Operational

Amplifier
Part 1
Mukesh N Tekwani
tekwani@email.com
Mukesh N. Tekwani 2
August 14, 2014
Operational Amplifier
Originally an op-amp was an electronic
circuit that could carry out mathematical
operations of addition, subtraction,
differentiation and integration.
Hence the word operational
Op-amp is used to amplify DC and AC
signals.
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August 14, 2014
Operational Amplifier Symbol
Circuit Symbol
-
+
+ve supply
-ve supply
output
Inverting i/p
V
1
Non-Inverting
i/p V
2
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August 14, 2014
Internal Block Diagram
V
i
R
i
AV
i
R
o
V
o
+
_
+
_
+
_
V
p
V
n
i
p
i
n
+
_
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August 14, 2014
Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp
Infinite input impedance (about 2 Mohm)
Low output impedance (about 200 ohm)
Very large voltage gain at low frequency
Thus, small changes in voltages can be
amplified by using an op-amp
Infinite bandwidth (all frequencies are
amplified by same factor
No slew rate no delay between change in
i/p and changes in o/p

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August 14, 2014
Op Amp Characteristics Explained
Infinite input impedance
no current flows into inputs
Infinite voltage gain
a voltage difference at the two inputs is
magnified to a very large extent
in practice, voltage gain ~ 200000
means difference between + terminal and
terminal is amplified by 200,000!

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August 14, 2014
Op Amp Characteristics Explained
Infinite bandwidth
In practice, bandwidth limited to few MHz
range
slew rate limited to 0.520 V/s
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Op Amp Slew Rate Explained
The o/p of an op amp does not change
instantaneously.
The rate of change of o/p of an op amp is
limited (about 0.5 V/ sec)
So, if we want to change the o/p voltage from 0
to 10 V, it would take 20 s

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August 14, 2014
Op Amp Slew Rate Explained

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August 14, 2014
Operational Amplifier Without Feedback
The op-amp can be regarded as a device
which generates an voltage V
o
given by:
V
o
= A (V
2
V
1
)

A is called as the gain of the amplifier.
V
1
is the voltage applied at the inverting input,
V
2
is the voltage applied at the non-inverting input,
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Variation of Gain with Frequency
The value of gain A depends on the
frequency of the i/p signal and is very high at
low frequencies.
At DC, (f = 0 Hz), gain A is about 10
5
.
But the gain decreases with frequency.
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Variation of Output voltage with V
1
V
o
= A (V
2
V
1
)
When V
2
= 0, V
o
= -AV
1
So, the output voltage is out of phase with
the input voltage applied to the inverting
input.
That is why it is called the inverting input
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Variation of Output voltage with V
2
V
o
= A (V
2
V
1
)
When V
1
= 0, V
o
= AV
2
So, the output voltage is in phase with the
input voltage applied to the non-inverting
input.
That is why it is called the non-inverting
input
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Variation of Output with Input Voltages

V
o
= A (V
2
V
1
)

If V
2
> V
1
, V
o
is positive
If V
2
< V
1
, V
o
is negative
If V
2
= V
1
, V
o
is zero

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Consequences of Ideal characteristics
Infinite input resistance means the current
into the inverting input is zero:
i
-
= 0
Infinite gain means the difference between V
1

and V
2
is zero:
V
2
V
1
= 0


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16
The Basic Inverting Amplifier
R
2

V
in


+
+

V
out

R
1

+

I
1
I
2
Resistor used to control amplification
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August 14, 2014
How to Calculate the Gain
For an Inverting amplifier:
Gain = -R
2
/ R
1

Example : if R
2
is 100 kilo-ohm and R
1
is 10 kilo-ohm,

Gain = -100 / 10 = -10

If the input voltage is 0.5V then the output voltage would
be V
in
x Gain:

V
out
= 0.5V X -10 = -5V
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Inverting Amplifier
The i/p voltage to be amplified is fed to the inverting i/p
A fraction of the o/p signal is fed back to the op-amp
through the inverting i/p.
R
2
is the feedback resistance in this circuit
Since we have used the inverting i/p, the o/p is out of
phase with the i/p signal.
This process is called negative feedback.

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Inverting Amplifier
It is called negative feedback because the overall gain
of the amplifier reduces.
So why use negative feedback if gain is reduced?
The gain is constant over a wide range of input
frequencies and input voltages.
Stability is greater
Amplification is linear i.e. distortion of o/p is less
Gain is independent of the characteristics of op
amp.


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20
Solving the Amplifier Circuit
Apply KCL at the inverting input:




i
1
+ i
2
+ i
-
=0

R
1

R
2

i
1

i
-

i
2

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21
KCL
0

i
1 1
1
R
v
R
v v
i
in in

2 2
2
R
v
R
v v
i
out out

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22
Solve for V
o



Amplifier gain:
2 1
R
v
R
v
out in

1
2
R
R
A
v
v
A
in
out

Thus, Gain of an
op-amp
depends only
on the two
resistances and
not on the op-
amp
characteristics
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Assumptions made in deriving gain equation
Each input draws zero current from the signal
source.
Typically, i/p current is 1A
That is, input impedances are infinite
The i/ps are both at the same potential if the op-
amp is not saturated.
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Transfer Characteristics of Inverting Amplifier

V
o
-V
s
+V
s
saturation
saturation
Vin
B
A
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Transfer Characteristics of a Non-inverting Amplifier

V
o
-V
s
+V
s
saturation
saturation
V
2
V
1

V
2
> V
1
V
2
< V
1
B
A
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Transfer Characteristics of an Op-Amp
The output (Vo) is directly proportional to the
input only within the range AOB. In this region,
the op-amp behaves linearly. There is very little
distortion of the amplifier output.
If the inputs are outside this linear range, then
saturation occurs. That is output is close to the
maximum value it can have i.e. V
s
or -V
s
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August 14, 2014
Transfer Characteristics of an OpAmp

V
s
-V
s
V
o
Value V
0
might have for an ac i/p if
opamp did not saturate
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August 14, 2014
Transfer Characteristics of an OpAmp
Consider an opamp connected to +9 V supply.
The o/p voltage can never exceed these values.
max value of o/p voltage can be +9V or -9V
Let A = 10
5
(Remember A = V
o
/ V
in
)
So, max i/p voltage is V
in
= V
o
/ A
V
in
= +9 / 10
5
= + 90 V
This is the maximum input voltage swing.
A smaller value of A would allow greater input.

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August 14, 2014
Saturation Effect in Op Amp

Suppose gain is -10. Assume the input is a signal of amplitude of 1.4v. We would
expect the output of the amplifier to be a signal of amplitude of 14V because the
amplitude of the input is 1.4v and the gain is -10. But, if you take saturation into
account, you will get a signal that is "flattened" at the top and bottom.

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Problem 1:

In this circuit, we want a gain of ten. If R1 is 5 K
ohm, what is the value you need to use for
R0? Give your answer in ohms.


50,000 ohm
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August 14, 2014
Problem 2:

In this circuit, you have it set up for a gain of -10. The input
voltage is 0.24v. What is the output voltage?
Gain = - Vo / Vi
Vo = Gain x Vi
Vo = (-10) x 0.24
Vo = -2.4 V


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August 14, 2014
Problem 3:

In this circuit, Ro and R1 values are shown. The input signal
is also shown. Sketch the o/p signal.
10 K ohm
2.7 K ohm
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Problem 3:

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Problem 3:

Gain A = Ro / R1
So, A = - 10 K / 2.7 K = -3.7
Amplitude of i/p signal is 4 V
So max o/p voltage is Vo = A x Vin
Vo = 3.7 x 4 = 14.8 V
But power supply is only +9V
So 9V is the max o/p the amplifier can provide.

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August 14, 2014
Problem 3:

Amplifier is saturated
It will remain saturated as long as size of i/p
voltage is greater than 9V / 3.7 = 2.4 V
That is why we observe that the o/p gets
clipped as soon as the i/p rises above 2.4 V
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Concept of virtual earth
R
2

V
in

P
Q

+
+

V
out

R
1

+

I
1
I
2
V
Q
V
P
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Virtual earth
In the previous figure, V
Q
= 0 and V
P
= 0
P is called a virtual earth or ground point even
though it is not connected to the ground.

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38
Non-inverting Amplifier
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Non-inverting op amp

+
V
i
V
o
R
f
R
i
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August 14, 2014
Non-inverting Amplifier
The output (Vo) is in phase with the input.
R
f
and R
i
form a voltage divider circuit.
A fraction of o/p voltage (Vo) developed across R
f
is fed back to
the inverting i/p
This fraction is called feedback factor and is given by
= Ri / (Ri + Rf)
Gain of this amplifier is:

A = 1 + R
f
R
i
There is no virtual earth at the non-inverting i/p terminal.

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Voltage Follower

+
V
i
V
o
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Voltage Follower
This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier.
In case of non-inverting amplifier, gain
A = 1 + R
f

R
i
If we set R
f
= 0, A = 1 (unity gain)
This is called voltage follower because the o/p voltage
is locked to the i/p voltage (both are same)
Advantage: op amp has very high i/p impedance so it
can measure V
i
without drawing any current.
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Characteristics of Voltage Follower
This is a special case of the non-inverting
amplifier.
Gain A = 1
The o/p voltage follows the i/p voltage
Op amp has very high i/p impedance and very
low i/p impedance


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Voltage Follower used for measuring charge
Test Plate
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Voltage Follower used for measuring charge
This circuit uses a capacitor to make a charge-
measuring device.
If a charged object touches the test plate, it will
transfer charge to the capacitor.
The p.d. between the plates of the capacitor rises
If the capacitor is connected directly to a voltmeter,
this charge will drain away through the meter and
incorrect reading would be obtained.
Op-amp has very high i/p impedance and so
practically no charge is removed from the capacitor
and yet measured by the voltmeter
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