Unit four Thermo chemistry

Thermo chemistry is a branch of chemistry dealing with heat changes accompanying

chemical reactions. Chemical reactions are classifed into:
1- Exothermic reactions: Reactions in which heat energy is released as a product of
the reaction. Heat is liberated or evolved from the reaction.
2- Endothermic reactions: Reactions in which heat energy is absorbed.
Heat content (Enthalpy) and the change in heat content:
To recognize the concept of the heat content enthalpy!we ha"e to study the chemical
energy stored in di#erent forms of matters.
Chemical energy is stored in a single atom$ in a molecule; element or compound and
%inally it is stored between the molecules in one system.
&n the atom$ electrons orbit the nucleus in a number of energy shells called le"els.
Each electron in its energy level possesses 2 types of energies; potential energy and kinetic energy.
A- Potential energy:
It is the energy that binds the electrons to the nucleus as result of attraction.
&t depends on the distance between the nucleus and the electron.
The more distant the electron$ from the nucleus$ the greater its potential energy.
B- Kinetic energy:
It is the energy developed due to the orbiting of the electron around the nucleus.
The energy of the level:
It is the total sum of the potential and kinetic energy of the electron
The energy le"el e l! ' (ot)s. of electron* +.,. of the electron.

G.R. ach energy level is characteri!e" by its energy#
Because the energy of the level depends on the number of electrons and the
distance from the nucleus, the energy increases away from the nucleus.

The molecule: two or more atoms of the same or di#erent elements$ lin-ed together
by a chemical bond. ionic or co"alent.
The chemical energy store" in the molecule is stored in the chemical bond$
lin-ing between the atoms.
1- Molecules of any matter are linked by mutual attractive forces called Van Der Waal's attractive forces.
2- /atter e0ists in three di#erent states. soli"$ li%ui" an" gas.
3- &n soli": 1ttraction forces are "ery strong$ causing hardness and defnite shape.
4- &n li%ui"s: 1ttraction force is wea-$ molecules mo"e freely but strong enough so that
they ta-e the shape of the container which the li2uid occupies.
- &n gas: !he force of attraction is almost absent" so it moves in all directions occupying any volume.
#- This force is a 'otential energy. &t depends on masses of molecules and the
separating
distance between them.
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
1
Chemical energy stored in an atom
The Chemical energy stored in a molecule
Binding energy between molecules
13 . 4
1
Unit four Thermo chemistry
/atter stores the chemical energy$ in the form of:
1- The total energies of electrons in the shells$
2- The chemical bond energy$
5- The attracti"e forces between the molecules.
The sum of those stored energies in one mole of the matter is called heat content.
It is the total amount of energy stored in one mole of the matter.
G.R: matters "i(er in their heat content#
Because they "i(er in number of atoms) ty'e of atoms) ty'e of the chemical
bon"s between them) an" the *an +er ,aal$s attractive forces.
(ractically it is impossible to measure the heat content or the energy stored within
matter$
but we can measure the changes in the heat content during changes happening to the
matter.
ifference between the heat content of
products and the heat content of reactants.
Change in heat content = sum of heat content of products sum of heat content of reactants.
- . ' .

/'ro"ucts0 1 .

/reactants0.
&f the reaction 1 * 6 C * 7 - . 2 /.
c 3
.
+
0 1 /.
A
3 .
B
0
Them chemical e%uation an" units of measuring energy:
&t is the amount of heat energy re%uire" to raise tem'. of 4 gm of water by
4
o
5
4 calorie is needed to raise temp. of 1 gm of water by 1
o
C
46

calories are needed to raise temp. of 1 gm of water by 18
o
C.
46

calories are needed to raise temp. of 9 gm of water by 2
o
C.
Kilo calorie:
&t e2uals 1888 calorie. &t is amount of heat re2uired to raise temp. of 1888 gm of
water by 1
o
C from 19
o
C to 1:
o
C.
;ince 1 calorie ' 4.13 <oules.
4.13 =oules are re2uired to raise temperature of 1 gm of water by 1
o
C.
2.8> <oules are re2uired to raise temperature of 1 gm of water by ?
o
C.
4 7oule is nee"e" to raise the tem'. of 4 gm of"istille" water by
o
5.
Kilo 8oule:
&t e2uals 1888 <oules. &t is not a "ery large 2uantity of heat energy.
1 +ilo <oule is the amount of heat energy needed to heat 5 cm
5
of water from room
temperature till the boiling point.
1 kilo $oule is the amount of heat energy released from the combustion of 1 droplet of methanol.
@ne -ilo calorie ' 4138 <oule.
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
2
Heat content of matter H
Calorie
Joule
The change in the heat content
Unit four Thermo chemistry
9un"amentals of writting thermochemicl e%uations:
1- 6alanced e2uation of the reaction should be written. Aumber of atoms of each
element in reactants should e2ual the number of atoms of the same element in
products.
2- /:aw of conservatio of matter0/atter is neither destroyed nor created.
5- The physical state of reactants and products must be written$ because the heat
content depends on the physical state.
4- The "laue of the heat change BC! should be written after the reaction. &t is
measured in +<Dmole. &t is either E "e or *"e.
&n e0othermic reations$ heat is released$ or liberated as product$
C
s!
* @
2 g!
C@
2 g!
. BC! ' E 5>5.F +<
@n combustion of one mole of carbon in e0cess
o0ygen$ to form one mole of carbon dio0ide gas$
5>5.F +< of heat energy are liberatede"ol"ed!.
Considereing the heat content of any element
is zero$ so the heat content of the reactants e2uals
zero$ so the heat content of products should e2ual
zero$ therefore the heat content of carbon dio0ide
should be less than zero by 5>5.F +<.
C
s!
* @
2 g!
C@
2 g!
* 5>5.F +<
8 8 E 5>5.F! * 5>5.F +<
This eauation is consiodered thermally balanced because the total sum of energies
of products e2uals that of reacatnts.
nergy /gra'h0 it is a graphical representation for the relation between the heat
content
of reactants and products and the change in the heat content.
Compounds produced by e0othermic reactions ha"e E "e heat content$ and BC is E
"e
&n endothermic reactions$ heat is absorbed or ta-en as a reactant.
The total sum of heat content of reactants is less than the sum of heat content of
products$ therefore the reaction is endothermic and BC is * "e
;am'le:
@n reacting one mole of iodine with one mole of hydrogen$ to form 2 moles of
hydrogen iodide$ 91.> +< of heat energy should be absorbed.
C
2g!
* &
2;!
* 91.> 2 C& .
Geactants products
8 8 * 91.> 91.>
1ssuming that the heat content of hydrogen
and iodine is zero$ and the reaction absorbed
91.> +< $ therefore the heat content of hydrogen
iodide should be more than zero by the amount
of hreat energy absorbed. ;o the heat content
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
3
Exothermic reactions
8
2
@ C +
2
@ C
F . 535
ts tan reac of content heat
ts tan resul of content heat
-< F . 535 C =
Endothermic reactions
2 2
& C +
C& 2
+< > . 91 C=
8
> . 91
Unit four Thermo chemistry
of hydrogen iodide is more than the heat content of reactants by 91.> +<. ;o BC is *
"e
Compounds produced by endothermic reactions ha"e *"e heat content and BC is *
"e.
&n endothermic reactions the heat content of products is greater thean heat content
of reactants by the amount of heat energy absorbed in the reaction.
,0othermic reaction ,ndothermic reactions
1. Geactions accompanied with release
of heat energy.
2. B C is E "e
5. Ceat content of products is less than
heat content of reactants.
,0: C * @
2
C @
2
* heat
1. Geactions accompanied with
absorbtion
of heat energy.
2. B C is * "e
5. Ceat content of products is more than
heat content of reactants.
,.H: C
2
* &
2
* heat 2 C& .
Compounds from e0othermic reactions Compounds fron endothermic reactions
1. /ore thermally stable compounds
2. The copound produces is e0o. comp.
5.&ts heat content is less than of
reactants
4.&ts heat content has E "e "alue.
1. Iess thermally stable compounds.
2. The comp. produced is endothermic.
5. &ts heat content is more than of
reactants.
4. &ts heat content has * "e "alue.



9actors a(ecting heat changes:
1. (hysical states of substances.
2. The crystalline forms of di#erent number and arrangement of atoms.
9orms of the change of the heat content:
The change in the heat content accompanies the physical and chemical changes of
matter.
&n the physical changes the heat change ta-es place as is dissolution and dilution
&n chemical changes the heat change occurs as precipitation and formation.
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
4
A@ * >8.5F
A@
2
* 55.93
C& * 29.>4
888888888
C
2
; E 28.14
AC
5
E 4:.1>
C@ E 118.92
C
2
@
g!
E
241.32
C
2
@
l!
E 239.34
C@
2
E 5>5.91
C $ ; $ A
2
$ @
2
$ C
2
$ &
2
,ndothermic
compounds
C * "e
,0othermic
compounds
C E "e
+ C
C
elements its from compounds some of graph energy
Heat changes accompanying chemical reactions
Unit four Thermo chemistry
&t is the brea< "own of bon"s in molecules of
reactants
an" formation of new bon"s in molecules of
'ro"ucts.
1. There is a brea-ing of bonds that re2uires to absorb energy. endothermic process.
2. %ormation of new bonds releases energy. e0othermic process.
5. The net resultant is the heat change accompanying the reaction
1 E 1 * 6 E 6 1 E 6 * 1 E 6
6rea- brea- formed formed

1bsorbed released
1- The reaction becomes endothermic if the energy absorbed to brea- the bonds in
reactants is greater than the energy released during the formation of new bonds
in the products.
2- &f the energy re2uired to brea- bonds in reactants is less than the energy released on
the
formation of bonds in products$ the reaction becomes exothermic.

!t is the energy re"uired to brea# the bonds in one mole
of substance$ to o"ercome the electrostatic attraction force
in the chemical bond that lin-s 2 atoms in the molecule.
;am'le:
1- Calculate the heat change on combining of a molecule of hydrogen with a
molecule of
chlorine to form hydrogen chloride.
C E C * Cl E Cl C E Cl * C E Cl
459 248 458 458
1bsorbed released
:F9 *! 3:8 E !
B C ' J * :F9 K * J - 3:8 K ' E 139 +<
C
2
* Cl
2
2 C Cl . B C ' E 139 +<
1- The co"alent bonds in hydrogen and chlorine molecule will be bro-en$ the
molecules will be con"erted into single atoms. ,nergy is absorbed to brea-
bonds.
2- 6rea-ing of bonds in one mole of hydrogen re2uires to absorb 459 +<Dmole.
3- 6rea-ing of bonds in one mole chlorine needs to absorb 248 +<Dmole.
4- The co"alent bond in hydrogen is stronger than the co"alent bond in chlorine
5- 1 bond is formed between each hydrogen and chlorine atoms releasing 3:8 +<.
6- The heat change for one mole of hydrogen chloride is ' E >2.9 +<.
7- The change in the heat content is the algebraic sum of bond breaking of
reactants and bond making in products.
2- 5alculate the change in the heat content in the following reaction in <ilo
calorie
an" <ilo 7oule 5.
=
3 5l
>
5.
?
5l 3 . 5l )
given that . 1 5l 2 46?) 5.
?
1 . 2 46= ) 5.
?
1 5l2 @= an" 5l 1 5l 2 A@ K cal.
CC
5
E C * Cl E Cl CC
5
E Cl * C E Cl )
184 93 34 185
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
5
The chemical reactions
The bond breaking energy
1bsorbed energy ' 459 * 248 ' :F9 *
"e
Geleased energy ' 2 0 458 ' 3:8 E "e
C ' :F9 - 3:8 ' E 139 +<
2
139
Unit four Thermo chemistry
energy re2uired to brea- bonds energy e"ol"ed in bond formation
,nergy absorbed ' 184 * 93 ' 1:2 + cal. *"e!
,nergy released ' 34 * 185 ' 13F + cal E "e0
B C ' 1:2 E 13F ' E 29 + cal. H 4. 13 ' E 184 .9 +<Dmole.
The reaction is exothermic because the heat e"ol"ed during bond formation is
greater
than the heat absorbed for bond brea-ing.
5.
=
3 5l
>
5.
?
5l 3 . 5l ; B C ' E 184 .9 +<Dmole.
5- Given that 5.
?
1 . 2 =?A ) Br 1 Br 2 4B> ) 5.
?
1 Br 2 >B? an" . 1 Br 2 ?C@ K7Dmole)
5alculate the heat change "uring the reaction
5.
=
3 Br
>
5.
?
Br 3 . Br
CC
5
E C * 6r E 6r CC
5
E 6r * C E 6r
459 1>2 2>5 5:3
6rea-ing %ormation
,nergy absorbed ' 459 *1>2 ':2F *Le ,nergy e"ol"ed ' 2>5 * 5:3 ' ::1 E
"e
B C ' :2F E ::1 ' - 54 +< 5.
=
3 Br
>
5.
?
Br 3 . Br ;- . 2 - ?=
K7
4- Given EE) . 1 . ) E 1 . 2 B=A ) =?A an" ?B6 K7 res'ectively) 5alculate -
. in;
E E 3 ? . 1 . > . 1 E 1 .
* >49 5 0 459 C E 2 0 5 0 5>8
B C ' J*>49 * 5 0 459K E J2 0 5 0 5>8K ' E >8 +<
A
2
* 5 C
2
2 AC
5
. B C ' E >8 +<
Heat changes in physical changes
1- Heat of solution
1- @n dissol"ing certain amount of solute as caustic soda or sulphuric acid in water$
temperature rises$ the solution process is accompanied with e"olution of heat
e0othermic! Aa @C * water Aa
*
a2!
* @C
-
a2!
B C ' E 91 +=
2- @n dissol"ing certain amount of sodium chloride or ammonium nitrate in water$
temperature drops$ the solution process is accompanied with absorption of
heat endothermic! AC
4
A@
5
* water AC
*
4 a2!
* A@
-
5a2!
B C ' 29 +=
5- Thus the dissolution process is usually accompanied by heat change.

.eat of solution: t is the heat change !e"ol"ed or absorbed# on dissol"ing
one mole of solute in a certain amount of sol"ent$
Folar solution : t is the solution where each liter contains 1 mole of solute$
M 1 / . a molar solution of C Cl is a solution where each liter contains 1 mole of C
Cl.
@G 5:.9 grams of C Cl.
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
6
@C Aa water
! a2
@C Aa
-< 91 C =
8
91
+< 9 2 C =
water A@ C A
5 4
+
8
! a2 A@ C A
5 4
9 2
Unit four Thermo chemistry
M 1 / . a molar solution of Aa @C is the solution where each liter contains 1 mole
of
Aa @C. 48 grams of Aa @C.
.igh concentrations are represented by multiples of moles.
2 molar solution of C Cl 2 /! indicates each liter contains 2 moles. F5 grams CCl
9 molar solution of Aa @C 9/! indicates each liter contains 288 grams of Aa @C
+ilute solutions are represented by fractions of moles:
8.1/! 8.1 molar solution of CCl indicates that each liter contains 5.:9 g of CCl gas
8.29 /! 8.29 molar solution of Aa @C indicates that each liter contains 18 g of Aa @C.
%olar heat of solution t is the heat change on dissol"ing one mole
of solute to form one liter of solution
Hydration energy: t is the heat change on dissol"ing 1 mole of solute to form
one liter of solution when the sol"ent is water$
Hydration process: process of binding the dissociating ions of the crystal
lattice with water molecules& forming the hydrated ions$
'ource of the heat of solution(
@n dissol"ing Aa Cl solid in water:
1- &t is -nown that the Ea
3
and 5l
1
ions are arranged in certain geometrical
shape called crystal lattice.
2- @n dissolution$ the *"e and E"e ions are separated from each other brea-ing
the ionic bond that needs absorption of energy to o"ercome the attraction force
between the ions.
&t is called heat of crystal lattice.
5- The dissociated ions will be bounded to water molecules in a hydration
process$ releasing certain amount of energy called heat of hy"ration.
4- .eat of solution 2 the algebraic sum of heat of hy"ration an" crystal
lattice.
.eat of crystal lattice:
Energy absorbed to break the bond between the anions and the cations in the
crystal lattice& to o"ercome the electrostatic attraction between them$ t is endo-
thermic process with )"e "alue$
.eat of hy"ration:
t is the energy e"ol"ed on binding the dissociated ions to water molecules forming
the hydrated ions$ t is exothermic process& with * "e "alue$
.eat of solution ' Heat of crystal lattice !)"e# ) heat of hydration!- "e #
The solution is exothermic when heat of hydration is greater than heat of crystal lattice.
The solution is endothermic when heat of hydration is less than heat of crystal lattice.
Give reasons:
4. +issolution of so"ium chlori"e in water is en"othermic#
6ecause heat of crystal latticeabsorbed! is greater than heat of hydration.
>. +issolution of ammonium nitrate in water is en"othermic#
6ecause heat of crystal latticeabsorbed! is greater than heat of hydration.
?. +issolution of sul'huric aci" in water is e;othermic 'rocess#
6ecause heat of hydration e"ol"ed! is greater than heat of crystal lattice.
=. +issolution of caustic so"a in water is e;othermic 'rocess#
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
7
Unit four Thermo chemistry
6ecause heat of hydration e"ol"ed! is greater than heat of crystal lattice.
&m'ortant notes in e;'eriments in thermo chemistry:
1- If there is a heat change during the chemical reaction, the temperature of the react-
ants and the container will, be affected.
2- The heat change of the container can be neglected by using a plastic cup placed in a
glass beaker insulated with cotton. The thermal conductivity of plastic is very small, so
we can calculate the heat change of reactants ecluding the container to simplify the
calculations.
!- The heat absorbed or released in a reaction " mass specific heat capacity change in
temperature. % H & m x '.() x * t #####..$oule.
%- &ass is measured in grams, specific heat capacity is ' ( g
)
*. " %.1+ , and change of
temperature by degree *elsius.
,- &ass of 1cm
!
of water " 1 gram, and so diluted solutions.
;am'les:
1- @ne mole of sulphuric acid was added
to
some water then diluted to 1888 cm
5

the temperature was raised by 1F
o
C$

calculate the heat e"ol"ed .
2.Calculate heat of solution of Aa @C$ if
3 grams is dissol"ed in water$ and
"olume of solution became 188 cm
5

temp. was raised by 5:
o
C$
5. %alculate the heat absorbed on dissolving one
mole of ammonium nitrate in some &ater then
diluting it to 1''' cm
3
" &hen temp. &as dropped
by #
o
%.


4. Given that heat of solution of Na OH in
water is 75.24 Kj, Calculate heat
evolve
on issolvin! 4 !"s of Na OH.
G . 2 m ; =.4@ ; t
' 1888 0 4.13 0 1F ' F18:8 <
' F1.8: +<
G . 2 m ; =.4@ ; t
' 188 0 4.13 0 5: ' 19843 <' 19
+<.
Aumber of moles of Aa @C ' moles.
Ceat of solution ' ' F9 -<.
G . 2 m ; =.4@ ; t
' 1888 0 4.13 0 : ' 29838 <
' 29.83 +<.
One "ole Of Na OH # 4$ !"s
4$ !"s Na OH 75.24 Kj
4 !"s %
%easure the heat change on dissolution of anhydrous copper sulphate(
1- (ut 98 cm
5
of distilled water in a calorimeter a plastic cup! .
2- Net 8.81 mole of Cu;@
4

J:5.9 * 52 * 401: ' 19>.9. 1.: gmsK
5- Gecord the initial temperature of the calorimeter$ then add the salt then stir
slowly 2uic- stirring causes temperature rises!using a thermometer till
complete dissolution and fnd the ma0imum temperature obtained by the
thermometer. fnal temp.!
4- 1s the temperature rises$ the process is e0othermic.
9- t = t
f
t
i ,
Q H = 98 0 4.13 0 t..0 188OOOO..<
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
8
48
3
3
48 0 19
48
24 . F9 0 4
+< 924 . F
Unit four Thermo chemistry
%easure the heat change on dissolution of hydrated copper sulphate(
1. (ut 98 cm
5
of distilled water in a calorimeter a plastic cup! .
2. Net 8.81 mole of Cu;@
4
. 9 C
2
@

J:5.9 * 52 * 401: * 9 0 13 ' 24>.9. 2.9 gmsK
5. Gecord the initial temperature of the calorimeter$ then add the salt then stir
slowly 2uic- stirring causes temperature rises!using a thermometer till
complete dissolution and fnd the ma0imum temperature obtained by the
thermometer. fnal temp.!
4. 1s the temperature decreases$ the process is endothermic.
5. t = t
i
t
f

,
Q H = 98 0 4.13 0 t..0 188OOOO..<
The dissolution processes of the 2 salts can be represented by the following 2 thermal
e2uations. 5u HI
=
3 water 5u
>3
/a%0
3 /HI
=0
>-
/A%0
; . 2 1 AJ K7
5u HI
=
.A.
>
I 3 water 5u
>3
/a%0
3 /HI
=0
>-
/A%0
; . 2 3 46
K7
+$,( -issolution of anhydrous copper sulphate is exothermic
while of hydrated copper sulphate is endothermic.
This is because during the hydration stage of the anhydrous copper sulphate$ great
amount of energy is going to be liberated upon binding the ions to great number of
water molecules$ releasing great amount of energy thus it is e0othermic.
Heat of hydration is greater than heat of crystal lattice.

+uring the hy"ration stage of the hy"rate" co''er sul'hate) the dissociated
ions will be bounded to less number of water molecules due to the presence of water
of hydration$ so less energy is released and it is endothermic.
Heat of crystal lattice is greater than heat of hydration.
@n dissol"ing one mole of CCl gas in di#erent 2uantities of
Pater$ heat of solution di#ers according to amount of
sol"ent.
No. of soln Concentration of solution Heat chan!e in Kj
4
>
?
=
A
1 mole of CCl in 18 moles of water.
)) )) )) )) )) 29 )) )) ))
)) )) )) )) )) 48 )) )) ))
)) )) )) )) )) 288 )) )) ))
)) )) )) )) )) 1888 )) )) ))
E :>.4>
E F2.2F
E F5.82
E F4.2
E F9.14
The heat of dilution depends upon the dilution e0tent.
Phen the sol"ent amount is "ery great$ as no. 9$ it is infnite dilution.
@n adding great amount of water to solution number 1 for getting the same dilution
as solution number 9$ an amount of heat is liberated ' E F9.14 E - :>.4>! ' - 9.:9 +<
This liberated heat is called heat of "ilution.
7ilution may sometimes be accompanied by absorption of heatendothermic!.
.eat of "ilution:
t is the heat change! absorbed or e"ol"ed# for one mole of solute on
dilution of its solution from high concentration to low concentration$
The source of the heat of dilution(
1- Absorption of heat &n separating ions or molecules of the solute.
1dding of water molecules during dilution act to get
ions
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
9
/- Heat of dilution
Unit four Thermo chemistry
or molecules of solute away from each other.
2- !iberation of heat during the binding of solute ions to more number of
sol"ent molecules.
The heat of dilution is the algebraic sum of these 2 steps.
0t infinite dilution the heat of dilution is almost 1ero because in this case the
energy of separation ions of solute "anishes& and the energy of binding the ions
with molecules of the sol"ent as well$
(recipitation is a reaction between 2 substances each dissol"e in water to form a
substance that doesnQt dissol"e in water$ and heat is e"ol"ed.
1g
*
A@
5
-

a2!
* Aa* Cl
-
a2!
Aa*

A@
5
-

a2!
* 1g Cl
s!


. B C ' E 5: +<.

.eat of 'reci'itation:

t is amount of heat liberated on complete
precipitation of one mole of that precipitate$
;am'le:
*alculate the amount of heat evolved on precipitating-
1- 1 mole of silver chloride.
2- .., mole of silver chloride
!- +./ gms of silver chloride.
;olution: 1- 5: +<Dmole.
2- 13 +< D 8.9 mole
5- one mole of 1gCl ' 183 * 59.9 ' 145.9 g OOOOO 5: +<
3.> OOOOO R
Ceat e"ol"ed ' ' 2.252 +<.
Practical "etermination of heat of 'reci'itation of Ag 5l:
1- 6y measuring cylinder ta-e 29 ml of 8.9 molar AaA@
5
solution
and put it in a plastic Sas- co"ered with a stopper penetrated
by a thermometer . /easure initial temperature. T
1
2- 1dd 29 ml of 8.9 / solution of +Cl to the plastic bottle$ sha-e
gently and fnd the fnal temperature.
5- Gepeat the abo"e with Aa Cl $ and AC
4
Cl and calculate the heat change in
the abo"e e0periments.
;am'le:
Calculate heat of precipitation of 1g Cl if 29 ml of 8.9 / solution of 1g A@
5
is added
to 29 ml of 8.9 m solution of Aa Cl $ if the temperature was raised by 5
o
C.
The total "olume of solution ' 98 ml $ mass of solution ' 98 grams.
T C ' m 0 C 0 t
' 98 0 4.13 0 5 ' :2F <
mass of 1g A@
5
in solution ' L 0 C 0 /ole.
' 8.829 0 8.9 0 183 * 14 * 5 0 1:! ' 2.129 gm.
Aumber of moles ' ' 8.8129 moles.
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
10
The heat changes accompanying chemical changes
1- Heat of precipitation
9 . 145
5: 0 > . 3
1F8
129 . 2
Unit four Thermo chemistry
(recipitation of 8.8129 moles of 1gCl produces :2F <
(recipitation of 1 mole of 1gCl produces ' ' 981:8 <
1g
*
A@
5
-

a2!
* Aa* Cl
-
a2!
Aa*

A@
5
-

a2!
* 1g Cl
(s)


. C ' E 98.1: +<.



&t is the amount of heat energy evolve" or absorbe" on formation of
one mole of a com'oun" from its elements in their stan"ar" states.
The stan"ar" state : !t is the state that represent the most stable
form of the element at +,
o
and -./ mm Hg.
1- If we say the heat of formation of *)
2

is E !/!.,1 0', It means the that heat liberated
on formation of one mole of *)
2

is E !/!.,1 0' when carbon is in its standard state
1graphite2 and )ygen is in the gaseous state.
*
1graphite2
3 )
21gas2
*)
2
- 4 5 " E !/!.,1 0'.
2- C
2

g!
* %
2 g!
2 C%
g!
. C ' E 954.F +<.
&t means 954.F -< are liberated on formation of 2 moles of hydrogen Suoride
from hydrogen and Suorine in the gaseous state.
standard state at 29
o
and F:8 mm Cg.
Ceat of formation of C% ' ' - 2:F.59 +< D mole.
&t was agreed that:
1- the heat of formation of a compound " its heat content.
2- The heat of formation of elements at their standard state " 6ero, at any temp.
!- 5eat change of a reaction " 5eat of formation of products E heat of formation of
reactants.
%- - H 2 H
!products#
* H
!reactants$

;am'les:
1- Give heat of for"ation of "ethane ,
an car&on io'ie an water are -($,
-4$) an -2*5.*5.Kj . Calculate H
2- +n co"&ustion of acet,lene, H
f
of
water
an CO
2
are

-2*5.*5 an --(-.7
Calculate the heat of for"ation of C
2
H
2
-. Give heat of for"ation of .e
2
O
-
an
water are -7(( an - -242 Kj
Calculate the heat chan!e of the
reaction.
4- Calculate the heat of for"ation in
the reaction !iven H
f
CaCO
-
, Ca O ,
CH
4/!0 1
2 O
2/!0
CO
2/!0 1
2 H
2
O
/va20
- ($ $ -4$) 2 ' 3
2*5.*5
H # 4 -4$) 1 /- 571.705 3 4 -($ 1 $ 5
H # - (77.7 1 ($ # - **7.7 Kj e'o
C
2
H
2
1 O
2
2 CO
2
1 H
2
O6 H# -
1-$$
7 $ 2 ' --(-.7 -2*5.*5
H# H
2
3 H
8
- 1-$$ # 42 ' --(-.7 1 /-2*5.*505 3 4 ' 1
$5
-1-$$ # -1$7-.25 - '
7 # 1-$$ - 1$7-.25 # 1 22).75 Kj
.e
2
O
-
1 - H
2
2 .e 1 - H
2
O
-7(( $ $ - ' - 242
H# H
2
3 H
8
# - 72) 3 /- 7((0 # 7- Kj. 9no
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
11
/- Heat of formation
8129 . 8
:2F
2
F . 954
2
9
Unit four Thermo chemistry
CO
2
are -12$7.1, -)-5.5 an --(-.7. CaCO
-/s0
Ca O
/s0
1 CO
2
/!0
-12$7.1 -)-5.5 --(-.7
H# H
2
3 H
8

eno
# 4 -)-5.5 --(-.75 3 4 -12$7.15#
177.( Kj
4. Phen atoms of elements combine together to form compounds heat is e"ol"ed.
>. This energy is called Bon" formation energy.
?. !t is the energy released on combining atoms forming compounds.
=. The greater the released energy$ the stronger the 6ond formation energy.
A. &n endothermic reactions the product compounds are accompanied by
absorption of heat $ these compounds are less stable.
C. &n e0othermic reactions the product compounds are accompanied by
liberation of heat$ producing more stable compounds.
J. Thermally stable com'oun"s: compounds of less energy li#e those resulting
from exothermic reactions, where product energy is less then reactants by
the amount of liberated energy.
@. The stability increases as the liberated energy increases too. 1nd "ice "ersa.
Give reason: The com'oun"s forme" through e;othermic reactions are more
stable
7ecause the heat absorbed during bond breaking is less than the heat evolved during bond
formation, and the heat content of products is less than the heat content of reactants, and as
more energy releases, the compound becomes more stable.
Give reason: The com'oun"s forme" through en"othermic reactions are less
stable
7ecause the energy released during bond formation is less than the energy absorbed in
breaking bonds in reactants, so the heat content of products is greater than the heat
content of reactants, and become less stable.
;am'les:
1- Ni"en the following heats of formation of compounds$ arrange in an ascending
order according to their thermal stability.
C% ' - 2F1 $ CCl ' - >2 $ C6r ' - 5: $ C& ' *2:
1; the energy released during formation increases$ stability increases:
Ci then C6r then CCl then C%. Ci is the lease stable and C% is the most.
2- &f the heat of formation of iron &&& o0ide is E 322 +<$ and that of aluminium
o0ide is E 1::>.3 +< $ why aluminium is used to reduce iron &&& o0ide$ while iron
is not used to reduce aluminium o0ide.
The reaction goes towards the formation of the more stable compound.
the reaction must go toward forming aluminium o0ide.
2 1l * %e
2
@
5
1l
2
@
5
* 2 %e
8 E 322 E 1::>.3 8
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
12
Relation between heat of formation & thermal stability of compounds
Unit four Thermo chemistry
C' C
p
E C
G

C' E 1::>.3 E -322! ' E 34F.3 +<.
5- Phen carbon burns in e0cess of o0ygen $ carbon dio0ide is formed Uheat e"ol"es.
C
diamond!
* @
2
C@
2
. C' E 5>:.> +<
C
graphite!
* @
2
C@
2
. C' E 5>9.9 +<
Phich form of carbon is more stableR
;ince more heat is e"ol"ed from diamond$ the heat content of graphite is
less than the heat content of diamond. ;o graphite is more stable.
&t represents di#erent types of heat change.
!t is the heat change as a result of any chemical change,
combustion, precipitation, formation or neutrali0ation.

Constant algebraic sum of heat!
1he heat of the reaction depends only on the heat content of
reactants, and products, but not on the steps of the reaction.
*onse8uently the heat of the reaction is constant whether the reaction took place in on
step or more.
&m'ortance of .ess$s law:
It can be used to calculate the heat change for reactions which can9t be measured practically
or directly, but only by combination of other reactions of known or measured heat changes.
;am'le:
&t is impossible to measure the heat liberated during combustion of carbon to carbon
mono0ide because the o0idation will not stop at stage of forming the mono0ide.
Cowe"er it is possible to measure the heat liberated on combusting carbon forming
carbon dio0ide. 6y the law of algebraic sum of heat$ the heat of combustion of carbon
to carbon mono0ide can be calculated.
C
graphite!
* @
2g!
C@
2g!
. C' E 5>5.F +<
C@
g!
* @
2g!
C@
2g!
. C' E 235.5 +<OOO.. ;ubtraction
C * @
2
E C@ E @
2
C@
2
E C@
2
C' E 5>5.F * 235.5 +<
C * @
2
C@ . C' E 118.4 +<.
Thus the heat of formation of C@ from its elements is E 118.4 +<.
;am'les:
1. Calculate the chan!e in the
followin! reaction :l
2
Cl
)
1 ) Na 2
:l 1 ) Na Cl
if the heat of for"ation of Na Cl an
:l
2
Cl
)
are 3 41$.( ; 3 1-($.* Kj.

2. +n co"&ustion of acet,lene, H
f
of
water an CO
2
are

-2*5.*5 an --(-.7
Calculate the heat of for"ation of C
2
H
2
:l
2
Cl
)
1 ) Na 2 :l 1 ) Na Cl
3 1-($.* $ $ ) ' 3 41$.(
H# H
2
3 H
8
H# 3 24)5.4 3 43 1-($.*5 # 3 1$74.)
Kj
C
2
H
2
1 O
2
2 CO
2
1 H
2
O6 H# -
1-$$
7 $ 2 ' --(-.7 -2*5.*5
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
13
3- Heat of reaction
Hess4s law
2
9
2
9
Unit four Thermo chemistry
C
2
H
2
1 O
2
2 CO
2
1 H
2
O6 H# -
1-$$
-. Calculate the heat of for"ation of
!lucose if H
f
of water an CO
2
are
3 2*5.*5 ; 3 -(-.7 K< in the reaction
C
12
H
22
O
11
1 12 O
2
12 CO
2
1 11
H
2
O
H# - 5)-*.4 Kj

4. Calculate the heat of for"ation of
CH
4
accorin! the reaction
CH
4
1 2 O
2
CO
2
1 2 H
2
O H# - *5$
Kj
H# H
2
3 H
8
- 1-$$ # 42 ' - -(-.7 1 /-2*5.*505 3 4 '
1 $5
-1-$$ # -1$7-.25 - '
7 # 1-$$ - 1$7-.25 # 1 22).75 Kj
C
12
H
22
O
11
1 12 O
2
12 CO
2
1 11
H
2
O
= $ 12 ' 3 -(-.7 11' 3
-(-.7
H# H
2
3 H
8
- 5)-*.4 # - 7*)*.75 - =
= # 5)-*.4 3 7*)*.75 # - 22-$.-5 Kj
CH
4
1 2 O
2
CO
2
1 2 H
2
O H# - *5$
Kj
= $ --(-.7 2 ' -2*5.*5
H# H
2
3 H
8
- *5$ # -()5.4 - =
= # *5$ 3 ()5.4 # - 115.4 Kj
Chemistry 1
st
secondary
14