PART IV

Sensory Organs
What is a sensory organ 感觉器? To answer this question, you must first understand an important
concept ⎯ the receptor 感受器. A receptor is an apparatus that can receive an arriving stimulus from
the inner- or outer-body environment and convert it into nerve impulses. The arriving stimulus can be
many forms, for example, a pressure, a dissolved chemical, a light or a sound. But the signals that can
be conducted by the nerve system are only in one form ⎯ the nerve impulses, which are electrical
events. Thus, receptors in nature are a kind of converters that transduce different forms of energy into
the electric energy.

Sensory organs 感觉器

Receptor 感受器 ⎯ A kind of apparatus
that receives and converts stimuli from inner-
Tactile
corpuscles or outer-body environments into nerve impulses

Exteroceptor 外感受器:receives stimuli from

external environments.
Nerve Enteroceptor 内感受器:receives stimuli from
endings
internal environments.
Proprioceptor 本体感受器:detects the motions
& positions of the body.

Special receptors
特殊感受器
+
Accessory apparatus
辅助装置

Sensory organs

There are various types of receptors in our body. Based on their distributions and functions, these
receptors are classified into three major groups.

Exteroceptor 外感受器: the exteroceptors are the receptors that receive stimuli outside of the body. So
they are generally distributed in the areas of the body that directly contact or open to the external
environment, for example, the skin over the body or the mucous membranes of the oral and nasal
cavities. A simplest example for the exteroceptors is the free sensory nerve endings in the skin. These
nerve endings can receive pressure, temperature and touch stimuli and translate these stimuli into
impulses. Then the impulses are conducted to the brain to build up the corresponding sensations.

Enteroceptor 内感受器: the enteroceptors are distributed in the organs and tissues that do not directly
contact the external environment. They receive stimuli from the internal environment, for example,
changes in blood pressure, concentrations of CO2 or tensions of the walls of the stomach and the
intestines. This information helps the body to automatically regulate the functions of the visceral
organs 内脏器官, the heart and the vessels.

Proprioceptor 本体感受器: the proprioceptors are usually distributed in muscles, tendons, joints, and
the inner ear. They detect the motions and postures of the body. This information is very important in
coordination of the body movements and in maintaining of the body balance.

With the evolution of animals, some receptors are specialized for a particular stimulus such as light,
sound, smell or taste; and their structures become more and more complex. In addition to the receptor
itself, some accessory structures are built in to enhance its functions. These specialized receptors plus
their accessory apparatus, are the so-called sensory organs.

(Song Jian 宋 健)
Chapter 1
Visual Organ

The visual organ 视器 , or the eye, is located in the orbit 眼眶 of the cranium 颅 on each side.
Functionally, it receives the optical stimulus from the external environment and converts it into nerve
impulses. The impulses are conducted by the optic nerve 视神经 to the brain to create visual sensations.
Structurally, the visual organ consists of two parts: the eyeball that is the optical receptor, and the
accessory apparatus of the eye that protects the eyeball and helps it to exert its functions.

Visual organ (Eye) 视器

Function ⎯ Specifically receives the optical
stimulus & converts it into nerve impulses.

Structure ⎯ Eyeball + Accessory apparatus

眼球 眼副器
I . Eyeball
Ophthalmic axis
Optic axis Anterior & posterior poles 前、后极
Ophthalmic axis 眼轴
Shape Optic axis 视轴
Central fovea Equator 赤道

Structure
Wall Fibrous tunic 纤维膜
眼球壁 Vascular tunic 血管膜
Retina 视网膜
Aqueous humor 房水
Contents Lens 晶状体
眼球内容物
Vitreous body 玻璃体

I. Eyeball
The eyeball is near-spherical in shape with its anterior 1/6 slightly bulging outwards. The anterior and
posterior central points on the eyeball are called the anterior and posterior poles of eye 眼前、后极.
An imaginary straight line passing through the two poles is called the ophthalmic axis 眼轴. Another
straight line that passes through the center of the pupil 瞳孔 and the central fovea 中央凹 is the optic
axis 视轴. The central fovea is a small depression on the inner surface of the retina 视网膜 and is a
little lateral to the posterior pole, so the ophthalmic and optic axes are not parallel. They intersect at a
sharp angle. On the surface of the eyeball, you can draw a circle line equidistant from the anterior and
the posterior poles. This circle line is called the equator 赤道. The equator is very important because
it divides the eyeball into an anterior and a posterior hemispheres. Under the actions of the ocular
muscles 眼球外肌, the eyeball can rotate on its vertical or coronal axes. Because the eyeball is nearly
spherical in shape, its anterior and posterior hemispheres always turn in opposite directions in these
movements. Structurally, the eyeball is composed of two parts: the wall of the eyeball and the contents
of it. The wall of the eyeball consists of three layers: an outer fibrous tunic 纤维膜 , a middle
vascular tunic 血管膜 and an inner retina 视网膜. The contents of the eyeball are the aqueous
humor 房水, the lens 晶状体 and the vitreous body 玻璃体.
Wall of the eyeball
1. The fibrous tunic
The outermost coat of the eyeball is called the fibrous tunic because it is formed by dense fibrous tissues.
The bulging anterior 1/6 of the layer is called the cornea 角膜. It is transparent and non-vascular, so that
the light can pass through it to enter the eye. The cornea contains numerous sensory nerve endings;
and this important feature makes it sharply sensitive. Thus, even a very slight blowing to the cornea
can trigger a rapid blink ⎯ the corneal reflex 角膜反射 that prevents the cornea from being injured by
foreign particles. The posterior 5/6 of the fibrous tunic is called the sclera 巩膜. It is tough, opaque
and white in color. So it is the major component to maintain the shape of the eyeball. The junction
between the sclera and the cornea is called the limbus corneae 角膜缘, and just behind it there is a
circular canal inside the sclera, called the scleral venous sinus 巩膜静脉窦. The scleral venous sinus is
a vascular structure that drains the aqueous humor into the venous system.

2. The vascular tunic

The vascular tunic is the middle coat of the eyeball that contains numerous blood vessels. For the
descriptive purpose, the vascular tunic is divided into three parts. From anterior backwards, they are
the iris 虹膜, the ciliary body 睫状体 and the choroid 脉络膜.

The iris is the anterior part of the vascular tunic. It lies in front of the lens and can be seen through the
transparent cornea. The iris is a pigmented and round diaphragm with an aperture in its center, called
the pupil 瞳孔. The pupil is contractible because the iris contains two groups of smooth muscles. The
radially arranged dilator pupillae 瞳孔开大肌 originates from the periphery of the iris and inserts to its
pupillary margin. The muscle contracts to dilate the pupil. The circularly arranged sphincter pupillae
瞳孔括约肌 surrounds the pupillary margin of iris and contracts to constrict the pupil. The dilator
pupillae is innervated by the sympathetic nerve 交 感 神 经 and the sphincter pupillae by the
parasympathetic nerve 副交感神经. Under the control of the nervous system, the two muscles
function to adjust the size of the pupil to regulate the amount of lights that enter the eye. This process
is called the pupillary light reflex 瞳孔对光反射.

The ciliary body is the thickened part of the vascular tunic and has a triangular shape in cross-section.
On its posterior surface, there are numerous radially arranged ridges called the ciliary processes 睫状
突. The anterior ends of all ciliary processes form a circle surrounding the lens. The lens is stretched to
the circle by numerous delicate fibers that originate from the ciliary processes and attach to the
periphery of the lens. These fibers are called the suspensory ligaments of lens 晶状体悬韧带 or the
ciliary zonules 睫状小带 . The ciliary body contains both radially and circularly arranged smooth
muscles, called the ciliary muscle 睫状肌. The muscle is controlled by the parasympathetic nerve, and
functions as a sphincter to constrict the circle formed by the anterior ends of the ciliary processes.
 Limbus corneae
Scleral venous
Wall of Eyeball 眼球壁 sinus

1) Fibrous tunic 纤维膜 Corneal

Transparent Reflex
角膜反射
Cornea Non-vascular Ciliary processes
角膜 Rich in nerve endings
Limbus corneae 角膜缘
Sclera 巩膜: Tough, opaque, white
Scleral venous sinus
2) Vascular tunic 血管膜 巩膜静脉窦
Pupil 瞳孔
Iris Pupillary
虹膜 Dilator pupillae ← Sympathetic n. light
瞳孔开大肌 交感神经 Dilator pupillae
reflex
Sphincter pupillae←Parasympathetic n. 瞳孔对
瞳孔括约肌 副交感神经 光反射

Ciliary processes ← Ciliary zonule ← Lens

Ciliary body 睫状突 睫状小带 晶状体 Sphincter pupillae
睫状体 Ciliary muscle 睫状肌
Ciliary zonules
Vessels 血管
Choroid 脉络膜
Pigment cells 色素细胞

The choroid is the posterior and the major part of the vascular tunic. It contains numerous vessels and
pigment cells 色素细胞 , and is therefore dark-brown in color. Functionally, the choroid provides
nutrition for the wall of the eyeball and absorbs scattered lights inside the eye to keep the interior of
the eyeball in dark. This allows the light from the pupil to sharply image on the retina. The choroid is
easily stripped from the sclera, but attaches firmly to the pigment layer of the retina.

3. The Retina
The retina is the innermost coat of the eyeball containing neural and sensory cells. In grossly anatomy,
the retina can be divided into three parts, the iridial part 虹膜部 that lines the posterior surface of the
iris, the ciliary part 睫状体部 covering the inner surface of the ciliary body and the choroid part 脉络
膜部 that lines the inner surface of the choroid. The iridial and the ciliary parts do not contain
photoreceptor cells 视细胞, so they are together called the blind part 盲部 of the retina. The choroid
part is light sensitive and is therefore called the optic part 视部. The junction between the blind and
the optic parts of the retina is a serrate circle line, called the Ora serrata 锯状缘.
In histology, the optic part of the retina can be divided into two layers, an outer pigment layer 色素上
皮层 and an inner neural layer 神经层. The pigment layer is composed of pigment epithelium. It
tightly attaches on the choroid to reinforce its function of light absorbing. The neural layer contains
three major types of neural and sensory cells that are distributed layer by layer. In the outmost layer
are the photoreceptor cells, including the cons 视锥细胞 and the rods 视杆细胞, which are connected
by the bipolar cells 双极细胞 in the middle layer to the ganglion cells 节细胞 in the innermost layer.
The axons 轴突 of the ganglion cells from different directions then converge at the optic disc 视神经盘
and pierce the wall of the eyeball to form the optic nerve.

The iridial and the ciliary parts of the retina have no neural and sensory cells. Its neural layer is
replaced by a layer of supporting cells.

Eyeball - Wall of eyeball

3) Retina 视网膜
Grossly division 分部 Optic disc Macula lutea
Iridial part 虹膜部 Blind part 盲部
Cilliay part 睫状体部 Ora serrata
Choroid part 脉络膜部 → Optic part 视部 锯状缘 Central fovea

Histology 组织学结构
←Medial Lateral →
Pigmented layer 色素上皮层
Photoreceptor cells 视细胞
Neural layer Bipolar cells 双极细胞
神经层 Ganglion cells
Ganglion cells 节细胞
Ophthalmoscope View 眼底镜观察
Bipolar cells
Optic disc 视神经盘
— Physiological blind spot
生理盲点
Photoreceptor
Macula lutea 黄斑 cells
Central fovea 中央凹
— most acute vision Pigmented
layer

With a small apparatus, called the ophthalmoscope, the posterior part of the retina, can be viewed
through the pupil. On the inner surface of the retina, a little medial to the posterior pole of the eye,
there is a small, pale and round region called the optic disc. It is the site at which the axons of the
ganglion cells converge to form the optic nerve. Because it contains only nerve fibers and has no
photoreceptor cells, the optic disc is insensitive to light, and is therefore called the physiological blind
spot 生理盲点 of the eye. Lateral to posterior pole, there is a small yellow area with a central
depression. The area is called the macula lutea 黄斑 and the depression is the central fovea. The
macula lutea is the site of the retina with densely distributed cons. The cons are the photoreceptor cells
that are specialized for acuity of vision. Thus the macula lutea, especially the central fovea, is the site
at which the visual perception is most acute.
The contents of the eyeball
The contents of the eyeball include the aqueous humor 房水, the lens 晶状体 and the vitreous body
玻璃体.They are all transparent and nonvascular.
 Contents of Eyeball 眼球内容物
Aqueous humor 房水 — The clear fluid filling in the
chambers of the eye between the cornea and the lens.
Ciliary Posterior Pupil Anterior Scleral
processes chamber chamber venous sinus
Aqueous humor circulation 房水循环 ╳
— Nourishing cornea & lens
— Maintaining intraocular pressure Glaucoma 青光眼
Lens 晶状体 — A clear, biconvex body behind the iris,
which is covered by the lens capsule 晶状体囊.
Old persons
╳

Presbyopia
Accommodation of eye 调节反射 老花

Vitreous body 玻璃体 — A clear gel-like substance

filling the eyeball between the retina & lens
Refractive media of eye 眼的屈光系统
Cornea + Aqueous + lens + vitreous
humor body
Adjustable

The aqueous humor is a clear watery solution filling in the chamber of eye 眼房. The chamber of the
eye is the space between the cornea and the lens, which is partially divided by the iris into two parts,
the anterior chamber before the iris and the posterior, behind it. The aqueous humor is produced by the
ciliary processes and released into the posterior chamber. Passing through the pupil it flows into the
anterior chamber and is finally drained into the scleral venous sinus. Through the sinus, the aqueous
humor returns to the blood circulation. Functionally, the aqueous humor circulation provides nutrition
for the non-vascular cornea and lens, and maintains the normal intraocular pressure. If the drainage of
aqueous humor is blocked or restricted, the intraocular pressure increases. This condition is called the
glaucoma 青光眼. An untreated glaucoma may cause compression of the retina, especially the optic disc,
leading to an irreversible blindness.

The lens is a transparent, nonvascular and biconvex body located behind the iris. It is covered by an
elastic membrane called the lens capsule 晶状体囊 . The periphery of the lens is stretched by the
ciliary zonules to the ciliary processes that form a circle around the lens. The thickness or convexity of
the lens is changeable; therefore the lens functions to focus a distant or a nearby object on the retina.
For example, to enable a distant vision, the ciliary muscle relaxes. The circle formed by the anterior
ends of the ciliary processes is enlarged and applies tension on the lens via the ciliary zonules. Thus
the lens is stretched into a relatively flattened shape to focus the distant objective on the retina. For a
near vision, the ciliary muscle contracts to constrict the cycle. The tension on the lens is reduced. The
elastic lens rounds up to increase its thickness or convexity to focus the nearby object on the retina.
This process is controlled by the nervous system and is called the accommodation of eye 调节反射. As
persons get old, their lenses lose the elasticity, thus unable to round up to focus a nearby object. This
problem is called the presbyopia 老视/老花眼.

The vitreous body is a clear and gel like substance filling the interior of the eyeball behind the lens. In
addition to transmitting light, it holds the retina in place and supports the lens.

To image on the retina the light must pass through the cornea, the aqueous humor, the lens and the
vitreous body, these structures together build up the refractive media of eye 眼的屈光系统, in which
only the convexity of the lens is adjustable.

II . Accessory Apparatus of Eye

Eyelids 眼睑
Palpebral fissure 睑裂; Lateral/Medial angle of eye 内\外眦
Lacrimal papilla 泪乳头; Lacrimal punctum 泪点
Conjunctiva 结膜
Palpebral conjunctiva 睑结膜
Conjunctival sac 结膜囊
Bulbar conjunctiva 球结膜
Superior/Inferior conjunctival fornix 结膜上/下穹
Lacrimal apparatus 泪器
Lacrimal gland+lacrimal ductule+lacrimal sac+nasolacrimal canal
泪腺 泪小管 泪囊 鼻泪管

Tears
Lacrimal punctum

blink
Superior Anterior
conjunctival Surface of
Fornix Eyeball
Lacrimal papilla

II. Accessory Apparatus of Eye

1. Eyelids
The eyelids 眼睑 are two mobile skin folds in front of the eyeball and are separated by the palpebral
fissure 睑裂. The two ends of the palpebral fissure are called the lateral and medial angles of eye 内/
外眦. Near the medial end of the free edge of each eyelid, there is a small round elevation with a
pinhole on its summit. The elevation is called the lacrimal papilla 泪乳头, and the pinhole is the
opening of lacrimal ductule 泪小管, called the lacrimal punctum 泪点.
2. Conjunctiva
The conjunctiva 结膜 is the mucous membrane located between the eyelids and the eyeball. It consists
of two parts: the palpebral conjunctiva 睑结膜 that lines the posterior surface of the eyelids and the
bulbar conjunctiva 球结膜 that covers the anterior part of the sclera. The two parts are continuous;
thus the junction between them forms an upper and a lower recesses, called the superior and inferior
conjunctival fornix 结 膜 上 / 下 穹 , respectively. When the eye is closed, the two parts of the
contunctiva, together with the anterior surface of the cornea, form a sac that is called the conjunctival
sac 结膜囊.

3. Lacrimal apparatus
The lacrimal apparatus 泪器 consists of the lacrimal gland 泪腺, the lacrimal ductules 泪小管, the
lacrimal sac 泪囊 and the nasolacrimal canal 鼻泪管. The lacrimal gland is located in the lacrimal
fossa (the anterolateral part of the superior wall of the orbit). It release tears into the superior
conjunctival fornix. By blinking, the tears are spread over the exposed anterior surface of the eyeball
to wet and wash it. And then tears are collected by the lacrimal ductules into the lacrimal sac, and
finally drained into the nasal cavity through the nasolacrimal canal.

4. Ocular muscles
There are seven ocular muscles 眼外肌 , including one elevator muscle of upper eyelid (levator
palpebrae superioris)上睑提肌, four rectus muscles and two oblique muscles. Except for the inferior
oblique 下斜肌, all of the muscles originate from the common tendinous ring 总腱环, a fibrous cuff
surrounding the optic canal.

The elevator muscle of upper eyelid extends anteriorly and inserts to the upper eyelid. Its function, just
as indicated by its name, is to elevate the upper eyelid.

The four rectus muscles are the lateral rectus 外直肌, medial rectus 内直肌, superior rectus 上直肌
and inferior rectus 下直肌. These muscles extend anteriorly around the eyeball and insert respectively
to the lateral, medial, superior or inferior surface of the eyeball before the equator. Thus, contraction
of the lateral or the medial rectus muscle pulls the pupil laterally or medially. Similarly, the superior or
inferior rectus muscle tends to pull the pupil superiorly or inferiorly. However, the action lines of the
two muscles are not parallel to the optic axis of the eye. As a result, the two muscles produce an
additional medial pull on the anterior hemisphere of the eyeball, therefore, the superior rectus moves
the pupil superiorly and medially, and the inferior rectus directs the pupil inferiorly and medially.

Different from the four rectus muscles, the two oblique muscles, the superior oblique 上斜肌 and the
inferior oblique 下斜肌, are inserted to the surface of the eyeball behind the equator. They act on the
posterior hemisphere of the eyeball, moving the pupil in the opposite directions. The superior oblique
originates from the common tendinous ring and extends anteriorly along the upper part of the medial
wall of the orbit. By passing through the trochlea 滑车 (a fibrous ring on the anterosuperior part of the
medial wall of the orbit), the tendon of the muscle turns posteriorly and laterally to attach on the
superolateral surface of the eyeball behind the equator. Thus, contraction of the muscle pulls the
posterior hemisphere of the eyeball superiorly and medially, directing the pupil inferiorly and laterally.
The inferior oblique originates from the medial part of the floor of the orbit. By passing laterally
below the eyeball, it inserts to the lateral surface of the eyeball behind the equator. Contraction of the
muscle directs the pupil superiorly and laterally.
 IO 下斜肌
Superiorly-laterally
SR 上直肌
Superiorly-medially
Ocular muscles 眼外肌
外上 内上
Elevator muscle of upper eyelid
上睑提肌
Common Lateral rectus 外直肌
LR 外直肌 MR 内直肌 tendinous Medial rectus 内直肌 Before
Laterally Medially ring
外 内 Superior rectus 上直肌
总腱环
Inferior rectus 下直肌 Equator

Inf. wall Superior oblique 上斜肌

SO 上斜肌 IR 下直肌 of orbit
Inferiorly-laterally Inferiorly-medially
Inferior oblique 下斜肌 Behind
外下 内下
眶下壁

Trochlea
Elevator muscle
of upper eyelid

Optic axis

5. Blood Vessels of Eye

The eye is supplied by the ophthalmic artery 眼动脉 that arises from the internal carotid artery.
After passing through the optic canal along with the optic nerve, the ophthalmic artery gives off
branches to supply the lacrimal gland, the eyelids, the ocular muscles and the eyeball. The important
branches to the eyeball include several short posterior ciliary arteries 睫状后短动脉 , two long
posterior ciliary arteries 睫状后长动脉 and one central retinal artery 视网膜中央动脉. The short
and the long posterior ciliary arteries pierce the posterior surface of the eyeball to supply the choroid
and the iris. The central retinal artery pierces the optic nerve and runs anteriorly inside it. When
reaching the optic disc, it divides into a superior and an inferior branches. The superior branch splits
into the superior temporal and superior nasal arterioles 颞、鼻侧上小动脉, and the inferior branch
divides into the inferior temporal and inferior nasal arterioles 颞、鼻侧下小动脉. These arterioles
run on the inner surface of the retina, and can be seen in the living body through an ophthalmoscope.
The veins of the eyeball include four vorticose veins 蜗静脉 from the vascular tunic and one central
retinal vein 视网膜中央静脉 from the retina. All of the veins drain into the superior or inferior
ophthalmic vein 眼上/下静脉 , or both. You have already learned that both superior and inferior
ophthalmic veins communicate anteriorly with the facial vein, and posteriorly with the cavernous
sinus 海绵窦. The inferior ophthalmic vein also drains into the pterygoid venous plexus 翼静脉丛.
Thus the superior and inferior ophthalmic veins are important pathways for communication between
the intracranial and extracranial venous systems.
 Blood Vessels of the Eye 眼的血管
Branches to Lacrimal gland, eyelids
Optic
Ophthalmic a. Canal Ocular muscles
眼动脉 Short / Long post. ciliary a. Choroid
视N管 Iris
睫状后短、长动脉
Superior nasal a
Central retinal a. Superior temporal a
视网膜中央动脉 Inferior nasal a
Inferior temporal a
Iris Vorticose v.
Choroid 蜗静脉
Sup. & Inf.
ophthalmic v.
Central retinal v. 眼上、下静脉
Retina 视网膜中央静脉

Central Long post. ciliary a.

retinal a. Short post. ciliary a.

(Song Jian 宋 健)