Unit 8

Connecting words
Objective: To learn about the words those connect two words or sentences.
Connecting words
These are words that connect words or sentences and called Conjunctions in grammar.

Types of conjunction:
There are three types of conjunctions.
1. Co-ordinating conjunctions
2. Correlative conjunctions and
3. Subordinating conjunctions

Co-ordinating Conjunctions: When the conjunction is used to join two statements of equal importance,
the conjunction is said to be a co-ordinating conjunction.
The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's an
easy way to remember them - their initials spell:
F A N B O Y S
For And Nor But Or Yet So
Examples:
She must have been tired, for she fell asleep the moment she inclined her head.
I like tea and he likes coffee.
I didn't know, nor did any of my family seem to know, that this medicinal leaf my grandma burned
was marijuana.
Ram likes tea, but Anthony likes coffee.
The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon.
No other city seems so charming yet so crude (rough), so civilized yet so uncouth (uncivilized).
I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.
She is kind so she helps people.

Correlative Conjunctions: When the conjunctions are in the form of pair of words, they are said to be
correlative conjunctions.
The common Correlative Conjunctions are:
1. Either or (Either John or George must have done this mischief.)
2. Neithernor (Neither peter nor Andrew has passed the test.)
3. Bothand (For seeking admission in a US university, you should sit for both GRE and TOEFL.)
4. Whetheror (I do not know whether my father is arriving by the 8oclock flight or 9oclock flight.)
5. Not onlybut also (She not only wrote the screenplay for the movie but also acted a role in it.)
6. Suchas (I see only such movies as have good songs.)
7. Suchthat (Such was the weather the whole of today that I decided to stay indoors.)
8. Asas (If you are as intelligent as your father, it will not be difficult for you to run your family
business.)
9. Asso (As you sow, so you reap.)
10. Hardlywhen (I had hardly sat down for dinner, when the phone rang.)
11. Sothat (I left home early so that I would not miss the 7oclock train to the city.)
12. Scarcelywhen (Clinton had scarcely reached the platform when the train started moving.)
13. Betweenand (The meeting will take place between 5 p.m and 6 p.m.)
14. As many as (There are as many chairs as there are students.)
15. Fromto (Application will be issued by the college from 9 am to 4 pm.)
16. Not..but (The loss we felt was not the loss of ham but the loss of pig.)
17. asas (My dog doesn't smell as bad as your dog smells)
18. No sooner... than (No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus came.)
19. Hardly ... when (He had hardly begun to work, when he was interrupted.)
20. If ... then (If that is true, then what happened is not surprising.)
21. Rather ... than (I would rather go swimming than go to the library.)
22. Scarcely ... when (Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain.)

Subordinating conjunctions: When the conjunction joins two statements, one of which depends on the
other for its full meaning, the conjunction is said to be a subordinating conjunction.

Examples:
1. As (1. because: As he is my friend, I will help him.
2. when: We watched as the plane took off.)
2. After (later in time: After the train left, we went home.)
3. Although or though (in spite of the fact that: Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.)
4. Before (earlier than: I arrived before the stores were open.)
5. Because (for the reason that: We had to wait, because we arrived early.)
6. For (for, because: He is happy, for he enjoys his work.)
7. If (on condition that: If she is here, we will see her.)
8. Lest (for fear that: I watched closely, lest he make a mistake.) Note the use of the Subjunctive Mood
in the clause with lest.
9. Providing or provided (on condition that: All will be well, providing you are careful.)
10. Since (1. from a past time: I have been here since the sun rose.
2. as, because: Since you are here, you can help me.)
11. So or so that (1. consequently: It was raining, so we did not go out.
2. in order that: I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.)
Note: When used with the meaning in order that, so is usually followed by that in formal English.
E.g. I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle.
12. Supposing (if: Supposing that happens, what will you do?)
13. Than (used in comparisons: He is taller than you are.)
14. Unless (except when, if not: Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.)
15. Until or till (up to the time when: I will wait until I hear from you.)
16. Whereas (1. because: Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone.
2. on the other hand: He is short, whereas you are tall.)
17. Whether (if: I do not know whether she was invited.)
18. While (1. at the time when: While it was snowing, we played cards.
2. on the other hand: He is rich, while his friend is poor.
3. although: While I am not an expert, I will do my best.)

In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses.

19. As if (in a similar way: She talks as if she knows everything.)
20. As long as (1. if: As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
2. while: He has lived there as long as I have known him.)
21. As soon as (immediately when: Write to me as soon as you can.)
22. As though (in a similar way: It looks as though there will be a storm.)
23. Even if (in spite of a possibility: I am going out even if it rains.)
24. In case (because of a possibility: Take a sweater in case it gets cold.)
25. Or else (otherwise: Please be careful, or else you may have an accident.)
26. So as to (in order to: I hurried so as to be on time.)

Note: Certain words, such as after, before, since and until may function either as prepositions or
subordinate conjunctions. However it should be noted that in some cases different words must be used
as prepositions and subordinate conjunctions, in order to express similar meanings. This is illustrated in
the table below.

Differing Prepositions and Conjunctions

Meaning Preposition Conjunction
for this reason because of because
in spite of this despite although
at the time when during while
in a similar way like as if

In the following examples, the objects of the prepositions, and the verbs of the subordinate clauses are
underlined.
Preposition: They were upset because of the delay.
Conjunction: They were upset because they were delayed.

Preposition: Despite the rain, we enjoyed ourselves.
Conjunction: Although it rained, we enjoyed ourselves.

Preposition: We stayed indoors during the storm.
Conjunction: We stayed indoors while the storm raged.

Preposition: It looks like rain.
Conjunction: It looks as if it will rain.

In the above examples, it can be seen that the prepositions because of, despite, during and like have
the noun objects delay, rain and storm; whereas the subordinate conjunctions because, although,
while and as if introduce subordinate clauses containing the verbs were delayed, rained, raged and will
rain.

It should be noted that like is sometimes used as a subordinate conjunction in informal English.
E.g. It looks like it will rain.
However, this use of like is considered incorrect in formal English.

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Interjections: Exclamatory words are called Interjections in grammar.

The table below shows some interjections with examples.
interjection meaning example
ah
expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."
expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."
expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be helped."
expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"
alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."
dear
expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"
eh
asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."
expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"
expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"
er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
hello, hullo
expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"
expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"
hey
calling attention "Hey! look at that!"
expressing surprise, joy etc "Hey! What a good idea!"
hi expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"
hmm expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement "Hmm. I'm not so sure."
oh, o
expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"
expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache."
expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"
ouch expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"
uh expressing hesitation "Uh...I don't know the answer to that."
uh-huh expressing agreement "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."
um, umm expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5 is...um...17."
well
expressing surprise "Well I never!"
introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"

Note: Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in
English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about
what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real
meaning.