques to successfully accomplish step (1).
9. Techniques of Evaluating Denite Integrals
In this section we take a survey of standard methods of evaluating
the denite integral. This survey is by no means complete, there are
many other techniques you will encounter in later calculus courses.
9.1. EBLO Tricks
One of the problems students have is to make a numerical calculation
more dicult than it really has to be. When we evaluate a denite
integral, we are calculating a number. The method we use primarily
to do this is the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
_
b
a
f(x) dx = F(x)|
b
a
= F(b) F(a)
The arithmetic process on the right-hand side has several properties
you can occasionally exploit. Let us refer to
F(x)|
b
a
= F(b) F(a) (1)
as EBLO: Evaluation between the limits Operation.
Homogeneity of EBLO. This property is based on the observation
that if c is a constant then
cF(b) cF(a) = c(F(b) F(a))
This equation can be translated using the evaluation notation as
(cF(x))|
b
a
= c( F(x)|
b
a
) (2)
Roughly speaking, when we evaluate an antiderivative between limits,
and the antiderivative has a constant factor embedded in it, then this
constant factor can be factored out of the evaluation.
Verbalization. The evaluation of a constant times a function is that
constant times the evaluation of that function.
Lets illustrate the utility of this property by way of a simple example.
Example 9.1. (Illustration of Homogeneity Property)
Evaluate
_
3
2
x
3
dx.
Additivity Property of EBLO. This property is derived from the
simple observation that if F and G are functions then,
(F(b) + G(b)) (F(a) + G(a)) = (F(b) F(a)) + (G(b) G(a))
This is translated in terms of the evaluational notation as
( F(x) + G(x))|
b
a
= F(x)|
b
a
+ G(x)|
b
a
. (3)
This can be verbalized by saying that the evaluation of the sum of two
antiderivatives is the sum of the evaluations of each antiderivative.
Verbalization. The evaluation of the sum of two functions is the sum
of the evaluations of each function.
The Additive Property of the evaluation operation can be used from
left-to-right or from right-to-left.
Example 9.2. (Illustration of Additive Property)
Evaluate
_
1
1
x
3
x
2
dx.
Exercise 9.1. Evaluate the integral
_
2
2
x
2
5x
5
dx using the prop-
erties of homogeniety and additivity of EBLO.
If you were one of the unfortunates who did not properly execute the
last exercise to maximum eciency, try another, please.
_
3
2
3x
3
+ 2x
2
dx.
Reversing the Order of Evaluation. Observe the following simple
algebraic property:
F(b) F(a) = (F(a) F(b)).
This can be translated into the EBLO notation as follows:
F(x)|
b
a
= F(x)|
a
b
. (4)
Verbalization. The evaluation between two limits is negative the eval-
uation of the limits in reverse order.
Here is a simple example to illustrate the minor use of this property.
_
2
1
x
3
dx.
These are just some useful tips that you can use when trying to eval-
uate denite integrals eciently and without error.
9.2. Denite Integration and Substitution
When you are working a denite integral and the technique of substi-
tution is called for, how do we proceed? There is actually two ways:
(1) Treat the integral as an indenite integral, perform the substitu-
tion, obtain the antiderivative, then evaluate the antiderivative be-
tween the limits; or, (2) continue with the denite integral, make the
substitution, and change the limits of integral. Changing the limits is
explained below.
First up is an example wherein the technique of substitution is used,
the solution indicates a train of thought you can use.
_
1
0
x
_
x
2
+ 3 dx.
_
0
2
x
(x
2
+ 1)
3
dx.
The next example illustrates a style you can adapt. In this approach,
we combine the indenite integration step with the denite integral,
we set up the substitution, but dont substitute. Check it out.
_
/4
0
sin(2x) dx.
An alternate approach to nding the indenite integral as a separate
step, and evaluating it between the specied limits, we can simple
change the limits of integration.
Changing the Limits of Integration.
Justication: Let F be an antiderivative of f. This means
_
f(u) du = F(u) + C. (5)
Let g be a dierentiable function compatible for composition with f,
then, by the Chain Rule, F(g(x)) is an antiderivative of f(g(x))g
(x),
since the derivative of the former is the latter. This means
_
f(g(x))g
(x) dx = F(g(x)) + C. (6)

As we have already seen, the technique of substitution is the equation
you get when you equate (5) and (6) with the proviso that u = g(x):
_
f(g(x))g
(x) dx =
_
f(u) du,
where u = g(x).
Now if its a denite integral we want to evaluate, then from (5),
_
b
a
f(g(x))g
(x) dx = F(g(x))|
b
a
= F(g(b)) F(g(a)). (7)
The trick now is to notice that if we were to take the integral in (6)
and integrate it between certain special limits:
_
g(b)
g(a)
f(u) du = F(u)|
g(b)
g(a)
= F(g(b)) F(g(a)). (8)
The right-hand sides of (7) and (8) are identical; hence, the left-hand
sides are the same,
_
b
a
f(g(x))g
(x) dx =
_
g(b)
g(a)
f(u) du
This is the substitution formula with limits.
Substitution with Limits:
Let f and g be functions. Let u = g(x) and du = g
(x), then
_
b
a
f(g(x))g
(x) dx =
_
g(b)
g(a)
f(u) du.
This formula is not as dicult as it rst seems. The process of setting
up the limits of integration for the new integral is quite natural. Lets
go to the examples.
_
1
0
x
_
x
2
+ 3 dx.
_
3
2
(1 4x)
5
dx.
9.3. Taking Advantage of Symmetry
There are occasions in which you can take advantage of any symmetry
properties that the integrand may have over the interval of integra-
tion. In this section we examine two situations of interest: Integrating
an even function over an interval of the form [ a, a ]; Integrating an
odd function over an interval of the form [ a, a ].
Integrating an Even function. A function f dened on a (sym-
metrical) interval [ a, a ] is called an even function if it is true that
f(x) = f(x) for all x [ a, a ]. (9)
In the jargon of analytic geometry, we say that f is symmetrical with
respect to the y-axis.
If f is an even function over the interval [ a, a ], then graphically,
this means that the graph of f over the interval [ a, 0 ] is identical
to the graph of f over the interval [ 0, a ]. Intuitively, this would seem
to imply that
_
0
a
f(x) dx =
_
a
0
f(x) dx.
This intuitive result does take a bit of eort to argue analytically,
but its proof does represent a nice example of the use of subsitution.
The interested student is invited, therefore, to read the proof of the
following magnication of the obvious.
Theorem 9.1. Let f be an even function over the symmetric interval
[ a, a ], then
_
a
a
f(x) dx = 2
_
a
0
f(x) dx. (10)
Proof.
Theorem Notes: The utility of (10) is that it tends to simplify the nu-
merical calculations after you have solve the indenite integral. Taking
advantage of symmetry this way can be very useful.
Exercise 9.4. Using Theorem 9.1, in particular, equation (10), show
that
_
0
a
f(x) dx =
_
a
0
f(x) dx
_
2
2
x
2
dx.
Keys to Success. To use this technique you need to (1) have the ability
to identify even functions, these are functions that are symmetric with
respect to the y-axis (assuming y is the dependent variable); and (2)
have the awareness of the type of interval you are integrating over:
symmetric or not.
_
1
1
x
4
2x
2
1 dx.
_
/4
/4
cos(x) dx.
_
1
1
x
6
x
3
dx.
Integrating an Odd Function. A function f dened on a (sym-
metrical) interval [ a, a ] is called an odd function if it is true that
f(x) = f(x) for all x [ a, a ]. (11)
In the jargon of analytic geometry, we say that f is symmetrical with
respect to the origin.
If f is an odd function over the interval [ a, a ], then graphically,
this means that the graph of f over the interval [ a, 0 ] is identical
to the graph of f over the interval [ 0, a ], except that one graph is
the reection of the other with respect to the x-axis. Intuitively, this
would seem to imply that
_
0
a
f(x) dx =
_
a
0
f(x) dx.
This intuitive result does take a bit of eort to argue analytically,
but its proof does represent a nice example of the use of subsitution.
The interested student is invited, therefore, to read the proof of the
following magnication of the obvious.
Theorem 9.2. Let f be an odd function over the symmetric interval
[ a, a ], then
_
a
a
f(x) dx = 0. (12)
Proof.
Exercise 9.8. Using Theorem 9.2, in particular, equation (12), show
that
_
0
a
f(x) dx =
_
a
0
f(x) dx
_
1
1
x
3
dx.
Keys to Success. To use this technique you need to (1) have the ability
to identify odd functions, these are functions that are symmetric with
respect to the origin; and (2) have the awareness of the type of interval
you are integrating over symmetric or not.
_
100
100
cos(x)
x
8
+ x
4
+ x
2
+ 1
dx.
Example 9.11. (Continue Exercise 9.7) Evaluate
_
1
1
x
6
x
3
dx.
Verbalizations
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
Let f be integrable over the interval [ a, b ], and suppose there
is an antiderivative F of f over the interval ( a, b ). Then,
_
b
a
f(x) dx = F(b) F(a).
The value of a denite integral is equal to any antiderivative
evaluated between the limits of integration: the value at the
upper limit minus the value at the lower limit.
Verbalizations
What is a Riemann Sum? A Riemann sum is any sum of the form
n
i=1
h(x
i
) x
i
,
for some function h. This algebraic formula does not tell the whole
story; it is the end product of a lengthy constructive process.
To completely understand what a Riemann sum is, you must under-
stand the story behind the formula. We have some interval [ a, b ] of
numbers and we subdivide it into n N subintervals. The length of
the i
th
subinterval is x
i
, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n. Out of each subinterval,
the i
th
one, a number is chosen and labeled x
i
.
A Riemann sum then, is the sum of the given function h evaluated at
the chosen points, h(x
i
), times the width, x
i
, of the interval from
which the point x
i
was chosen from . . . and Presto! Changeo! we have
Riemann Sum:
n
i=1
h(x
i
) x
i
.
Solutions to Exercises
7.1. The 5
th
interval is I
5
= [ x
4
, x
5
] and the length of this interval
is
x
5
= x
5
x
4
.
Exercise 7.1.
7.2. Why its the length of the interval [ a, b ]. These subintervals
subdivide the interval [ a, b ]; therefore, the total length of the subin-
tervals equals the length of the intervals they span.
For the algebraic fanatics out there
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ + x
n
= (x
1
x
0
) + (x
2
x
1
) + (x
3
x
2
) + + (x
n
x
n1
)
= x
0
+ x
n
= x
n
x
0
= b a
All numbers in the second line cancel out except the term x
0
and
the term x
n
. Exercise 7.2.
7.3. Why its the area of the region R. Exercise 7.3.
7.4. n is the number of rectangles to be constructed, and i is the
index variable that keeps track of the rectangles; i = 4, for example,
corresponds to the 4
th
rectangle.
The quantity, x
i
is the length of the base of the i
th
rectangle, and
f(x
i
) is the height of same. Finally, f(x
i
)x
i
is the area of the i
th
rectangle.
We add up the areas of the n rectangles to obtain
n
i=1
f(x
i
)x
i
to obtain an approximation of the total area under the graph of f.
This creature is generically referred to as a Riemann sum.
Question. Some textbooks always subdivide the interval into n subin-
tervals all of the same width. In our development, we dont mind that
the subintervals are not of the same width; e.g. x
1
may be dierent
in value from x
2
. Why do you suppose we dont mind having subin-
tervals of possibly dierent widths? (Formulate an answer within the
context of The Idea of the Solution.)
Exercise 7.4.
7.5. Just subdivide the interval [ 0, 0.1 ] into 99 subintervals of equal
length, then tack on the interval [ 0.1, 1 ] to make 100 subintervals
partitioning the interval [ 0, 1 ].
You need more details? Say, no. Exercise 7.5.
7.6. This function is nonnegative over the interval specied; there-
fore, this is the type of situation analyzed in this section.
A =
_
5
1
x
4
+ xdx
Exercise 7.6.
7.7. Are you peeking at the answer? Heres one last hint: Area be-
low the x-axis is considered negative and area above the x-axis is
considered positive.
(a)
_
b
a
f(x) dx > 0.
Given that you have looked at my formulation for part (a), now revise,
if needed, your interpretation of (b) before looking.
(b)
_
b
a
f(x) dx < 0.
Finally for part (c). Do you need to reconsider your formulation before
looking?
(c)
_
b
a
f(x) dx = 0.
Exercise 7.7.
7.8. The short answer is Yes. The slightly longer answer would be
. . . the function
f(x) =
_
x
2
x < 1
3 x x 1
is decreasing on the interval ( 2, 0 ), it is increasing on the interval
( 0, 1 ), and it is decreasing again on the interval ( 1, 2 ). Why do I
make these observations? This is how we argue, in written form, that
a function is piecewise monotone. We have argued that the interval of
interest [ 2, 2 ] can be partitioned
2 < 0 < 1 < 2
such that over each subinterval f is monotone. Exercise 7.8.
7.9. An example of a piecewise continues function that is not piece-
wise monotone:
f(x) =
_
xsin(1/x) x = 0
0 x = 0
In fact, this function is everywhere continuous (even at x = 0). Yet,
f is not piecewise monotone on the interval [ 0, 1 ], for example. Do
you see why? Graph the function and compare it with the denition
of piecewise monotone function.
Exercise Notes: Prove that f is continuous at x = 0. Hint: Use squeez-
ing techniques.
Can you give a formal argument that f is not piecewise mono-
tone?
Exercise 7.9.
7.10. It is easier to imagine such an example than to write it down
mathematically. Here is the result of my imagination.
Dene f(0) = 0. For any x ( 0, 1 ], there is a (unique) natural number
k such that 1/2
k
< x 1/2
k1
. In this case, dene f(x) to be
f(x) =
x
2
k1
.
This is a monotone increasing function on the interval [ 0, 1 ] having
innitely many discontinuities. The points of discontinuity are
x =
1
2
,
1
4
,
1
8
, . . . ,
1
2
k
, . . .
Question. Can you draw the graph of this function? No graphing cal-
culators allowed! Hint: For k = 1, the function f is dened on the
interval ( 1/2, 1 ] by f(x) = x; for k = 2, the function f is dened on
the interval ( 1/4, 1/2 ] by f(x) = x/2, and so on. See if you can graph
it.
This function is not piecewise continuous since f has innitely many
discontinuities. Piecewise continuous, as dened above species only
nitely many discontinuities.
Question. According to the existence theorem,
_
1
0
f(x) dx exists and is nite.
Can you calculate the value of this integral? (Hint: The integral repre-
sents the area under the graph. This area can be calculated by certain
already established formula for common geometric objects. Good luck!
DPS) Exercise 7.10.
7.11. This one is too easy: The index is i; its initial value is 1 and
its terminal or nal value is 5. Exercise 7.11.
7.12. Lets take each in turn.
1.

4
i=1
(i
2
2i)
4
i=1
(i
2
2i) = (1
2
2(1)) + (2
2
2(2)) + (3
2
2(3)) + (4
2
2(4))
= (1) + 0 + 2 + 8.
2.

4
=1
(5 + 1)
4
=1
(5 + 1) = (5(1) + 1) + (5(2) + 1) + (5(3) + 1) + (5(4) + 1)
= 6 + 11 + 16 + 21.
3.

5
j=1
j
(j
2
+2)
5
j=1
j
(j
2
+ 2)
=
1
(1
2
+ 2)
+
2
(2
2
+ 2)
+
3
(3
2
+ 2)
+
4
(4
2
+ 2)
+
5
(5
2
+ 2)
=
1
3
+
1
3
+
3
11
+
2
9
+
5
27
.
4.

7
i=4
i
2
7
i=4
i
2
= 4
2
+ 5
2
+ 6
2
+ 7
2
= 16 + 25 + 36 + 49
The last expansion hopefully did not throw you for a loop. The initial
value of the index is i = 4. This sum corresponds to equation (15).
The algorithm is valid for this kind of sum. Exercise 7.12.
7.13. MEDITATE!
What do I refer to when I say the sum of a sum?
What do I refer to when I say the sum of the sums?
Exercise 7.13.
7.14. You should have proceeded as follows.
Part 1:
20
i=1
(i
2
2i) =
20
i=1
i
2
+
20
i=1
(2i) by (2)
=
20
i=1
i
2
2
20
i=1
i by (1)
= 2,870 2(210) by (16)
= 2,420 by pencil and paper
Part 2: This part is done similarly. I rely on you to complete it cor-
rectly if you have not done so already. Use the above solution as an
example of the technique and style of solution. Pay attention to proper
notationnot only do you want to learn mathematics, but you also
want to become mathematically literate.
Use the properties of summation explicitly. Write everything down,
just as I have above. Remember, its easier for you to write the solution
than for me to type the solution.
Quiz.

20
=1
(3
2
4) = ??
(a) 1,750 (b) 6,440 (c) 7,770 (d) 8,330
Exercise 7.14.
7.15. The idea is to expand the sums and manipulate them in a
more traditional way.
Proof that
n
i=1
ca
i
= c
n
i=1
a
i
.
We begin with the left-hand side and show it is equal to the right-hand
side.
n
i=1
ca
i
= (ca
1
) + (ca
2
) + + (ca
n
) by the algorithm
= c[a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
] Quiz #1
= c
n
i=1
a
i
by the algorithm
Quiz #1. Which of the following algebraic laws justies this step:
(a) associative (b) distributive
(c) commutative (d) n.o.t.
Proof of
n
i=1
(a
i
+ b
i
) =
n
i=1
a
i
+
n
i=1
b
i
.
We begin with the left-hand side and show it is equal to the right-hand
side.
n
i=1
(a
i
+ b
i
)
= (a
1
+ b
1
) + (a
2
+ b
2
) + + (a
n
+ b
n
) by the algorithm
= (a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
) + (b
1
+ b
2
+ + b
n
) Quiz #2
=
n
i=1
a
i
+
n
i=1
b
i
by the algorithm
Quiz #2. Two algebraic laws were used in this step. Your assignment,
should you decide to accept it, is to name these two.
(a) distributive and associative (b) distributive and commutative
(c) associative and commutative (d) n.o.t.
Exercise Notes: After you have studied the proofs of these two proper-
ties, I think youll agree with me that they are nothing more then com-
monly known properties of addition and multiplication. When written
in the form of the sigma notation they look dierent and strange, but,
nevertheless, they are very simple properties of our number system.
It would be useful when you use these properties to visualize
in your mind the kinds of arithmetic manipulations you are actually
doing.
Exercise 7.15.
7.16. Just follow the summation formulas:
20
i=1
3 = 20(3) = 60 from (1)
33
j=1
j =
33(34)
2
= 561 from (2)
15
k=1
k
2
=
15(16)(31)
6
= 1,240 from (3)
20
=1
3
=
_
20(21)
2
_
2
= 44,100. from (4)
Exercise 7.16.
7.17. The summation notation provides a formula for computing the
numbers involved in the sum.
1.
20
i=1
3 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + + 3 = 60.
2.
33
j=1
j = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + + 33 = 561.
3.
15
k=1
k
2
= 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
+ 4
2
+ + 15
2
= 1,240.
4.
20
=1
3
= 1
3
+ 2
3
+ 3
3
+ 4
3
+ + 20
3
= 44,100.
Exercise 7.17.
7.18. You would notice that in the sum
a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
+ + a
n
all the numbers have the same form: a
i
for some number i. And this
number i, the index, varies from i = 1 to i = n. So write for the
monster the notation:
a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
+ + a
n
=
n
i=1
a
i
.
Or, just to confuse the poor monster, maybe write
a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
+ + a
n
=
n
dps=1
a
dps
.
Exercise 7.18.
7.19.
Exercise 7.19.
7.20. Solution to 1: We use equation(18)
40
i=20
i =
40
i=1
i
19
i=1
i
=
40(41)
2

19(20)
2
Sum formula (2)
= 630
Add up the number by calculator if you dont believe me!
Solution to 2: Having seen the solution to (1), Ill let you nish o
(2). Here are some questions to guide your reasoning.
20
j=12
j
2
=
20
j=1
j
2
??
j=1
j
2
.
Quiz What is the correct value of ?? in the above equation?
(a) 11 (b) 12 (c) 13 (d) n.o.t.
Work out the answer, then check it against the alternatives. Passing
score is 1 out of 1.
Quiz Which of the following is equal to
20
j=12
j
2
?
(a) 3,140 (b) 2, 134 (c) 2,364 (d) n.o.t.
Solution to 3: Solve the problem using the techniques illustrated for
(1). Check you answer below. You will jump the complete solution
when you click on the right answer. Do the problem rst.
Quiz Which of the following is equal to
10
k=5
k
3
?
(a) 2,875 (b) 2,925 (c) 2,921 (d) n.o.t.
Exercise 7.20.
7.21. Did you write
n
i=1
i + i
2
? Exercise 7.21.
7.22. Ans:
n
i=1
(1 + f(i))
3
. Exercise 7.22.
7.23. Ans:
k
j=1
sin(f(x
j
)).
Did I throw you o with the dierent letters k and j
You may have written:

k
i=1
sin(f(x
i
)), which is right, or you could
have written
n
i=1
sin(f(x
i
)), which is technically wrong since I spec-
ied that the last number is k not n. Did I trick you? Exercise 7.23.
7.24. If we have an interval of length 7 units and want to partition
it into 2 equal subintervals, the length of each subinterval must be
7/2 = 3.5 units.
If we have an interval of length 6 units and we want to divide it into
3 equal parts, the length of each of the three parts will be 6/3 = 2
units.
In just the same way, if we have an interval, [ a, b ], of length b a and
we want to divide this length into n subintervals of the same length,
the width of each of these subintervals must necessarily be (b a)/n.
Exercise 7.24.
7.25. We use the formula (19), here [ a, b ] = [ 1.4 ] and n = 6:
x =
b a
n
=
4 1
6
=
1
2
.
That is, the common width of these 6 intervals will be x = 1/2.
Exercise 7.25.
7.26. Each of the partition points are x = (b a)/n apart. This is
the critical observation. There are a couple of methods that can be
used.
Method 1: x
0
= a
x
1
= x
0
+ x
x
2
= x
1
+ x
x
3
= x
2
+ x
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
i
= x
i1
+ x
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
n
= x
n1
+ x
This is a nice computation method of calculating the partition points
one at a time. The other method is just a general formula for the
calculation of these points.
Method 2: For each i, the value of the i
th
node is
x
i
= x
0
+ i x, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n. (A-1)
Question. Do you see where this formula comes from? Do not leave
until you understand! Exercise 7.26.
7.27. The interval is
[ a, b ] = [ 1, 4 ].
we want to subdivide this interval into n = 6 subintervals of equal
length. That common length is
x =
b a
n
=
4 1
6
= .5
The partition points or nodes can easily be calculated using Method 1:
x
0
= a = 1
x
1
= x
0
+ x = 1.0 + .5 = 1.5
x
2
= x
1
+ x = 1.5 + .5 = 2
x
3
= x
2
+ x = 2.0 + .5 = 2.5
x
4
= x
3
+ x = 2.5 + .5 = 3
x
5
= x
4
+ x = 3.0 + .5 = 3.5
x
6
= x
5
+ x = 3.5 + .5 = 4
The direct formula, Method2, can be used as well. For example, if we
wanted to compute x
3
we obtain from (A-1):
x
3
= x
0
+ 3 x = 1 + 3(.5) = 2.5
Exercise 7.27.
7.28. The value of the common width of these 8 intervals is
x =
b a
n
=
5 (1)
8
=
6
8
=
3
4
Using the direct formula, we obtain,
x
i
= x
0
+ ix = 1 + i
3
4
, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 8
You can evaluate this formula for the dierent values of the index i
to obtain the numerical results.
Quiz. What is the value of x
5
, the fth node in the partition?
(a) 2.0 (b) 2.75 (c) 3.5 (d) 4.25
Exercise 7.28.
7.29. YOU are supposed to help ME! As I am rather self-reliant, Ill
help myself.
The left-hand endpoint is obtained from the formula
x
i
= 4 +
4i
5
i = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 20
by putting i = 0. Using my hand-held graphing calculator, I obtain
a = x
0
= 4.
You can obtain the right-hand endpoint is obtained from the above
formula by putting i = 20. Thus,
b = x
20
= 4 +
4(20)
5
= 20
Answer: The interval is [ 4, 20 ] .
Thank you! DPS Exercise 7.29.
7.30. Here is an outline of what you should have done; your solution
should have been as complete as Example 7.7
Begin by subdividing the interval [ a, b ] = [ 1, 4 ] into n equal subin-
tervals.
Step 1: Calculate x.
x =
b a
n
=
3
n
Step 2: Calculate the partition points (using the techniques of Exer-
cise 7.26 or Exercise 7.27).
Method 2 of 7.26:
x
i
= x
0
+ i x, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
x
0
= 1
x
1
= 1 + (1)(3/n) = 1 + 2/n
x
2
= 1 + (2)(3/n) = 1 + 6/n
x
3
= 1 + (3)(3/n) = 1 + 9/n
x
4
= 1 + (4)(3/n) = 1 + 12/n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
i
= 1 + (i)(3/n) = 1 + 3i/n (A-2)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
n
= 1 + (n)(3/n) = 1 + 3 = 4 . . . and done!
Step 3: Choose the intermediate points x
i
: Say the right-hand end-
points of each interval. From (A-2) we obtain:
x
i
= x
i
= 1 +
3i
n
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
(Recall: the i
th
interval is [ x
i1
, x
i
] and so the right-hand endpoint
of this interval is x
i
.)
Summary. x
i
= 1 +
3i
n
and x =
2
n
.
Step 4: Calculate Riemann Sums:
S
n
=
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
=
n
i=1
f(1 + 3i/n)
3
n
=
n
i=1
5
3
n
=
n
i=1
15
n
= (n)
15
n
by (1) above
= 15
Thus, the n
th
Riemann Sum is
S
n
= 15. (A-3)
Consequently, the nal step is
Step 5: Calculate the limit of the Riemann sum approximation (A-3):
_
4
1
5 dx = lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
15 = 15,
or,
_
4
1
5 dx = 15.
Once again we obtain the expected result. Exercise 7.30.
7.31. Begin by subdividing the interval [ a, b ] = [ 0, b ] into n equal
subintervals.
x =
b a
n
=
b
n
Method 2 of 7.26:
x
i
= x
0
+ i x, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
x
0
= 0
x
1
= (1)(b/n) = b/n
x
2
= (2)(b/n) = 2b/n
x
3
= (3)(b/n) = 3b/n
x
4
= (4)(b/n) = 4b/n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
i
= (i)(b/n) = ib/n (A-4)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
n
= (n)(b/n) = b . . . and done!
i
x
i
= x
i
=
ib
n
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
Summary. x
i
=
ib
n
and x =
b
n
.
Recall we are integrating the function f(x) = h.
S
n
=
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
=
n
i=1
f(ib/n)
b
n
=
n
i=1
h
b
n
=
n
i=1
bh
n
= (n)
bh
n
by (1) above
= bh
Thus, the n
th
Riemann Sum is
S
n
= bh. (A-5)
_
b
0
hdx = lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
bh = bh,
or,
_
b
0
hdx = bh.
Once again we obtain the expected resultthats more on that par-
ticular construction than you really wanted to see. Exercise 7.31.
7.32. The function f that we are integrating is f(x) = 4x. This func-
tion is continuous over the interval [ 0, 5 ]; therefore, by the Existence
Theorem, Theorem 7.4, the function f(x) = 4x is integrable over the
interval [ 0, 5 ]; that is,
_
5
0
4xdxexists and is nite.
That being the case, from the constructive denition, no matter what
the choice of the intermediate points, x
i
, the corresponding Riemann
sums always tend to the same value (the value of the integral).
If we choose the intermediate points to be the right-hand endpoints,
since f is integrable, the corresponding Riemann sums must tend to
the value of the integral. We showed in Example 7.8 that those
Riemann sums tend to 50. Therefore 50 must be the value of the
integral
_
5
0
4xdx = 50,
and any other choice of intermediate points would yield Riemann sums
that would necessarily have to tend to 50 as well.
That clear? Exercise 7.32.
7.33. If you replace 4 by 4 in the demonstration given in Exam-
ple 7.8, and follow the change in the calculations, you will see that
_
5
0
4xdx = 50
Or, writing it dierently to suggest a general principle,
_
5
0
4xdx =
_
5
0
4xdx
Exercise 7.33.
7.34. Begin by subdividing the interval [ a, b ] = [ 0, 2 ] into n equal
subintervals.
x =
b a
n
=
2
n
Method 2 of 7.26:
x
i
= x
0
+ i x, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
x
0
= 0
x
1
= (1)(2/n) = 2/n
x
2
= (2)(2/n) = 4/n
x
3
= (3)(2/n) = 6/n
x
4
= (4)(2/n) = 8/n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
i
= (i)(2/n) = 2i/n (A-6)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
n
= (n)(2/n) = 2 . . . and done!
i
x
i
= x
i
=
2i
n
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
Summary. x
i
=
2i
n
and x =
2
n
.
Recall we are integrating the function f(x) = 3x + 1; consequently,
f(2i/n) = 3
2i
n
+ 1 =
6i
n
+ 1. (A-7)
This calculation is needed in the next step.
S
n
=
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
=
n
i=1
f(2i/n)
2
n
=
n
i=1
_
6i
n
+ 1
_
2
n
from (A-7)
=
n
i=1
_
12i
n
2
+
2
n
_
=
n
i=1
12i
n
2
+
n
i=1
2
n
=
12
n
2
n
i=1
i +
n
i=1
2
n
by (2)
=
12
n
2
n(n + 1)
2
+ (n)
2
n
by (2) & (1)
= 6
n + 1
n
+ 2
Thus, the n
th
Riemann Sum is
S
n
= 6
n + 1
n
+ 2. (A-8)
_
5
0
4xdx = lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
6
n + 1
n
+ 2
= 6 lim
n
_
1 +
1
n
_
+ lim
n
2
= 6 + 2
= 8
or,
_
2
0
3x + 1 dx = 8.
Example Notes: The graph of f, 0 x 2, is a straight line going
from the point ( 0, 1 ) to the point ( 2, 7 ). If you draw this graph and
look at the region under the graph and above the x-axis, you will se
a trapezoid. The area of a trapezoid is
A =
1
2
(h
1
+ h
2
)b,
where h
1
, and h
2
are the two altitudes of the trapezoid and b is the
base of the trapezoid. In our case h
1
= f(0) = 1, h
2
= f(2) = 7, and
b = 2. According to the trapezoid formula,
A =
1
2
(1 + 7)(2) = 8,
that checks!
Exercise 7.34.
7.35. Subdivide the interval [ a, b ] = [ 1, 2 ] into n equal subinter-
vals.
x =
b a
n
=
3
n
Method 2 of 7.26:
x
i
= x
0
+ i x, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
x
0
= 1
x
1
= 1 + (1)(3/n) = 1 + 3/n
x
2
= 1 + (2)(3/n) = 1 + 6/n
x
3
= 1 + (3)(3/n) = 1 + 9/n
x
4
= 1 + (4)(3/n) = 1 + 12/n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
i
= 1 + (i)(3/n) = 1 + 3i/n (A-9)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
n
= 1 + (n)(3/n) = 2 . . . and done!
i
x
i
= x
i
= 1 +
3i
n
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
Summary. x
i
= 1 +
3i
n
and x =
3
n
.
Recall we are integrating the function f(x) = 3x
2
2x; consequently,
f(1 + 3i/n) = 3(1 + 3i/n)
2
2(1 + 3i/n)
= 3
_
1
6i
n
+
9i
2
n
2
_
+ 2
6i
n
= 5
24i
n
+
27i
2
n
2
(A-10)
S
n
=
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
=
n
i=1
f(1 + 3i/n)
3
n
=
n
i=1
_
5
24i
n
+
27i
2
n
2
_
3
n
from (A-10)
=
n
i=1
15
n

n
i=1
72i
n
2
+
n
i=1
81i
2
n
3
=
n
i=1
15
n

72
n
2
n
i=1
i +
81
n
3
n
i=1
i
2
by (2)
We now invoke the summation formulas:
S
n
= (n)
15
n

72
n
2
n(n + 1)
2
+
81
n
3
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
by
_
(1), (2)
and (3)
= 15 36
n + 1
n
+
27
2
n + 1
n
2n + 1
n
Thus, the n
th
Riemann Sum is
S
n
= 15 36
n + 1
n
+
27
2
n + 1
n
2n + 1
n
. (A-11)
_
2
1
3x
2
2xdx = lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
_
15 36
n + 1
n
+
27
2
n + 1
n
2n + 1
n
_
= 15 36 lim
n
n + 1
n
+
27
2
lim
n
2n + 1
n
= 15 36 +
27
2
(2)
= 6
or,
_
2
1
3x
2
2xdx = 6.
Exercise 7.35.
8.1. Let F be any antiderivative of f, then F + C is also an anti-
derivative of f. Thus,
_
b
a
f(x) dx = (F(b) + C) (F(a) + C)
= F(b) + C F(a) C
= F(b) F(a).
The inclusion of the constant C did not contribute to the value of
the integral, all it did was create a more complicated expression to
evaluate. Exercise 8.1.
9.1. Routine:
_
2
2
x
2
5x
5
dx
=
_
1
3
x
3
5
6
x
6
_
2
2
=
1
3
(8 + 8)
5
6
(0)
=
16
3
.
In doing this problem, I hope you concentrated on using the properties
to shorten the numerical calculations as well as using good techniques!
Exercise 9.1.
9.2. Hopefully, you are getting the hang of it.
_
3
2
3x
3
+ 2x
2
dx
=
_
3
4
x
4
+
2
3
x
3
_
3
2
=
3
4
(81 16) +
2
3
(27 8)
=
3
4
65 +
2
3
19
=
793
12
Exercise 9.2.
9.3. First, solve the associate indenite integral : We will be applying
the Power Rule, so we put u = x
2
+ 1, and du = 2xdx.
Calculate Indenite Integral :
_
x
(x
2
+ 1)
3
dx =
_
(x
2
+ 1)
3
xdx prepare for Power
=
1
2
_
(x
2
+ 1)
3
2xdx apply fudge factor
=
1
2
_
u
3
du substitution
=
1
2
u
2
2
+ C
=
1
4
(x
2
+ 1)
2
+ C
Calculate Denite Integral :
_
x
(x
2
+ 1)
3
dx =
1
4
(x
2
+ 1)
2
0
2
=
1
4
(5
2
1) EBLO Tricks
=
1
4
_
24
25
_
=
6
25
.
Hope that you made the same moves on this one. Exercise 9.3.
9.4. We use the Additive Property of the limits of integration.
_
a
a
f(x) dx = 2
_
a
0
f(x) dx (10)
but,
_
a
a
f(x) dx =
_
0
a
f(x) dx +
_
a
0
f(x) dx Additive Prop.
therefore,
_
0
a
f(x) dx +
_
a
0
f(x) dx = 2
_
a
0
f(x) dx (A-12)
Solve the equation (A-12) algebraically for
_
a
0
f(x) dx to obtain,
_
a
0
f(x) dx =
_
0
a
f(x) dx.
These techniques were contained in the proof of Theorem 9.1. One of
the uses of proof construction is that they, sometimes, reveal valuable
techniques not normally seen in ordinary problem solving (in Calculus.
Exercise 9.4.
9.5. We are indeed integrating an even function over a symmetric
interval; therefore we can take advantage of symmetry if we wish.
_
1
1
x
4
2x
2
1 dx = 2
_
1
0
x
4
2x
2
1 dx
= 2
x
5
5

2x
3
3
x
1
0
= 2
_
1
5

2
3
1
_
=
44
15
.
Exercise 9.5.
9.6. We are indeed integrating an even function over a symmetric
interval; therefore we can take advantage of symmetry if we wish.
One of the properties of the cosine function is that cos(x) = cos(x).
This is precisely the denition of an even function.
_
/4
/4
cos(x) dx = 2
_
/4
0
cos(x) dx
= 2 sin(x)|
/4
0
= 2 sin(
4
)
=

2
Exercise 9.6.
9.7. I hope you did not try to use the symmetry property (10),
because the function is not even, even though we are integrating over
a symmetric interval. If you went merrily on your way, doubling the
integral and integrating from 0 to 1, then you have not paid attention
to the Keys to Success.
The Problem:
_
1
1
x
6
x
3
dx.
We can solve this (simple) integral in the usual way. But here is an
idea: The rst term is even and so we can take advantage of its sym-
metry.
Evalulation:
_
1
1
x
6
x
3
dx =
_
1
1
x
6
dx
_
1
1
x
3
dx
= 2
_
1
0
x
6
dx
_
1
1
x
3
dx
= 2
1
7
x
7
1
0

1
4
x
4
1
1
=
2
7

1
4
(1 (1)
4
)
=
2
7

1
4
(1 1)
=
2
7
.
This calculation was stretched out a bit. After the discussion on odd
functions, this calculation can be reduced considerably. See the exam-
ple below. Exercise 9.7.
9.8. We use the Additive Property of the limits of integration.
_
a
a
f(x) dx = 0 (12)
but,
_
a
a
f(x) dx =
_
0
a
f(x) dx +
_
a
0
f(x) dx Additive Prop.
therefore,
_
0
a
f(x) dx +
_
a
0
f(x) dx = 0.
Now, solve algebraically the equation
_
0
a
f(x) dx +
_
a
0
f(x) dx = 0
for
_
a
0
f(x) dx to obtain,
_
a
0
f(x) dx =
_
0
a
f(x) dx.
These techniques were contained in the proof of Theorem 9.2. One of
the uses of proof construction is that they, sometimes, reveal valuable
techniques not normally seen in ordinary problem solving (in Calculus.
Exercise 9.8.
Solutions to Examples
7.1. The given function is nonnegative over the given interval; there-
fore, by the Solution to the Fundamental Problem, the area under the
graph is given by
A =
_
1
0
x
2
dx
Example 7.1.
7.2. An examination of the function will yield the fact that f(x) 0
over the interval [ 1, 4 ]; therefore,
A =
_
4
1
3x
3
+ xdx
Example 7.2.
7.3. The reasoning would go as follows.
The function is not continuous at x = 1. Indeed,
lim
x1
f(x) = lim
x1
x
3
= 1
lim
x1
+
f(x) = lim
x1
+
3 x = 2
Thus,
lim
x1
f(x) = 1 = 2 = lim
x1
+
f(x),
that is, the left-hand limit does not equal the right-hand limit; there-
fore, the limit does not exist and f cannot be continuous there.
Is f discontinuous at any other point in the interval [ 2, 2 ]? We
reason as follows.
On the interval [ 2, 1 ), f(x) = x
2
. Over this interval, f is a second-
degree polynomial function. A polynomial function is continuous over
every interval, so we conclude that f is continuous over the interval
[ 2, 1 ).
On the interval ( 1, 2 ], f(x) = 3 x. Over this interval, f is a rst-
degree polynomial function. A polynomial function is continuous over
every interval, so we conclude that f is continuous over the interval
( 1, 2 ].
We have argued that f has one and only one discontinuity; hence, f
is piecewise continuous. Example 7.3.
7.4. For item (1), we are summing a constant. This calls for the use
of formula (1). Here, n = 40 and c = 2; thus,
n
i=1
c = nc the formula
40
i=1
2 = (40)2 = 80, the problem, take n = 40 & c = 2.
All we are doing here is adding 2 together with itself 40 times.
Solution to (2): This is a direct application of formula (4) above:
n
i=1
i =
n(n + 1)
2
the formula
20
i=1
i =
20(21)
2
the problem. Take n = 20
= 210
n
i=1
i
2
=
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
the formula
10
i=1
i
2
=
20(21)(41)
6
= 2,870
n
i=1
i
3
=
_
n(n + 1)
2
_
2
the formula
15
i=1
i
3
=
_
15(16)
2
_
2
= 14,400
Example 7.4.
7.5. These problems are similar to Exercise 7.14, but now we have
the summation formulas to help us.
Solution to 1:
10
i=1
i(3i + 2) =
10
i=1
(3i
2
+ 2i)
= 3
10
i=1
i
2
+ 2
10
i=1
i properties of summation
= 3
10(11)(21)
6
+ 2
10(11)
2
sum formula: (3) & (2)
= 1,115 + 110 = 1, 225
Solution to 2:
15
j=1
(4j
3
9j
2
+ 2)
= 4
15
j=1
j
3
9
15
j=1
j
2
+
15
j=1
2 properties of summation
= 4
_
15(16)
2
_
2
9
15(16)
2
+ (15)2 sum formulas: (1), (3), (4)
= 13, 350 calculator!
The nal part is an abstract version of the others. Rather than having
a denite numerical value as the upper limit of the index, we have a
symbolic upper limit n.
Solution to 3:
n
k=1
(3k
2
k)
= 3
n
k=1
k
2
k=1
k properties of summation
= 3
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6

n(n + 1)
2
sum formulas: (2)(3)
=
n(n + 1)
2
(2n + 1 1) cancel and factor!
=
n(n + 1)
2
(2n) subtract!
= n
2
(n + 1) cancel and combine!
That looks pretty good! Example 7.5.
7.6. The pattern is very stronglooks like powers of 2 to me. Here
is the series:
1 + 2 + 2
2
+ 2
3
+ 2
4
+ + 2
n
(S-1)
First Try: An obvious choice is
n
i=1
2
i
, but that would not expand to
(S-1). By the algorithm for expanding the sigma notation, we have
n
i=1
2
i
= 2
1
+ 2
2
+ 2
3
+ 2
4
+ + 2
n
.
The rst term of (S-1) is missing.
A Correct Try: The missing term is 1 which equals 2
0
, to write 1 as
a power of 2. Thus,
n
i=0
2
i
= 2
0
+ 2
1
+ 2
2
+ 2
3
+ 2
4
+ + 2
n
= 1 + 2 + 2
2
+ 2
3
+ + 2
n
(Yes, we can start the index at i = 0.)
Another Try: Another way or writing (S-1) would be
n+1
i=1
2
i1
= 2
11
+ 2
21
+ 2
31
+ 2
41
+ + 2
(n+1)1
= 1 + 2 + 2
2
+ 2
3
+ + 2
n
There is innitely many ways of expressing any given sum using the
sigma notation. Sometimes we need to start the index at 1, so my rst
correct solution would not do. The second correct solution would do
the trick.
Question. How would you set up the sigma notation if you were re-
quired to start at i = 3?
Example 7.6.
subintervals.
Step 1: The rst task is to calculate the common length of these
intervals:
x =
b a
n
=
2
n
(S-2)
Step 2: The next problem is to calculate the partition points; the
techniques brought out earlier in Exercise 7.26 and Exercise 7.27
will be useful here.
Ill use Method 2 of 7.26:
x
i
= x
0
+ i x, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
x
0
= 0
x
1
= (1)(2/n) = 2/n
x
2
= (2)(2/n) = 4/n
x
3
= (3)(2/n) = 6/n
x
4
= (4)(2/n) = 8/n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
i
= (i)(2/n) = 2i/n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
n
= (n)(2/n) = 2 . . . and done!
Step 3: The next step in the constructive process is to choose the
intermediate points x
i
from each of the intervals. In this case, Ill
choose the intermediate points to be the right-hand endpoint of each
interval; i.e. choose
x
i
= x
i
=
2i
n
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
Summary. x
i
=
2i
n
and x =
2
n
.
Step 4: This is the information we need to form the Riemann Sums.
The next step in the process is to build the Riemann Sums:
S
n
=
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
=
n
i=1
f(2i/n)
2
n
=
n
i=1
3
2
n
=
n
i=1
6
n
= (n)
6
n
by (1) above
= 6
Thus, the n
th
Riemann Sum is
S
n
= 6. (S-3)
Step 5: Calculate the limit of the Riemann sum approximation (S-3):
_
2
0
3 dx = lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
6 = 6,
or,
_
2
0
3 dx = 6.
Example Notes: Normally the value of the n
th
Riemann Sum will
depend on n. Not in this case. The n
th
Riemann Sum in (S-3) does not
depend on n. This is because we are using rectangles to approximate
a rectangular region; naturally, the approximation turns out to be
exact! The value of S
n
= 6 is actually the exact area under the curve.
Subsequent examples and exercises will be more interesting in this
regard.
This example shows that the denite integral yields the expected
answer.
Example 7.7.
subintervals.
x =
b a
n
=
5
n
Method 2 of 7.26:
x
i
= x
0
+ i x, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
x
0
= 0
x
1
= (1)(5/n) = 5/n
x
2
= (2)(5/n) = 10/n
x
3
= (3)(5/n) = 15/n
x
4
= (4)(5/n) = 20/n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
i
= (i)(5/n) = 5i/n (S-4)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
n
= (n)(5/n) = 5 . . . and done!
i
points of each interval. From (S-4) we obtain:
x
i
= x
i
=
5i
n
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
Summary. x
i
=
5i
n
and x =
5
n
.
Recall we are integrating the function f(x) = 4x; consequently,
f(5i/n) = 4
5i
n
=
20i
n
. (S-5)
S
n
=
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
=
n
i=1
f(4i/n)
5
n
=
n
i=1
20i
n
5
n
from (S-5)
=
n
i=1
100i
n
2
=
100
n
2
n
i=1
i =
100
n
2
n(n + 1)
2
by (2) above
=
50(n + 1)
n
.
Thus, the n
th
Riemann Sum is
S
n
=
50(n + 1)
n
. (S-6)
Note that the value of the n
th
Riemann sum does depend on the
number of subdivisions (unlike the simpler previous examples and
exercises).
Step 5: Calculate the limit of the Riemann sum approximation (S-6):
_
5
0
4xdx = lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
50(n + 1)
n
= 50 lim
n
_
1 +
1
n
_
= 50
or,
_
5
0
4xdx = 50.
Example Notes: This is precisely the result we were looking for. The
area of the triangular region is A =
1
2
bh; in this case, b = 5 and
h = 20. Thus, by the formula for the area of a triangle, the area of
the region should be A =
1
2
(5)(20) = 50same result, Hurray!
Example 7.8.
8.1. This problem represents a typical calculation.
_
3
2
x
2
dx =
x
3
3
3
2
Power Rule
=
3
3
3

2
3
3
=
19
3
.
Since the function f(x) = x
2
is nonnegative over the interval [ 2, 3 ],
the interpretation of the integral
_
3
2
x
2
dx =
19
3
,
is that it is the area under the graph of f. Example 8.1.
8.2. We proceed as follows:
_
4
0
x
xdx =
_
4
0
x
3/2
dx
=
2
5
x
5/2
4
0
Power Rule
=
2
5
(4
5/2
0)
=
2
5
(32)
=
64
5
Since the function f(x) = x
x is nonnegative over the interval [ 0, 4 ],

the value of the integral can be interpreted as the area under the
graph of f over the interval [ 0, 4 ]. Example 8.2.
8.3. We use standard procedures.
_
1
2
x
4
2xdx
=
1
5
x
5
1
2
x
2
1
2
Power Rule
=
1
5
_
(1)
5
(2)
5
_
_
(1)
2
(2)
2
_
Eval. Rule
=
1
5
((1) (32)) (1 4)
=
31
5
+ 3
=
46
5
= 9
1
5
.
The value of this integral is interpreted as the area under the graph
of f. Example 8.3.
9.1. We do this two ways the rst way, not using the Homogeneity
Property, the second method using it.
Method 1:
_
3
2
x
3
dx =
x
4
4
3
2
=
_
3
4
4

2
4
4
_
=
_
81
4

16
4
_
=
65
4
That didnt seem too bad, but we carried the numerical constant 1/4
throughout our calculation: I had to type 4 in the denominator of
every expression throughout the development of the answer.
Method 2:
_
3
2
x
3
dx =
x
4
4
3
2
=
1
4
x
4
3
2
EBLO Homogen.
=
1
4
(3
4
2
4
)
=
65
4
Here, I factored the multiplicative constant 1/4 out and just evalu-
ated the remaining functional part. I didnt gure the 1/4 into every
expression, as a result, less typing, and a cleaner, easier calculation.
Example 9.1.
9.2. Lets again illustrate two ways. The indenite integral is
_
x
3
x
2
dx =
1
4
x
4
1
3
x
3
+ C.
Method 1:
_
1
1
x
3
x
2
dx
=
1
4
x
4
1
3
x
3
1
1
=
_
1
4

1
3
_
_
1
4
(1)
4
1
3
(1)
4
_
=
1
12

_
1
4
+
1
3
_
=
1
12

7
12
=
8
12
=
2
3
.
Method 2:
_
1
1
x
3
x
2
dx
=
1
4
x
4
1
3
x
3
1
1
=
1
4
(1 (1)
4
)
1
3
(1 (1)
3
) Homogen. & Additive
=
2
3
.
Example Notes: In the second method, I evaluated each term between
the limitsenabling me to combine similar expressions immediately.
It also allowed me to factor out the constants 1/4 and 1/3 that I
wasnt able to do in Method 1. Overall, in this problem at least, using
the properties of the evaluation rule made the numerical calculations
simpler, cleaner, and less prone to error.
Youll have to judge for yourself. At least try using these tricks your-
self.
Example 9.2.
9.3. We are integrating
_
2
1
x
3
dx,
the simple power rule will suce.
_
2
1
x
3
dx =
x
2
2
2
1
=
1
2
x
2
2
1
Homogen. of EBLO
=
1
2
x
2
1
2
Reverse of EBLO
=
1
2
(1 2
2
)
=
1
2
3
4
=
3
8
Where, we have reversed the order of evaluation mostly in order to
get rid of the negative sign at the beginning of the expression. The
integral, I knew, would be evaluating to a positive number, the neg-
ative sign is a bit out of place so I got rid of it by reversing the
order of evaluation.
This little trick can be used to avoid negative sign that have the
potential of causing the neophyte algebra student to error we dont
want that to happen! Example 9.3.
9.4. First we must decide how to solve the integral
_
1
0
x
_
x
2
+ 3 dx.
Using my Buttery Method we rst look at the rst formula on our
list for formulas: The Power Rule. We can solve the problem by rst
solving the corresponding indenite integral :
_
x
_
x
2
+ 3 dx
=
1
2
_
(x
2
+ 3)
1/2
2xdx
_
u = x
2
+ 3
du = 2xdx
=
1
2
_
u
1/2
du substitution
=
1
2
2
3
u
3/2
+ C
=
1
3
(x
2
+ 3)
3/2
+ C resubstitute
Now, having used standard techniques to compute the indenite in-
tegral, we can then evaluate the denite integral :
_
1
0
x
_
x
2
+ 3 dx =
1
3
(x
2
+ 3)
3/2
1
0
EBLO Trick
=
1
3
(4
3/2
3
3/2
)
=
1
3
(8 3
3).
This is one style for solving integrals that involve an auxiliary substi-
tution to solve. An alternate procedure is discussed next.
Example 9.4.
9.5. You should have let u = 2x, du = 2 dx, and used the trig
formula (2) to obtain
_
/2
0
sin(2x) dx =
1
2
_
/2
0
sin(2x) 2 dx
=
1
2
cos(2x)|
/2
0
=
1
2
(cos() cos(0)) EBLO Tricks
=
1
2
(1 1)
= 1.
Here, I have combined the calculation of the indenite integral into
the same line of development as the denite integral. I set up the
substitution, but did not actually substitute; had I done so, I would
have had a new variable of integration u, but my limits of integration
are for the x variable thats no good. Example 9.5.
9.6. This is the example seen earlier. We check whether we get the
same answer. The integral is
_
1
0
x
_
x
2
+ 3 dx
We apply substitution: Let u = x
2
+ 3, du = 2xdx, then
_
1
0
x
_
x
2
+ 3 dx =
1
2
_
1
0
(x
2
+ 3)
1/2
2xdx
Rearrange the integrand and prepare it for the power rule, with the
designated u and the calculated value of du, we inserted our fudge
factor. We are ready for our substitution.
_
1
0
x
_
x
2
+ 3 dx =
1
2
_
1
0
(x
2
+ 3)
1/2
2xdx
=
1
2
_
4
3
u
1/2
du substitute!
Now where did the new limits of integration come from? They come
from the substitution formula, of course. There is the reasoning for
computing these limits:
Calculation of New Lower Limit: The substitution is u = x
2
+3 (N.B.:
this is the u=g(x) function.) We say, when x is at its lower limit, what
is the value of u? The lower limit of x is x = 0. When x = 0, that is
the corresponding value of u? It would be u = 0
2
+3 = 3. (N.B.: this
is g(a).) Or, more simply,
x = 0 and u = x
2
+ 3 = u = 3.
This is the new lower limit.
Calculation of the New Upper Limit: When x is at its upper limit,
what is the corresponding value of u?
x = 1 and u = x
2
+ 3 = u = 4.
This is the new upper limit.
Lets nish up our calculation and call it quits.
_
1
0
x
_
x
2
+ 3 dx =
1
2
_
4
3
u
1/2
du
=
1
2
2
3
u
3/2
4
3
=
1
3
(4
3/2
3
3/2
)
=
1
3
(8 3
3)
The solution was rather long, but actually not. Just the last set of
equations in the above display represent the entire solution to this
denite integral. Example 9.6.
9.7. This integral,
_
3
2
(1 4x)
5
dx
can be solved by the Power Rule. For the power rule formula, the u is
the formula is the base of the power function. This forces us to say:
Let
u = 1 4x
and,
du = 4 dx
Change of Limit Calculations:
Lower Limit: x = 2 and u = 1 4x = u = 9
Upper Limit: x = 3 and u = 1 4x = u = 11
Calculation of the Integral :
_
3
2
(1 4x)
5
dx =
1
4
_
3
2
(1 4x)
5
(4) dx
=
1
4
_
11
9
u
5
du
=
1
4
u
4
4
11
9
=
1
16
u
4
11
9
=
1
16
((11)
4
9
4
) (S-7)
=
1
16
_
1
11
4

1
9
4
_
.
The second factor in line (S-7) is negative, standard algebraic methods
dictate to reverse the order of subtraction, and pre-xing a negative
sign; that is exactly what I did in the next line the negative com-
bined with a negative sign already there, to obtain a positive sign,
which, of course, is not written. Example 9.7.
9.8. Heres what your eyes and mind should observe:
_
2
2
x
2
dx.
Observation 1: We are integrating over a symmetric interval.
Observation 2: The function x
2
is even: (x)
2
= x
2
.
Lets solve the integral two ways. Not using symmetry, and then taking
advantage of symmetry.
Dont Use the Symmetry:
_
2
2
x
2
dx =
1
3
x
3
2
2
=
1
3
(2
3
(2)
3
)
=
1
3
(8 (8)) (S-8)
=
1
3
(8 + 8)
=
16
3
.
Notice that there was some tricky evaluations in line (S-8), not di-
cult, but for many people, this kind of double negative evaluation
causes diculties, confusion, and disorientation.
Use Symmetry:
_
2
2
x
2
dx = 2
_
2
0
x
2
dx (10)
= 2
1
3
x
3
2
0
= 2
1
3
(8 0) (S-9)
=
16
3
.
The tricky evaluation of the rst solution is gone. The line (S-9) now
is very simple to evaluate; the chance of making a computation error
is reduced quite a bit. Example 9.8.
9.9. We are integrating an odd function over a symmetric interval
of integration; therefore, by Theorem 9.2, we relatively almost instan-
taneously deduce that
_
1
1
x
3
dx = 0
Example 9.9.
9.10. Wow! The given integral is
_
100
100
sin(x)
x
8
+ x
4
+ x
2
+ 1
dx.
This is nothing more then the integral of an odd function over a
symmetric interval. Therefore,
_
100
100
sin(x)
x
8
+ x
4
+ x
2
+ 1
dx = 0.
That was simple.
Example Notes: The dicult part of this problem is arguing that
the integrand is odd. No problem. The numerator is sin(x), a notorious
odd function. The denominator, is an even function. It is well-known
that the ratio of an odd function and an even function results in an
odd function! Thats all.
Example 9.10.
9.11. Background Thinking. The integrand f(x) = x
6
x
3
is
an even function minus an odd function. We are integrating over a
symmetric interval.
Evaluation:
_
1
1
x
6
x
3
dx =
_
1
1
x
6
dx
_
1
1
x
3
dx
= 2
_
1
0
x
6
dx 0
= 2
1
7
=
2
7
Example Notes: Here, we separated to even function from the odd
function using a technique, then utilized any symmetric properties on
each integral.
Example 9.11.
Important Points
Outline of the genesis of area.
When rst you met area it was, perhaps, when you were studying rect-
angles. Then, whether you were aware of it or not, area of a rectangle
having base b and height h was dened to be
A
rect
= bh.
Intuitive Notion of Area. Lets make a distinction between area
that has been dened for a particular geometric shape, the rectangle,
and the intuitive notion of area. The intuitive notion of area was that
all geometric shapes have this area quantity, and that area had certain
propertiesproperties consistent with the intuitive notion of area.
Properties of Area. In order to be consistent with the intuitive notion
of area, the dened area must have certain properties.
(Nonnegativity of Area.) Area is a nonnegative quantity.
(Additively of Area) If we have a region in the plane (i.e. some
geometric shape) having area A, and we subdivide this region into two
subregions, each having respective areas A
1
and A
2
, then A = A
1
+A
2
.
(Monotonicity of Areas.) Suppose we have two regions in the
plane, R
1
and R
2
, such that R
1
R
2
. Then the area of R
1
is less
than or equal to the area of R
2
.
(Congruency and Area.) Congruent regions have equal area.
Armed with the denition of area for a rectangle and the intuitive
properties of area, it is possible to deduce the notion of area for a great
variety of geometric shapes: triangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, and
so on.
The circle was another two-dimensional shape that has an area. From
Euclid we know that the area of a circle of radius r is given by
A = r
2
Area of a circle.
By seeing these common shapes, calculating their area by their formu-
las, all the while keeping in mind the properties of area, we come to
know the notion of area. However, that doesnt change the fact that
the notion of area is still an undened quantity for a large number of
shapes. Important Point
Dene/Calculate the area under the graph of f.
Because we are attempting to extend the notion of area to regions
of (somewhat) arbitrary shape, our task is actually to dene what
we mean by area. This denition must be consistent with previous
notions of area however. For example, if the region under the graph
of f happens to be a rectangle or triangle, our new denition of area
should reduce to that of the area of a rectangle or triangle.
Dening area in a new situation is nice, but we also want to develop
methods of calculating this area.
For these reasons, the phrase dene/calculate is used.
Important Point
Denition. Assume the notation of the constructive denition of the
denite integral. Let L be a number. We say that
lim
P0
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
= L
provided it is true that for any > 0, there exists a number > 0
such that

i=1
f(x
i
) x
i
L
<
whenever P is a partition of the interval [ a, b ] whose norm P <
and any choice of intermediate points x
i
.
Denition Notes: The above is remarkably similar to Denition 8.1.
The twist here is that this denition reects the need to have the
limit, L, independent of the choices for the intermediate points x
i
.
Consequently, this limit is a true limit in that it has all the limit
properties studied in the article on Limits.
Important Point
Algorithm for expanding the symbol

n
i=1
a
i
.
Problem: Expand
n
i=1
a
i
.
1. Put i equal to its initial value: i = 1. Evaluate the expression a
i
for i = 1 to obtain a
1
. Include this term in sum: write
n
i=1
a
i
= a
1
+
2. Increment the value of the index to i = 2. Evaluate the expres-
sion a
i
2
. Include this term in the sum:
write
n
i=1
a
i
= a
1
+ a
2
+
sion a
i
3
write
n
i=1
a
i
= a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+
sion a
i
4
write
n
i=1
a
i
= a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
+
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
n. Increment the value of the index to i = n. Evaluate the expres-
sion a
i
for i = n to obtain a
n
. Add this term into the sum:
write
n
i=1
a
i
= a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
+ + a
n
5. Finished.
Important Point
Some Common Summation Formulas. Here are some famous
summation formula that we will be using in this section.
1.
n
i=1
c = c + c + c + c + + c = nc
2.
n
i=1
i = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + + n =
n(n + 1)
2
3.
n
i=1
i
2
= 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
+ 4
2
+ + n
2
=
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
4.
n
i=1
i
3
= 1
3
+ 2
3
+ 3
3
+ 4
3
+ + n
3
=
_
n(n + 1)
2
_
2
Verbalizations. Formula (1) can be read as the sum of the same num-
ber, c, n times. Formula (2) is the sum of the rst n integers. Formula
(3) is the sum of the squares of the rst n integers. And formula (4)
is the sum of the cubes of the rst n integers. Important Point
Technical Denition.
Denition. Assume the notation of the constructive denition of the
denite integral. Let L be a number. We say that
lim
n+
n
i=1
f(x
i
) x = L
provided it is true that for any > 0, there exists a number M > 0
such that whenever the interval [ a, b ] is partitioned into n subinter-
vals, n M, of equal length x = (b a)/n, it must be true that
i=1
f(x
i
) x L
<
no matter the choice of the intermediate points x
i
.
Denition Notes: Roughly speaking, L is the limit (hence the value
of the denite integral) if L can be approximated by Riemann sums
to any preselected degree of accuracy (thats the -value) by parti-
tioning up the interval [ a, b ] into a large enough number of intervals
(thats the role of the M). The precision of the approximation does
not depend on the intermediate points x
i
, rather it depends only on
the whether you have subdivided the interval into a sucient number
of subintervals (thats the M again). (That should make it clear!)
This limit formulation makes it much easier to compute an in-
tegral.
Important Point
Have you ever cut out two paper strips of exactly the same width?
Actually, in some developments seen in Calculus II and Calculus III,
it is inconvenient to require the subintervals to be of equal length
and actually makes it more dicult to develop the application.
Important Point
There is more area above the x-axis than below the x-axis.
Important Point
There is more area below the x-axis than above the x-axis.
Important Point
There is equal amounts of area below the x-axis as above the x-axis.
Important Point
Solution to in-line quiz.
The distributive law states, for any a, b, c R,
a(b + c) = ab + ac.
Using this formula from left to right, we say that we distribute the a
through the sum (or, multiply through by a). Using the formula from
right to left, we often say that we factor out the common factor of a.
In the step above, we have essentially used the distributive law from
right to left. We have factored out the common factor of c, in the
notation of the problem. Important Point
Solution to in-line quiz.
The associative law states, for any a, b, c R,
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
This relation is important because we can only add two numbers at a
time. In the case we want to add three numbers together, we can do
so by adding the rst two together, then add that result to the third.
The associative law then states that sequence of operations yields the
same result as taking the rst number, and adding it to the sum of
the second two numbers.
The commutative law states that for any a, b R,
a + b = b + a.
This law states that we can add two numbers together in any order.
In the above problem we have used a combination of the associative
law and commutative laws to justify the equality. Here are some detail
for the simple case of n = 2.
(a
1
+ b
1
) + (a
2
+ b
2
) = a
1
+ (b
1
+ (a
2
+ b
2
)) associative law
= a
1
+ ((b
1
+ a
2
) + b
2
) associative law
= a
1
+ ((a
2
+ b
1
) + b
2
) commutative law
= a
1
+ (a
2
+ (b
1
+ b
2
)) associative law
= (a
1
+ a
2
) + (b
1
+ b
2
) associative law
Now you see why it did the case of n = 2. Thats more microminiture
algebraic then youve see in a long time. However, such low level
knowledge of our arithmetic system gives us a better overall under-
standing of our mathematical universe. DPS Important Point
We proceed as follows:
10
k=5
k
3
=
10
k=1
k
3
k=1
k
3
from (18)
=
_
10(11)
2
_
2
_
4(5)
2
_
2
Sum Formula (4)
= [5(11)]
2
[2(5)]
2
= 2,925
Important Point
This will work:
n+3
i=3
2
i3
. Expand it out to verify. Important Point
Index
Index
All page numbers are hypertext
linked to the corresponding topic.
Underlined page numbers indicate a
jump to an exterior le.
Page numbers in boldface indicate
the denitive source of information
about the item.
axis of abscissas, c1i:15
axis of ordinates, c1i:15
Buttery Method, c1i:77
Euclid, c1i:207
index, c1i:35
integrable, c1i:26
integrand, c1i:15, c1i:27
interval of integration, c1i:27
limits of integration, c1i:27
norm, c1i:17
piecewise continuous, c1i:32
piecewise monotone, c1i:32
regular partition, c1i:48
Riemann integrable, c1i:26
right cylindrical solid, c1i:38
rule, c1i:14
rule function, c1i:15

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Integration

(x) = f(x) for all x ( a, b ).

(x) = 2x = f(x), for all x R.

(x) = f(x) (b) f

(t) = H(t) (b) H

(x) = f(x) for all x.

(x) for all x in

(x) = f(x) all x I.

(x) = f(x) all x I.

(x) = f(x) for at least one x

(u) = f(u). Since F is

(x) dx = F(g(x)) + C. (2)

(x) dx is our given integral, we can let u = g(x)

(x) dx. Now replacing these symbolisms into our given

(x) dx. Now replacing these symbolisms into our

(x) dx. In this case, the

(u) du. (7)

(u) dx, (9)

(t) = h(t) for all t. Exercise 2.1.

(s) = 2 sin(2s) = 2 sin(2s) = g(s).

(x) = f(x)) Exercise 2.5.

(x) = f(x)) Exercise 2.6.

(x) = f(x).) Exercise 2.7.

(x) = f(x)) Exercise 2.8.

(x) = f(x)) Exercise 2.9.

(x) = f(x) for all x ( 0, 1 ). Lets calculate the right-

(x) = f(x) for all x ( 0, 1 ) and

x. We cannot integrate this func-

More generally, a function of the form F(x) = x

(x) = f(x), for all x R.

(x) = f(x) for all x,

all represent the sum of the same set of numbers.

xdx, and interpret its value.

(x) dx = F(g(x)) + C. (6)

x is nonnegative over the interval [ 0, 4 ],

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