Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
an underlying uniry and commonality, distinc- An examination of some of the more important
tive characteristicsare visible from clan to clan. art stylesprovides ample evidenceof this.
Vincent Smith has stated that all "authors who the Indian dynasties trying to gain control of
treat of Indian architecture notice, and are em- northem India, for by the time of Vatsaraja,
barassedby the fact, that each style when it Nagabhaga'ssuccessor,a triangle between the
first comes to our knowledge is full-grown and Gurjara-Pratiharasin the west, the Ragtrak[tas
comolete. . . . The extensive destruction of of the Deccan, and the Palas of the east had
monuments, especially those built of emerged, each struggling for hegemony over
"nciint vast territories and for control of the wealthy
brick, no doubt supplies a partial, though not
adequate,explanation."l This truism, applicable and famous ciry of Kanauj.
throughout ancient India, is especiallyrelevant Kanaui. which had been built into a beautiful
to a discussion of the art of the Gurjara-Prati- and renowned city by Harqa in the seventh cen-
heras,for our knowledge ofthe architectureand tury, was strategically important becauseof its
sculpture in the regions of their control from location along the major trade routes of the
about jJo to ZJo, in the period prior to their Ganges.It soon became an active center of the
ascent,is piecemeal, making it seem as if their arts where Sanskrit poetry, architecture, sculp-
art arosefuil-blown. However, an exarnination ture, and probably painting fourished. Yet, in
of Gurjara-Pratiharastylistic characteristics re- spite of the known glory of Kanauj, little
vealswhat must have been a number of stylistic remains tq testify to its former splendor. Cun-
sources. These include the Gupta idioms of ningham noted that most of the many Hindu
northern India, the post-Gupta y/estem Indian temples of ancient days (and possibly some of
trends that fourished under the Maitraka and the Buddhist monasteries noticed by Hsiian-
other d)'nasties, and the strong influence of the tsang) had been dismantled for later reuse in
full-bodied, lieshy forrns seen in the art of the the buildins of Muslim monuments.2 There is t-fa
Vakagakasand other western Deccan families. no doubt tlat the reconstruction of the history rg.
Thus, while the art of the Gurjara-Pratiharasis of the art of Kanauj would be an important step tr rrJ
properly viewed as part of the main continuum in tracing the post-Gupta trends that led to pcisJ
of developments in northern krdian art, not the final realizations of Hindu architecture in lrb
every step of this development is known. north India. Inscriptions left by the Gurjara- Thc r
The origin and homeland of the Gurjara- Pratiharasprovide extensiveevidenceof patron- trw.G
Pratiharasand even the meaning of their name age and building by the rulers and their sub- s-c* rc
have long been debated by scholars. The first jectss but the remains are scant testimony to the :o-r)- !
king, Nagabhata I, establishedsupremacy over epigraphic evidence. In spite of this, it is pos- rrom eb
the Gurjaras of Nendipuri and the Pratiharasof sible to establish a stylistic continuum-from S€ r'itst
Jodhpur (hencethe hyphenated name of the line) the eighth to tenth cenftries for the regions that Elents I
and successfullyresistedinvasionsby Arabs who formed the heartland of their empire, namely, t _','Lr (
came to India primarily for trade purposes.His parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat, Uttar v-fir,t
rule, approximately from 73o to 756, laid the Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,and other regions- rormded
foundation for the rise of the great Rajput clans, for sculpture,aswell asfor architecture.. spherica
but also saw the seeds of destruction being The far reaching effectsof the Deccan styles details <
planted, for tle retreat of the Arabs was only of the Vakatakas, Kalacuris, and other ruling gfearer
temporary, and two and a half centuries later, families on the develoomcnt of the art of north- a more
the Muslim conquestsof westem and northern ern India have been vastly underestimated: the greater
India led to the submision of the Rajput rulers. credit is often Eiven to Sarnath and the late tle higl
The Gurjara-Pratiheraswere not alone among fifth-century style th"t developed there. By the G*j*
I
I
THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CrANS 45jl
xore lmpottant
. of this.
rin control of
r of Vatsaraja,
: bctween the
ta t(a st raKlltas
, ,h. e"rt h"d
:gemony over
': the wealthy .t:
aro a beautiful
a seve[th cen-
-.ecauscof its
routes of the
center of the
--^,,.--
"^..1-
i.hcd. Yet, in
Kanauj, little
uo.r. Female figurc, uppcr fragmcnt. From Gwelior, zo.z.Marriage ofSive and Parvati (Kalyanasundaramiir-
:-endor. Cun- Madhya Pradesh,India. Ca. sevenchcentury. Bcige ti). From Kalna, Bharatpur, Rtjasthtn, India. Probably
jr..aDy rllnqu sandsronc.H: 5r crn. National Muscurn,New Delhi. Gurjara-Pratihara period. Ca. eighth cenrury. Beige
siblv some of sardstone.H: 9J cl1l. National Museurn, New Delhi.
: by Hsiian-
l;ier reuse in
1ti,. I nere ls late fifth century, the full-bodied, l1eshyforms of A rcprerenration of rhe Marriagc oF Siva
-.: rhc history western Deccan figure sculpture had reachedas of about thc cighth century is a more complcte
:llPortant step far north as Begh in rhc Gw-lior region and example of this stylistic stagc (Fig. 2o.2). The
s rhar led to persistedin the art of that area for severalcen- figures maintain the fleshy, heavy quality, along
:chitccture in turies. with an emphasison claboration and detailing.
::Ic- Clrrjara- The surviving upper poltion ofa female figure With complex hairdos and jewelry and sharply
fiom Gwalior provides such an cxample of a carvcd facial featurcs, as well as numcrous
:: their sub- work revealing the heritage of Dcccan art (Fig. s r r b s i d i : r cr yl c n r c n t i' n t h e c o m p o s i r i o nr.n o v e -
20.r). Although thc carving probably dates ment away from Gupta and Gupta-relatcdstylcs
i--:s.it is pos- from about thc scvcnth century, that is, prior to i : c v i d c n t . r l t J r o u grllrr cg c l r l y . u a y i r r gp o : r n r c s
i-: -ru n-i-fro m the advent of thc Gurjara-Pratiharas,it docu- arc still rcniniscent of carlier idioms. Clouds
nents an irnportant sourcc for the iater art isolatc thc headsof the figurcs from the clustcrs
-..- -.,..^t,,
styles. Clear ties to thc Vakagaka and post- of attendent bcings above in a nlanncr sinilar
Vakataka art of the Deccan arc sccn in the to that seen in sculpture of the Early Western
:ar reglons rounded forms of the body, the heavy, hcmi- Calukyas.
i,:rc, ' spherical brcasts pushed closc togcther, and A latcr stagc, perhapsof the tenth century, is
D:ccan styles details of thc hair style and ornamcntation. A seenin another rcpresentationof the Marriagc
orher ruling greater crispnessto Gatures of the face, creating o f S i v a . 6 o m E t a hi n U t r a r P r . , d e s(hF i g . : o . 3 ) .
::t of north- a more linear and sharply dcfined effect, and the Although clcarly the descendeirtof the preced-
.rurated: the greater elaboration of jewelry arc a prelude to ing femalc type and still full-bodied and fcshy,
.rd the late the highly ornate forms to be crcatcd under the Pdrvati now standsrather stiffiy and lessgracc-
Gr.rrjara-Pratiharas and othcr Jaterdynasties. fully. She is more amply bedeckedwitb.jcwclry
454 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS
-- '-
456 LArER |\ORTHERNSCIIOOLS
l l l i l L-L
r I ttl--!
;
rii
;,.. ,
2o.9. Hari-Hara renlple (TerDple r), from west. Osian, Rejasthan,
India. Gurjara-Pratiharapcriod. Ca. mid-eighth century.
lr':. : -,*
q
!- ,1
zo.ro. V,mana dr4lzr (Trivikrama), south side, Hari- 2o.rr. Hari-Hara, on east side of Hari-Hara temple
Hara tenple (Tcmplc r). OsiaR,Rajasthan,India. Gur- (Temple z). Osian, Rtjasrh.n, India. Gurjara-Pradhara
jara-Pratihtra pcriod. Ca. mid-eighth century- period. Ca. mid-to-late eighth century.
THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCTANS 4J9
image of Durge reveals thc heavy and full on artistic schools in regions where Gurjara-
forms of the body, the large round breasts Pratihara political swav was felt, even if the
pressedclosely together, and the lines denoting art itself riay not hav; been specifically linled
the fesh around the ribs characteristicofGurjara- to the Guiara-Pratiharas. In the caseof artistic
Pratihara representations.The increasedactivity cenJersthat already had longstanding traditions,
of the figure predicts the style to be popularized the effect took the form of a new overlay,
in the following centudes,and marks a departure ratJrcr than complete change.
from the repose and calm of Gupta-period Such was the case in the Buddhist art of
works. Samath where the srylistic impact may be seen
A more complete version of a plfrcaIatutta in a stelewith representationsof the eight major
remple of approximateiy the same date, that events of the Buddha's life (Fig. zo.rz). Usually
is, the -iddli of the eighth century. is the dated to the Gupta period, this sculpture,upon
Hari-Hara temple, called number one, at Osiafi close exarnination, reveals ties to the Gurjara-
(Fig. zo.9). The temple and its four subsidiary Pratihara style of the eighth century, although
shrines (the northwest one is now destroyed) the new sryle was only grafted onto an existing
stand atop a terrace that unifres the separate tradition of long-standing repute. The organiza-
elements. The central shrine faces west, as do tion of the relief, with its paired scenesplaced
the two back comer shrines, but the two at the in two vertical lines, reveals the tendency to
west or front side of the tenace (jqgatT) face each organize and compartmentalize that is char-
other. The sculptures that adorn the temple acteristicofthe architecturaland sculpturaltrends
reveal the consistently high qualiry of expresion of post-Gupta times and contrastsstrongly with
and execution seenat AbSneri, Osiai, and other
Guriara-Pratihara-periodsites. The main niche
on ihe south side of the principal structure
shows Visnu's fifth al)aftr, Vanana Frivikrama),
the dwarf who tricked rhe asurusinto granting
him as much of the universe as he could cover
in three sreps.and then grew to gigantic size
to cover it all (Fig. zo.ro). The conical crown
and curled hair exhibit a debt to frfth- and sixth-
century forrns, but the vitality and energy of
the image reflectthe developedGurjara-Pratihara
idiom. A particularly fine representation of
Hari-Hara, the unified form of Siva and Visr}u,
from another Hari-Hara temple at the site,
called number tri/o, further exemplifies the
style, for even this standing, frontal icon of the
god has an innate livelinessand senseof anirna-
tion (Fig. zo.rr). Clearly a syncretic god, Hari-
Hara's imoortance at Osi5fi mav be related to
a soecificiult orevalent at the site.
The ninth tenth centuries saw the dis-
"nd
semination of the Gurjara-Pratiharastyle com-
plex throughout much of northem India, as
well as a marked change in the sculptural style
itsele for the softnessand animation previously 2o.r2. Eisht Events from Life of Sakyanuni Buddha'
seenin the figures gave way to a harder, stiffer From Srmath, Uttar Pradesh,India Probably Gurjara-
Hara temple form. Although the tradition grew up primarily Prariheraperiod Ca. eighth century Beige sandstone'
.:n-Pradhara
in western and northem India, it had impact H: 96.J cm. S,rnath Site Museun' S:mtth'
460 LA'IEI. NORTHERN SCHOOTS
itself as wcll as the perr.r.nnentnature of the
undift-crcntiatedreality, while the ghaq1a,wrth
its transicntsound,syn-tbolizes the irnpcrmancncc
of cxistcnce. Although gencraily classifiedas a
Buddha, Vajmsattva embodics principles that
rcach far beyond tl.re idca of the enlightcncd
Sakyomuni, for the ornan.rcntshe wears, includ-
ing his crorvn, earrings, necklace, anklcts and
b r a c e l c r ,r.r r r r l c t . .r n J g i r J l e . i g n i f y t h c p c r -
{ectiorls (pafi tifis) necessaryfor thc :rttarnment
of nirva4a.His crown, the most claborateofthese
iconographic synbols, contains sr.nall imagcs
of four of the five jiza Buddhas (the fiftl.Lbeing
ir.nplicd at the rear of thc crown) and is, in fact,
t natldalao{ tlte fivejiras. In thc caseof Vajrasat-
tva, the five figurcs in his crown are 11ot t]rc
sourcesftotrr which he erranates, as is usually
thc n.rcaning of figures in tl.Lehead-clrcsscs in
Buclclhist iconographics. On the contrary,
thcsejr'rias and thc Buddha-r'ealn.rsover which
they preside arc considered to bc inhcrent in
Vajrasattva, and arc tl-re lnlnifcstations of the
natr-rrc of lis knowlcdge. Stylistically, this
figure again shows the crystallization of form,
especially visible in thc fcatures of the face,
20.rt.Vajrasattva. FrolnSernath, Urtrr Pradcsh, India. which chrractcrizes the latc Gurjara-Pratihera-
ProbablyGurjara-Pratihara period.Ca. cighrhccntury. pcriod style. Yet it still rerainsson.Lethingof the
Beige sandstonc. lI: r32 clr1.Sarn,th Site Museur, softnessof carlier Sarnath carvings. The orna-
mcntsanLljcwelsnow sta11d in bold reliefagainst
the llcsh, and are quitc plastically carvecl. Pos-
sibly, this sculpturewas intended to be con-
a Guptarenditionofthc samesubject(Fig. ro.zr), pleted rvith plaster ancl paintcd as suggested
in which , rnore free-forn Jrrirngemcnti. vi5i- by the unfinisired charactcr of the l.nlo alrd
ble. It aiso contrastswith the typical Pala-period backgrorrncl.
examples in which a large central Buddha Conflict lvith thc Pala kings of Magadl.Laand
generally dor.ninatcsthe other scenes(Fig. r8.9). Bcngal scerlsto l.ravcextendedGurjara-Pratihara
C r r r j . r r . r - P r " t i l r r rs. tr y l i s t i c c l r J r J c t e r i ' t i c s. r e inllncnce to thc castcrn portions of the South
especiallyvisible in the trcatrrent of the figurcs Asian subcontincnt, and in return broLrght Pala
and facial features, particularly notablc in thc ch:rracteristics into thc art at sonlc siteswithin tlle
high-ridged eycbrows typical of the developing fold of the Gurjara-Pratiherapolitical sphcrc. A
Rajput forms. l c r vr c u l p r u r clso l n d - l S a r n e t hp r t s c n ta n i n t e r -
Another sculpture fiom about the san.rc datc esting probiem regarding thc rclationship of the
further demonrtrrte. Iarer Buddhist inrrgery .rr sculptural traditions at Sarnadl to contenPo-
Sarnad.r (Fig. zo.r3).The subjectofthis sculpture raneous ones of Bihar. Onc of theur is a repres-
i s { j j 1 1 . 1 s 1 v 1w. h o . y r n b o l i z e i h e p r . r c t i t i . , r r e r entation of r Bncldha tn rlharnacakran {rd
.
as thc undilfcrcntiatcd state of the Univers:rl (Fig. zo.14).6Thc stylisticfeaturcsof this stele,
(!nnyata)-He is identifred by thc lajrn he holds ancl othcrs of the group, distinguish them
in his right l.Landand thc rcr.nainsof a gha4fi froru other sculpturcs found at Sarnatir, for
-fhe rvhilc thcy arc carved out of the Chun-r sand-
(bcll) in hil lc{t. uajta is a symbol o{ !ffiyofi
THE ART OF THE REJPUT CLANS 461
:raages
. .- f^^,
both r,vith thc Gr,rrjera-Prltihera art of the of Madhyl Pradcsh and rvho rverc the earliest
central ancl '"vesternrcgiotts ofnorth lndia, anci, known patrous of the scct. Within two gcnera-
to sorne exterlt, thc art ofthe east. Tccluicrlly, tions, as knol'n frorn inscriptions, at least two
thc Haihryas forln one of thc tlany branches more such in-rportationsoccurred, ancl ascctics
of the Kalacuri faurily r,vho ruled portions of lvere given land ancl rnonasterics,ieaclingto thc
north Indix anci the Deccan at virrious Periods. establishncnt of a con.rtrttnity belonging to
AlthouglL Haihaya-periodmonunents have bccn dris clan. A lineage for these ascetics,baseclon
.locumentcd ancl describcd, rvork toward a teachcr-disciplebasis,sincethey werc celibate,
rclating thc remains to contetnPorary nonu- has bccn establisheclfrom epigraphic eviclcnce.
nlents in other parrs of Sor-rthAsia and tolvard Onc ir-Lscriptiorrrevcals thlt the Matta-naydra
understandingthc rvorks in the contcxt of their ascctic, Prabodha6iva,hacl a monastcry t?/drrd)
tine has only rccently begun. However, a brief collstrLrcted,along with a tank and a weil, in
look at sone of the rnajor architectural types the Kalacuri year 724, equivalentto 972 10 Since
sheds extrcn.rcly inportant light on Haihaya thc inscription was built into a wall of a tt.ton-
ties rvith other art styles of India, as rvell as a astery at Canclrehe, it nay be :rssumedthat
pxrticular Saivite dcveloprnent and the untsual tlris is thc natha btik by Prabodha6iva (Fig.
architcctural n-rodescrcated for its practiccsand zo.r6). Furthcr, thc inscriptiotr mcntions that
ritual neecls. this strLlcture was built near a house of gods
T h i s S a i v i t e ' r c t . t h e M . r t t a - l n , y u r . ro r (templc) built by Prabodha6iva'sspiritual pre-
"Drunken Pcacock" clan, is known from about c e p t ; r ; r h i \ i r g c n e r . l l y . r s s u m reoJb e r h cn e r r b y
half a dozen inscriptions, three of which were S i u , , e - p l . 1 F i g . .: o . r s . 2 0 . r 9 ) A l l o \ \ i n g f o r
TI{E ART OF TITT REJPUT CLANS 46J'
3 dofiunance,
ulers in their
r assertedtheir
ere the Caha-
arising clans,
central India,
&e Calukyas
prominence.
the Gurjara-
rolling only
else.The line
iG urtil the
which began
ira ruler for
rt least undl
ts
!
l'
I
2o.r8. Plan of Siva tcnplc. Candrchc, Mrdhya Prsdesh, India.
i:-
Haihaya period. Ca. mid-tenth ccntury.
^: -:i:italn-
r : :learly
: - :rrcular
_-:::.ierior.
: : .lith a
i: - ,i been
The
"':::-:1.
- - . : - - . ' .T h e
-'.: '.'.idr the
:iirlPlcs,
: ..--:is tied
:.--: ior the
: ::.- notion
-. 6rtino
: :,iion of
: : _.: consists
: ::il!lng a
. -_:-orv,the
::-:rsterlike
: Jclivities
:,-:ir:rl and
:-:3h it is
-.-r-- lt., .^
--:rng oncs
2o.r9. Siva temple frolr southeast. Candrehc, Madhya Pradesh,
India. Haihaya period. Ca. mid-tcnth ccntury.
466 LATE? NORTHERN SCHOOLS
are ichlrr decorated with sculpture. A monu- numerous
^"nt^l tirorlg from Gurgi tbat-must havs once Candella p
adorned a Siva temple and is now set up at ments of t
Rewa suggests something of the sculptural their own
forms of approxirnately the tenth century (Fig. provide s
zo.zo). Its two upright jambs and three lintels contemPol
are richly carved (although some porrions are presenceir
covered by the modern wall into which it has the Cande
been placed) with female figures, deities, and conquest
architectural and foliate motifs comParable in Pressmg
style to late Gurjara-Pratihara monuments and forces.
the art of their successols. Perhaps
line is the
at the sit
eighry te
struction i
five survi
homogen
of a con
creatols o
most of
'lora4a. From Gurgi, Madhya Pradesh,India. and.srylis
zo.zo.
Haihaya period, Ca. tenth century. Now at Mrhareja's are Saivit
Palace,Rewa. link then
temples
througho
T n s C a l . I p r r r , a s o F B u N D E L K H A ND It is ge
temple a
Originally feudatoriesof the Gurjara-Pratiheras, The size of the-Candellarealm was never really temPle, (
the Candella family rose to power through the great; the main sites and capitals were con- (Figs.zo.
familiar sequence of events reenacted intrumer- centrated within a small area and included evidence
able times in ancient India; originally owing Khajuraho (ancient Khajjuravahaka), where the
their allegiance to the once stronger line, they most sisnificant architectural remains are lo-
capitalized on the weakening of the Gurjara- cated; Kalaijara, one of the most impregnable
Pratiharas and, ceasing to acknowledge r the ancientfortressesoflndia at times under Candella
latter's sovereignty, establishedtheir own prin- control; and Mahoba and Ajaygarh, two other
cipaliry, in this case,around the site of Khaju- fortresses.
'Within
raho, in the region known as Bundelkhand. the Candellacapitals,culture flourished
Eventually, as befits the pattem, tlrc Can- as the kings patronized poets and dramatists,
dellas were themselves overcome in a similar not the least of whom was Kggra Mi6ra, the
manner. Like many other lndic dynasties-in spite celebrated author of the Prabodhacanhodaya.
of the realities of their rise to power, the Can- This drama. Derformed before the Candella
dellas possesseda traditional account of their king Kirtivarman, celebrated a then-recent
origin, one version ofwhich claims descentfrom military victory over the Kalacuris. Civil works,
the moon, Candra, henceproviding the narne of including the excavation of tanks, and the
their dynasty.l3 Their greatestperiod of ascend- building of dams, fortresses,and palaces,were '*.!:.ta
anry occurred in the tenth and eleventh centuries, commissionedby the Candella kings, suggesting
although Candella rulers may be traced uP to a full treasury providing plentiful employment
rj4o, goveming portions oftheir former empire. for skilled craftsmen in the kinedom. Further,
THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS 467
:ie. A monu- numerous tcmples werc erccted during the
'ist have once
Candellaperiod. Theseworks and other achieve-
Li\\'se[ up at ments of the Candellas are known both from
ie sculptural their own inscriptions, over sixty-five of wbich
century (Fig. provide such information, as well as from
i rlrree lintels contcnporary Muslin chroniclers, whose very
: Portrons are presencein India at that time is a reminder that
s'hich it has the Candellasruled on the brink of the Muslim
,. deities, and conquest of northern hrdia, and faced the
on.rparablein pressing problem of repelling the Muslim
)auments and forces,
Perhapsthe greatesttestimony to the Candella
line is the beauty of numerous temples erected
at the sitc of Khajuraho. Traditionally, over
eighty templcs arc ascribcd to Candella con-
struction at the site,although only about twcnty-
five survive today. They representa strikingly
homogeneousgroup and seemto be the product
of a concerted and sustained ellort by their
creatorsover a pcriod of tirne. Bccauseof this,
most of the temples sharc ccriain conceptual
:::lesh, Iudia. and,stylistic featurcs,rcgardlcssof whcther they
i .:: .\hhir:ja's are Saivite,Vai;navite, or Jain. Thcir stylesboth
linl< them togethcr and distinguish them fiom
temples of the northerrr type at other sites
throughout South Asia.
It is gcnerally assumcdthat thc carliest cxtant Skel.h F a. Nol To S..tc
temple at Khajuraho is thc Caunsat l,oglai
, .-. ,^"lt-.
templc, or, thc tcmplc of thc sixty-four /ogirij
2o.2r. Plan of Caunla! /ogi"t tcrrple. Khxjuraho, Ma-
s ala con- (Figs.zo.zt, zo.zz), although no incontrovcrtiblc dhya Pradcsh,India. Candcliaperiod. Ca. ninth ccrtury
c: :rcludcd evidence verifiesits presumedninth-century datc.
r -l.rc the
:---. arc lo-
::::regnable
rcerCandella
:. two other
-:.. flourished
: ,\liira, the
::::androdaya,
-,. Candella
:hen-recent
C:r'il works,
i:. and the
':.-rces,were
!. jrlggcsting
zo.zz.Vicwlooking southinsidecourtyard ofCaunsar/oJi,?ttemple.
:::ployment Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh,India. Candella period. Ca. ninth
century or Jater.
466 LATER.NORTHXRN SCHOOLS
The Gatures often said to suggest an early con- which must have been prevalent in the region,
struction date include its stark simplicity (it as manifested in the sculptural programs of
was nearly totally devoid of sculptures save for the majority of the Khajuraho temples. The
the imases once contained in the niches around particular type of Tantrism may have been
its peririeter); the use of granite as a building related to Kaula or Kapalika practices.In partic-
rnaterial (sandstone was the prevalent medium ular, the Kapalikas are associated with yogixts
of the Candella ternples and presumably repre- and various sexual practices in which the female
sentsa later feature); as well as the use of large, was given great importance as the "seat" of
boulderlike blocks of masonry, roughly cut the Self, and thereby the realization of Self was
and boldly articulated, again a feature generally located in the yoni , or vulva.14 While the
associatedwith formative stagesof stone archi- ultimate aim of the Kapalika was to transcend
tecture in Sorrth Asia. Yet becauseofthe unusual the sensual, the participation in rituals in which
purpose and character of this temple, which sexual relations with women were a ma1or
not-on1y distinguishes it fron other temples at asDect must have led to the downfall of many
Khajuraho but places it among only a handful a would-be holy man.
of simrlar temples in other Parts of South Asia, The theorv behind Tantric practices, both
it does not seemjustifiable to base arguments Buddhisr anj Hindu, often included not only
for its date on what might otherwise be ac- the enioyment of women, but also the drinling
ceotable criteria. Its exceptional form and of *ine, the eating of fesh, human sacrifice,
soicial subject matter, ho;ever, makes it a and the use of the hurnan skull as a drinling
dttittg b"giottittg for a discussion of Candella vessel. These five practices cornprise the pafrea
art, regardless of its probabledate. makaras, the so-called "frve n's," for their
The temple is built on a rocky promontory Sanskrit names all begin with the letter m. In
about seven meters above a plain. In contrast short, t.uttrirs often made use of things that
to the usually circular form ol yogini temples, were generally prohibited to the "right hand,"
this structure consists of a large, rectangular or customary leligious practices. The Tantric
open courtyard surrounded by a cloister of (or "left-hand") way was believed to be the fast
cells, sixty-four of which measure only about method of achieving the religious goal, but
a meter in height and depth. Another cell, certainly, it was the lesssecure, For the temP-
larger than the others and located direcdy tations of the senses,which were to be over-
cone through indulgence, frequently further "charmir
opposite the main entrance to the complex,
which ir on the north, may have enshined the ensnaredthe practirionersinto participationin nsals th
main image of the temple. Each cell is like a the physical world. tt is not surprising that descripti
miniature temple, having a simplified tower Tantric practiceshave been looked down upon remple ir
o{ the nagara style (Fig. zo.zz). Each would by nonpractirionersjn South Asian sociery at srith cor
have housed a sculptural representation of a every period, forcing Tantric followers to har-ehac
yogint, only three of which have survived to pursuesecletismand esoterism. builiing
modern times. Although many other archi- Typical of the developcdphaseof architecture tur,Ier :
tectural examples in India are characterizedby at Khajuraho, and an exarnple which may be enr.hrile
an enclosure o{ cells, yogint temples are unusual used to define rnany of the major characteristics of Vi5nt
in that the perimeter,rather than a Prominent of the Candella style, is the LaklmaDa temPle fts origir
central shrine, receives the greatest emphasis. (Fig. zo.z3). Not only is this buil.ling one_ofthe bur it b
It is posible that this relates to the Gminine best-oreservedmonuments at the site, but its rie ruler
corcept that yogint temples portray, in which d"t.'-"y b" fixed by an inscription which was bapala a
the idea ofthe enclosurerather than the enclosed, found at the base of the ternple. This epigraph, Pradlnr'
expressiveof the female as opposed to the male dated in the year rorr of the Vikrama era, or ot'rainei
reproductive organs, is stressed. a.o. 954,was left by Dhairga, the son ofYa(ovar- rePrese!
The purpose and meaning of the yogint man, the seventh Candella king. It revealsthat cas hart
temple is related ro Hindtr Tantric practices. Yaiovarman, alias Lakqavarman, erected a srnce ra
THE ART OF THE R-T.JPUTCLANS 469
in the region,
programs of
temples. The
ay have been
tices. kr partic-
I wtth yogixts
rich the female
the "seat" of
on of Self was
u While the
s to transcend
Ltualsin which
rere a major
'nfall of many
'ractices, both
rded not only
o the drinking
moan sacrifice,
as a drinking
ix the pafica
5" for their
€ letter /r. Iq
'f tbings that
"right hand,"
l -[e I antnc
zo.z3. Lak;rnaga templc from east. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh,
I ro be the fast India. Candellaperiod, reign ofYaSovannan(Laksavarman).Com-
rus goal, but pleted by Vikrarna era rorr (A.D.9J4).
For the temp-
e to be over-
rently further "charming splendidhome of [Vishnu] . . . which more, its style is in perGct harmony with the
rnicipation in rivals tbe peaks of the mountain of snow,"15 a Candella craftsmanship characteristic of the
urprising that descriotion that mav refer to the Laksmana temple. The image relerred to in the inscriprion
d down upon temple irself. Thus, Y"iou"rrn"n, who is credired may have been lost or stolen some time after
ian society at with consolidaringLhe Candellaempire. must having been enshrined, but it must have been
iollowers to have had a firm hand in establishingthe Candella reblaced within a short period becauseof the
building tradidon ar Khajuraho.The inscription style of the presentimage.
)farchitccture further reveals that the main image originally The history of the transferral of ownership
;hich may be enshrined within the temple, a representation of an icon such as this sheds light on several
characteristics of Viflu Caturmurti, had an interesting history. important issues-first, the idea of "booty" or
$rala temPle Its original owner was the king of Tibet (Bhota), rather, the acquisition of a valued object of one
ing one of the but it had passedthrough the hands of Sahi, king by another as an element of war in ancienr
: site, but its the ruler of Kira (the Kangra region), to Heram- India, and second,the docurnentation of direct
cn rvhich was bapala and then to bis son, Devapala, perhapsa transmissionof artistic influence, including both
this epigraph, Pradhara ruler, fron whom Yaiovarman iconographic and srylistic modes. Indeed, if the
krama era, or obtained it. Although the image now enshrined term "Bhota" in the inscription can refer to
n ofYaiovar- T representsthis form of Vi5qu (Fig. zo.z9), it that portion of Ka(mir that has generally been
lr revealsthat can hardly be rhe one implied in rhe inscriprion part ofthe cultural sphereofTibet, it is possible
l erected a since it is of stone rather than metal. Further- to suggest that the great popularity of Viqru
470 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS
Caturmufti in Kairnir (Figs. r7.r7, r7.rg) h^d some architects are known, and some mason
direct bearing on the construction of the marks appear on stonesof the temples, little is
Lakgmana temple at Khajuraho. known about the individuals who actually did
Although it was apparently finished by os+, the work.
the date of Dhairga'sinscription, it is not known Typical of the Candella style, the Laksrnar.ra
how long the temple took to construct. The temple restsatop a plinth, to which the devotee
traditionally held view that over eighty temples gains accesson the east(Figs.zo.z3, 2c.24).'tlis
were built at Khajuraho during the approxi- feature may be contrasted with the temples of
mately r5o-year period of Candella rule there Orissa, which generally have an enclosing wall
suggeststhat on an average a temple would but not a plinth. The Laksmanatemple is of the
have been built approximately every two years. saxdhara type,having an enclosed circumambu-
A large and ambitious project, such as the latory passagearound the shrine, and it is of the
Laksma4a temple, would certainly have taken lofrcayatundvariety due to the presenceof the
longer, but still, it rnay be assumedthat work four subsidiary shrines at the corners of the
proceeded at a rapid pace with great numbers plinth. As had been seenat the Hari-Hara temple
of workmen carrying out the tasks. Since the called number one at Osiafi (Fig. zo.9), the two
style of this and other Candella temples is the front shrines face each other rather than the
direct descendantof the styles of the Gurjara- direction faced by the rrain temple. Each of
Pratiharas,it is possiblethat craftsmen formerly these four virtually identical shrineshas a small
employed by the earlier rulers now turned to garbhdgrhatopped by a !:ikhara preceded by a
the Candella patrons. Although the names qf small flat-rooftd pillared porch. Each would
470 LAIEII NORTHERN SCHOOLS
.?,10 ",
0 r 5 10
Caturnlrirti in Ka{mir (Figs. i7.r7, r7.r9) hxd some architects are known, and sorne mason
direct bearing on the construction of the marks appear on stonesof the temples, little is
Laksmana tenple xt Kha.juraho. known about the individuals rvho actually did
Akhough it was apparently finishcd by os+, the work.
the datc ofDhanga's inscription, it is not known Typical of the Candella style, the Laksmana
how long the tcmple took to construct. The ten.rplerestsatop a plinth, to which the devotce
traditionally held vicw that over eighty templcs gains accesson the east(Figs.zo.z3, zo.z4). This
werc built at Khajureho during the approxi- Gature may be contrasted with the ternples of
mately 1Jo-year period of Candella rule therc Orissa, which gcnerally have an cnclosing wall
suggeststhat ou an averagc a temple would but not a plinth. Thc Laksmanatcmple is of the
have been built approxirnately every trvo ycars. sandharatype, having an enclosedcircumambu-
A largc and ambitious project, such as the latory prssagearound the slrrine, and it is of the
Laksmana templc, would certainly have taken paicayatuflavaricty due to the prcsenceof the
longcr, but still, it may bc assurneclthat work four subsidiary shrines at thc corners of the
procccded at a rapid pace rvith grcar numbers plinth. As had been seenat the Had-Hara ternple
of workmcn carrying out the tasks. Sincc thc callcd nulnbcr one at Osian (Fig. zo.9), thc two
stylc of this ancl other Candella tcr.nplcsis the front shrines face each other rather than thc
direct dcsccndantof thc stylcs of the Gurj:rra- clircction faccd by the rnain ternple. Iach of
Pratiheras,it is posiblc that craftsmen formerly thcsc four virtuaily identical shrineshas a small
(lllara prcccded by a
cmploycd by the earlier rulers now tumed to .garbhagrhatopped by a
thc Candella patrons. Although thc names of snall flat-rooGd pillared porch. Each would
THE ART OF THT RAJPUT CLANS
47'
50me mason have beendedicatedto a specificdeity, posibly rivaled the peaks of snow. The roof! over the
rples, litde is *uee forms of Vis4u and one ,ep.esentationof *ree ma4/apasare pyramidal in form, rather
actually did S[rya, as suggestedby the central figures carved than domical, in contrast to later examoles. and
in the lintels over each doorway. each is crowned by a bell-shaped *errlber. A
re Lak;ma4.a Examination.of the profile of the temple vase (kalaia) tops the bell-shaped form over
r the devotee (Frg. as well as its plan (Fig. zo.z4) the mahama4dapd.The iikhari of the shrine
,zo.z5)
:o.24). This reveals its main components placed on an axii area is rounded in outline as is normal in the
e temples of from east ro west: thi fust poih (ardhamaxdapa), norrhernIndianstyle,althoughit is more poinred
rclosing wall the second, larger porch i*ot1$pQ, th. ft1;h;- than Orissanrypis, and islanked by smaller
:ple is of the ma1lapa (great hall), and the vinara, with rts replicas of itself, creating clust..ed .ffecr.
ircumambu- characteristic likhara. Thae elements are clearly "
Again, this Gature may be contrasted with the
rd it is of the distinguishable by their separate rooG, each flagara-styletemples of Orissa, which typically
sence of the successively higher from the eastern to the have simple, rather than chstercd, lil<haii.
lels of the western end of the temple, culminating in the Within, the separareelementsare distinguish-
'Hara temple Iugh iikhara o-rer drc garbhagrha.The eFect of able as rhe devoree moves lrom rhe sialler
r.9), the two these rising roofs may be a metaphor for rhe porches to the wider ones, and then into the
.er than the distant peaks of a mountain range, a frequent antechamber of the shrine (anarala) and, the
rle. Each of and deliberate allusion in Hindi temple art. shrine portion itself,with its circumambuJarory
; has a small In rhis case-it would be a particularly apt com- passageand thc garbhagrha-porches projecting
-eded by a parison, since Dhanga's inscription stares that from the sidesof the mahama4d.dpo th" ,id.i
Each would his father had built an abode for Visnu which and rear of the circumambulatory"nJ p"rr"g.*"y
472 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS
t\
!r (
lI
temple Khajuri-
zo.z6.Sculptedintcrior of mahanandapa,Ltkgurana
ho, Madhya Pradcsh,India Crndclla period, reign of Yaiovarman
(Lakgavarman). Completedby Vikrama era rorr (.r'p. 954).
permit subdued light to enter the tenPle, tlrc size of the nahaua4dapais rather modest
partially illurninating the ornately sculpted (nonc at Klrajuraho is larger than about scven
intcriors. Placed high above the eye lcvel of meters sqlrarc),it was neccssaryto reinforcc the
thc devotcc, the porches and their rvindows do weight of the roofs and towers above through
not allow the worshiper to glance outward the useofpillars. Four stonc bearns,placedabove
and be distracted during devotions, but nerely the piliars as they might have bcen in wooden
permit light to cnter. I hc trseof pillen in thc a.chite.t,,re, support the ceiling. Clustered
aswclJasclrclavi:]rJ
int.rio. oithe ,r,rlattandapa y around the tops of the pillars are numerous
sculpted interiors distinguish the Kbajuraho sculpturcs,primarily consistingof fcmale figures
temples fron their 0orthern-style countelParts in a variety of poscsand activitics. The ceiling
in 6rissa. A view into thc nahana4Qapo(Ftg. panelsare carved separatelyin such a way that
zo.z6) shows the four pillus that circumscribe i.rh.n each was put into its proper place, the
a square within this hall, above u'hich is a whole intcrlocked so that each course suPPorted
deliiately carved square ceiling coft-er. Thcse the onc above.
pillars were not merely dccorativc, for aldrough Entrance to the circumambulatory Passage
THE ART oF THE RAJPUT 0LANS 42,1
her modest that surrounds the shrine is gained from the the front or east, a lion's face on the south, a
bout seven mahamatl/apa.Some light enters this narrow boar's face on the north, and a demon's face
:injbrce the passagewayfrom the windows, illuminatine the on the west or rear, and is iconographically
\-€ through arriculated wall of the exterior of rhe shrine comparable to KaSmiri interpretations. The
lacedabove to the devotee's right, rather than the path image is of the sthanaka(stan&ng) type and
rn il'ooden irself (Fig. zo.z7). The shrine is enrered rhr;ush shows the god in a frontal and unbending pose,
Clustered a heavily decorareddoorway (Fig. zo.z8), a carved so that he stands nearly free of the
numerous descendant of the Gupta schemes seen in both sculpture slab and tJre numerous subsidiary
cale figures Buddhist and Hindu art, although by now figures who attend him and amplify the iconog-
fhe ceiling much more elaborate and complicated. A raphic program. A pointed, rayed halo of a
a way that "moonstone'' and high threshholJ mark the type popular in a number of Rajput styles is
llace, the transition into the ga hagTha,creating both a carved behind his head.
: supported physical and psychological demarcation for Although the image in the shrine represents
the visitor. Within, the representationof Visnu the final religious expressionof the Laksmar.ra
rl Caturmurri (Fig. zo.z9) has a human Faceon temple, the devoree has encountered a barrage
Passage
174 LAIEIi NORTHIRN SCHOOIS
r.:
\\
r!l
l7s
.ii
t-
, 11.,t
, , ,)41
2 0 . 2 9 . V i s n u C : r t L r n l l a u t li n s l r r i ; r co l L e k s r r r a n at c r u p l e . K h a j L r r a h o ,
l r 4 a d h - v al ' r : r d c s h , I n d i r . C l l d e l l . r p e r i o d , r e i g n o f Y a i o v a r m : n
( L a k s a v 3 r n l t L DC ) .o u 4 r l c t c d b v V i k r a r n r c r a r o r r ( ^ . D . 9 i 4 ) .
476 IATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS
,*i,g LI
I
L
:'.::
of sculptcd fonns from his arrival at the tcmple Gupta and Gurjara-Pratibara cxamples, it is
t o t h e f i n r l v i c w o f r l r e e n s l r r i n e gd o d . F o r i n cssentially the samc in chxracter. The guarried
contrastto templcs ofthe Gupta period, Candella blocks of stone seem to blend into onc another,
templesarc lavishly sculptedboth insidc and out. and the sculpted forms blur their joints so that,
A panoran-raunfurls before the viewcr at the in contrast to the Caunsat 7ogfui tcmplc, the
first circumarnbulation of the temple around structural units of the building are barely visible
the exterior of thc plinth, where scenesof daily in the finished product. Major icons are placcd
life, war, and lovc arc portrayed. Representative in nicheslocateddirectly under cachporch ofthe
of the external world, the worid of form (rapa), temple, punctuating the ardhamanlapa,ma1j|apa,
somc of the scenesmay depict actual historical mahamatllapa,and the sides of the shrine and
cvcnts of the Candella period. Another realm emphasizing each elemcnt of thc whole as the
greets the devotee upon climbing up onto the devotee circumarnbulates the ternple. (In this
pltnth (jagatt), whcre an array of figures adorns case, a clockwise direction is indicated by the
the exterior of the templc (Fig. zo.3o). Thc placenent of Gal.reiaon the south and Durga
schemeis highly ordcrcd according to vertical on the north.) Thc very active poses of the
and horizontal divisions, with sculptcd ground ligures on the cxterior ofthe ten.Lple(Figs.zo.3o,
lincs dcfining the positions of the individual zo.3r, 2c.32) provide a feeling of movement
{igures. Whilc it is morc claborate than post- and change, although controlled by the rigidity
TI{E ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS 477
of the architectural scheme. The figures are whom Vidyadhara came into coniict in rorg and
carvedvery three-dimensionally and are almost ro22, the line was weakened,
freed from their backgrounds.Deep shadows The Khandariya Mahadeva ternple shares a
and bright sur6ces from the sunlight infuse high plinth with two other temples, a much
rErples, it is the forms with vitality. These celestialbeings, ruined and heavily restored small shrine popular-
The quarried including beautiful women (Fig. zo.3r) and ly called the Mahadeva temple and the so-called
one another, nithnas (Fig. 2c.32), wirh their facesin rap- Devi Jagadambatemple, which originally may
joints so that, ture, suggestthe unificatioawith the divine to have been dedicatedto Visnu. It is possiblethat
remp.le, the be experiencedby the worshiper. this temple group rePresentsa syncretisticideal,
barely visible The largest and most ambitious Candella perhaps not ualike that of the Lak;mana temple
os are placed templeat Khajurahois the Kha4{ariya Mahadeva with its main structure and four subsidiary
r porch ofthe (Fig.2o.33).It may havebeenerectedby Vidya- buildings. although in this case.it is not so
,Pd, nwl!44p4, dhara, who ruled from around rorT to roz9, readily idenrified. That the Saivite aspecr is
e shdne and and was, according to the Muslim cbronicler, emphasized would be indicated by the fact that
rqhole as the Ibn ul-Atlur. the most oowerfirl hrdic ruler of the Khaqrdariya Mahadeva temple is the largest
rple. (In this his time.16Stylistic analysissupports a date of and most imposing ofthe three.
cated by the the first quarter of the eleventhcentury for the The emphasis on height and verticality sug.
r and Durga creationof the structure,which may thus repre- gested by the steep plinth, staircases, and tall
poses of the sent one of the last major achievementsof the likharus seen in the temples of Khajuraho is
: fFigs.20.3o, Candellas.For after Vidyadhara,whose rule nowhere more perfect\ portrayed than in the
f movement was threatenedby other Rajput clansaswell as Khapdariya Mahadeva temple, whose jlAhara
; rhe rigidity theMuslims,especially Mahmodof Ghazni,with rises over thirty meters above the level of the
IATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS
E
I
tr l
tfr'
I
rrl
rtl
I
flE
l I
20.34.Plan of Khandariya Mahedevarcmplc. Khajuraho, Madhya
Pradesh,India. Candella pcriod, probably reign of Vidy.dhara.
Ca. firs! quarter eleventhccDtury.
THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS 479
jagati. lts profile epitomizes the symbol of the
temple as mountain. lts plan. in comparisonto
that of the Lakgma4a temple, shows a greater
senseof mass,and in relationship to the overall
size, less spacein the interior, with the thicker
walls providing a greater equalization between
mass and void (Fig. zo.3a). Like the Lak5ma4a,
the Khandariya Mahadeva is cruciform in plan,
the porches of the mahamar,t(apa and shrine areas
creating a double transePt effect,
Over six hundred sculptureson the exterior
and rwo hundred on the interior adorn the
structure, and, indeed, the carved pantheon that
inhabits the walls of the monument represents
the culmination of a trend in Hindu temPle art
tbat is traceablefrom the Gupta period. Sculpture
now dominates the architectural form, so that
even though the carvings are strictly relegatedto
precise locations on the monument, the effect of
ihe sculpture is more overwhelming than that
of the architectural forms themselves.Posed in
accentuated postures, twisting and turning in
2o.3j. Sculptues or exterior of Khaqderiya Mehadeva space, these {igures (Fig. 2o.3J) embody the
tenple. Khajureho, Madhya Pradesh,India- Candella
period, probably reign of Vidyadhara. Ca. first quarter
movement and dynamism merely hinted at in
elevelth centarY. the repose and introspection of Gupta-period
carvings. The hardening of facial features,
elaboration of detailing of jewelry and head-
dresses,and deeper carving than was visible in
Gurjara-Pratihara monuments here reachesits
final form. As in the caseof many other temples
at Khajuraho, amorous couPles and sexually
explicit figures adorn the structure (Fig. 20.36).
Many of the {igures, which are in generalelon-
gated and stylized,are said to representra1,i&as,
Gmale oersonilicationsof the notion of human
love. Voluptuous women, however, had been
parr of the decoration of religious structures
for centuries, and it is unclear which represent
nayikas and which embody other symbolic
meanings. Often, drey are shown in very
dynamic posesand seem to be actually rnoving,
sincetheir bodies are arranged as if in a cubistic
sequenceof time and space.The sharply carved
features of the faces and the heavy shadows
caused by the deeply carved forms emphasize
the dynamism the viewer perceives while
20.36. Sculpture of anorous couple, on cxtcrior of viewing the temple. Created at a time ofintense,
Kha4dariya Mahadeva temple. Khajuraho, Madhya
ambitious building activity throughout the
Pradesh, India. Candella period, probably reign of
Vidyadhara. Ca. Iirst quarter cleverlthcentury. Indic regions, the Kha4{ariya Mahadeva temple
4EO TATIR NORTHERNSCHOOLS
is approxiruately contclnporary to othcr major
rronuments such as thc Rejlrajc6vara templc at
Tanjore (Figs. 2r.21 26l,Pl. 33), the Lingarnja
templc at Bhubaneivrra(Figs.r9.23-2J),and tl.Lc
Sul tcn.rpleat Modhera (Figs.2o.44 48). Likc
r l r c r r . i r r c p r e . e r r r sh c c ] i n r . , xo f ; n i n r p o n . r n r
regional variant of Hinclu architecturc.
While Kh.rjuraho is indeed tl.rcshow place of
Candella art, thc hill lortresscsconttolled by thc
Candcilashavc also yiclded significant rematns,
At Mahoba, important evidenceof thc late sur-
vival of Budclhisr.nin the region is found in se-
vcral stray images.That thcrc r,vasno lossin vital-
ity fion thc art tradition is seen in a scuipturc
of SirhhanedaAvalokiteivara that is gcnerally
dated on drc basis of thc paleography of its
donative inscription to tlrc elcvcnth or twelfth
century (Fig. 2o.37). Thc rc),txed rajalila (royi-
easc)pose and gentlc countenanceof the figure
suggest ties to carlicr Budclhist traditions, al-
tirougl.r thc claboration of cletail in the lotus
pedestal, lion, and back-slab inclicatc its late
drte.
Candella art, onc of the best known of thc
Rajput idioms, rypifies many of the northern
Indic developmcnts during this pcriod. Thc art
20.j7. SirilhanedaAvalokite(vara.From Mahoba, Uttar is markccl by an incrcasing colnplexity of form
Pradcsh,Indie. Candellapcriod. Ca. clcvcnth or rwelfth and iconography as wcll as an ambitiousnessof
century.Bcigc sndslore. H:8r.4 cnr. StatcMuselnn, schcruethat representsthc colmination of trends
Lucknow. t ] r , Lltr . , db e e nd c v c l " p i n gl o r c c n t r r r i e . .
Tl.re Paranfras of Mtlwa srrpposecllyoriginated Oftcn called the Udaye(vara temple aftcr its
in the rcgion arotlnd Mourrt Abu in Rrjasthan. founcler, Udayaditya Paramtra, for whora the
For a while, tirey werc vassalsof the R-strakutas town is also named, inscriptional cvidencc in-
of the Dcccan, but cveutr-rallythey frced thcm- clicatcsthat this Saivite templc was begun in
selvesfrom Rastrakaitrcontrol and cxme to rulc Vikran-ras,rnt,afrrr6, equivalcntto A.D. roJ9,
much of thc westen Part ofnorth-central India. ancl that tl-re flagsta$ rvas crected in Vikrama
A number of templcs of the Paraurdra period sothratr137,or a.o. ro8o.1? Thus,the tenPlc was
are found throughout this rcgion, cxtcncling corlstructcd over :r period of solnc twcnty-one
into Rajasthanand thc northern Deccan. While years. Thc stmcture is oriented to thc cast and
ccrtain local or rcgional chxractcrrstlcs are is containcd rvithin a rectangular courtyard en-
evident in monun-rcntsthroughotlt thc Par.nlara closcclby a lorv u,all, the outer facc of u'hicl.ris
lands, a number of fcatures uray be consiclered carvcd. A line of stone seatsoncc ratr llong the
typical of this dynasty's art, nany of whicl.r arc inncr face of tl,c wall, each of rvhich had a back
prescnt in the wcll-preservcd telDplc of Nila- rest. The n1:rir temple is prccededby a dctached
kanthaat Udaypur (Udayapura)(Fig. 2o.38). squarehall (posibly originaily a dancc pavilion
THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCLANS 487
..:hcr nujor
--.-,..-l-^.
--1-18). Like
:- inportant
::.
- , ^ 1 " - ^^ r
. . 1 , - Jh . r t . .
:.ri remains.
:le late sur-
:::rnd in se-
,..ssin vital-
:. gcnerally
-::ht of its
: ,.r twelfth
j.:14 (royar-
i:itions, al-
: rhe lotus
::: its late
:-.il of the
:a northern
::. The art
::.. of form
20.38. Nilakantha (tldayeivara) templc from
:-iusnessof south. Udaypurr Madhya Pradesh, lndia.
' of trends Paranfra pcriod, reign of Udayadirya
Paramdra.Vikranaera rrr6-37 (A.D.rojg-8o).
:-.'aftcr its
-.-.':rom the ,:.
ar, ,J
. i:ence in- it
(c
I legun ln
i.D. roJ9,
: \ lKlana
-,.-.,-l-,-,^-
:-!:i1t,v-onc
a-_)
1:'CJSIaDd
:::r'rrd en-
frl
r: -lr'hichis
zo.j9. Plan of Nilaka4lha (Udayelvara)
tenple. Udaypur, Madhya Pradcsh,
,.: a back India. Paraneraperiod, reign of Udaya-
.. -::cached dityr Paramara. Vikrama era rr16-
., :':r'ilion j7 (A.D.roJg-8o).
462 TATtrRNORTHERNSCHOOLS
rtJ l t.)
i'1;;*
or Nandi shrine) and was once surroundcd by containcd rvithin thc gcneral contour of the
eight separatesnaller shrines,only six of which ilklara itscll Also, at thc basc of cach of thc
rcmain. Characteristic of t]re Paranera stylc, spincs is a prolninant sculpturcd medallion
the ter:rple proper consistsof a urain hall having vu'itlrina larsc candraialtiar.d sculpturcsbeneath
three entrance porches projecting out lrom it, it. Thc sanctunr,althoughsquarcon the interior,
each of which r.nay be cntcrcd, and the shrine is stellateanclcirculxron the exterior.
areaitself (Fig. 2o.39). Unlikc many othcr variants of dre Rajput
The tnary!apa rs crowned by a pyramidal, tiered stylc, this Paramaranlonunlent doesnot have an
roof wl.rile the shrine is toppcd by a likhara o{ a encloseclambulatory surrounding the sanctLlm.
variant form of thc northern stylc, having a The intcrior of the tenple is claborately carvcd,
taperedshape.Typical of Paramaranonunents, renriniscentof thc Khajurahotcmples,aspillars,
thc likhara bears four spines dccorated with rvaiis, and ccilings did not cscapcthc scr.rlptor's
candraialas,c.catilg an almost tcxturcd surface, tool. Thc sculpturalstyle, as seenin a scricso[
and a distinctive grouping of minietttrc likluras lenralc figurcs atlorning rhe ternple, rccalls thc
in the interspaccsof thc spincs,all of wlrich are figurcs rt Khajuraho.although thcy appearlcss
THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCLANS 48J
angular and are not so umaturally posed (Fig.
zo.4o).
The Paramera sculptural style, while having
regionalvariations,may also bc seenin a repre-
sentation of Sarasvati dated in the Vikrama
year ro9r, equivalent to e.o. ro34 (Fig. zo.4i).le
Strong ties to western Indian styles, especially
Gujarati modes of the Gurjara-Pratiharaand later
periods, are visible in this example, which was
executedduring the reign of King Bhoja, a king
of the Paramara line. These include the slender,
tubular legs, the accentuatedpose, the sbarply
defined facial features with the straight nose,
curved lips, and fattened eyes, as well as the
particular form of the drapery, jewelry, and
hairstyle.
T H E S o L A i r K r so F G u J A R A T( c A .9 J ot o r 3 o 4 [ 9 6 t - n a 4 ? ] )
Another Rajput clan to surface at the time of tion. Many of their structures wcre dismantled
the weakening of the Gurjara-Pratiheraswas the by Muslims and Hindus for reuse in other
Solanki line, sonetimes called the Calukyas of buildings. Others have collapseddue to internal
Gujarat, who came to power in the last ha]f of weaknessesor techdcal imperfections in the
the tenth century. In their own inscriptions, this buildings thcmselves.Furthernore, many of the
family referred to themselrresas Calukyas, but tenples of Gujaret were made of whitc rnarble,
nrour of the in order to avoid confusion between this fardly w h i c h c o u l d b c c a l c i n e di n r o l i r n c .a c c o u n r i n g
: each of the and the Early Western Calukyas of Badaml the for the probablc fatc of son.reofthe most luxuri-
:'l medallion Calukyas of Kalyani, and the Eastern Calukyas ant stmcturesofancicnt India.
tures beneath of Vengi, the name Solanki will be uscd here. StrLrcttrcs br.rilt under the Solankiscontinued
1 the interior, Abundant factual material is available for the trcnds that had been developing for several
t, study of the Solankisdue to numerousinscrip- centuries throughout much of South Asia,
I rhe Rajput tions and precise accountsabout them given in including incrcased sculptural decoration of
s not have an Jain chronicles. Thus, there is ample evidence tenlples, grcatcr sizc and cornplexity in plan and
the sanctum. of Solanki patronage of religious establishments, fornr of thc telnples.taller ji raras,growing
:arely carved, construction of temples, and building of tlieir stylization of figtres including attenuation and
ies. as pillars, capital cities. And yet, the regions of western a[gularity of forms, more variety in figural
rLe sculptor's India that they ruled, especiallyGujarat, once ex- pose, and, of course, thc ever more complicated
in a sericsof traordinarily wealt\ duc to the mrncrous ports iconographic schemcsthat wcrc in large part the
e. rccalls the and vigorous foreign tradc, have suffered from basis for tl.rc other developments. Specifically,
. appear lcss the damageof wars and various kinds ofdestruc- however, the temples reflect certain local and
E-- m
464 LA'tEIl. NORTHERN SCHOOLS
regrmrl ,
20.42. Elevation drawing of Nilakagha
Mahadeva temple. Sanak, Gujarat, India' segen I
Solaiki period. Ca. late tenth century' al€ .sr-
.r^<sii.i i
Gu-iad4l
l-oc-
a:s-lJo
hrlrp"+
E a grEl
Se eadr I
de \ili
a rdl-g
ro dm
2o-+j).)
&te rq
J.o.d .So
erigoor
Horesq
creared ir
iarer SoL
:qle are r
tDdtlE- R
r-. hsi*
U*.nS rer
gc.rnrur
L:rirr I
=:aclo5.
r..--..;4s
=ilE):
o-T.T
a\E oi
rfie -.rr
ecea :et
,,o:-_i::.r
--,-(aa'!5 r
J : par:
--!E=?.sL=-
G:i."L
:"--::s .-
3a=FC. ci
+ s.-L
;-.;a-* i
=<iN-
i:::r:e ia
:L_r5'rc
:rr,ectior
==: c: '
20.43.Plan of Nilakaqlha MahadevetemPle. Snnak, Gujarat,India
:ai-:;i
Solaiki period. Ca. late tenth cenlury.
rHx ART OF TI{r RaJPUTCLANS 4gJ
regional developments characteristic of north- temple elementsfound in later Solanki works.
westem India. Therefore, although the temples Not far from Patan was rhe once-flourishing
are essentiallyof the nagarcsryle, they may be city of Modhera where a temple, dedicated to
classi{iedby the subrype Leti (i.e., from Lata, or Surya, the sun god, is representative of the
Gujarat).1e eleventh-century Solafrki style, although on a
Located in the SarasvatiValley within about grander scalethan is typical (Figs. 2o.44,2o.45)-
a z5-kilometer radius of Papan (ancient Ar.ra- An inscription in the back wall of the shrine
bilapataka), the ancient home of the Solairlis, dated in the Vikrama era to83, equivalent to
is a group of small temples,believed to represent A.D. 1026,indicates tlrat the temple was already
the early phaseofthe Solanki style. One oithese, dedicatedby that date. On this basis,the tenple
the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple at Sunak, is is thought to have been built during the reign
a well-preserved specimen and rnay be used of Bhima I (rozz-63). The temple complex con-
to demonstrate the early sryle (Figs. 20.42, sisting of several units is positioned facing due
20.43). No epigraphic information confirns a east so that at the equinoxes, the sun shines
dare for this temple, although an inscription directly into the shrine. On the east is a large
dated equivalent to A.D. rogr seemsto refer to its kx7/a, or reservoir, with flights of stairsleading
existence and thus provides a terminus date.20 down to it, that occupiesa dominant placein thi
However, judging from its style, it was probably overall scheme (Figs. 2o.44, 2o.45). Numerous
created in the late tenth century. Relative to small shrinesare placed at intervals on the steps
later Solaril<itemples, its sirnplicity and small leading down to the tank. Although many
scaleare notable; yet compared to earlier monu- Hindu temples have tanks excavarcdin associa-
ments, such as those of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, tion with them, this ranks among the grandest
the lavishly carved interior and exterior decora- in all of South Asia. A decoratedtora4aIocated
tions reveal ties with other works of this ap- at the western end of the &a4la serves as a
proximate date such as the lakgrnana temple at transition between the tank and the temple
Khajurdho, although its scale is much lcss proper (Fig. 20.46, right).
grandiose. The temple consists of a porch, a Thc temple consistsof three elements, each
ma4dapa,and a sfuine (which does not have an of which has a name distinctivc of the archi-
enclosed circumambulatory passage).Like its tectural lomenclaturc used for this regiou of
counterpartsin severalother northem styles,the ancient India: the porch (sabha na4dapa, or
roofs of the porch and nanlapa re pyramidal raiga mandapa),which is an open, cruciform
while the jillara is of r,hecirrsicredu"ri.ry. An pillared hall placed along the axis of the rcst
open feeling is provided in the porch and of tlrc templc but is separatefiom it (Fig.2c..46)l
mandapaby the arrangenent of pillars at the the assembly hall (gadha uadap.ii and finally
cornersrarher th-rn the ccnrer.crcaringa sense the shrine(gafihagyia) itself with its surroturding
of a pavilion rather than enclosed roorn. This circunrambtrlatory passagc.Thc sabhatnndapa
contrasts,for example,with dre effect at a typical has four entrances,cach having an ornamcntal
Candella temple at Khajuraho. EiEht of the cuspedarchway, somc ofwhich spring from the
piJlars of rhe mandapadirecrly srrpporr rhc opcn nouths of nakaras. An almost stcllate
'l
domed ceiling above. he dome, distintive of shapeis suggestedby the plan of the hall due to
the Solafrki sryle, rests on an octagon and the numerous recesscsof the walls. Inside, the
ascendsin concentric circles using the corbel cxquisirccrrving of rhepillars.cu'pcd archwrys.
method. While the interior of ihe shrine is and ceiling givc a feeling ofaidness and lightness
square in plan, the exterior seemsto be almost not sccn so cxtensively in the temples of other
rounded in form bccause of the nun.rber of regional stylcs (Fig. zo.a7). Possibly, the long-
projections. Thc vitality visible in the plan of standing woodcarving traditioll of Gujarat, still
the temple. both in rhe nandapain irs arrrnge- famous today, was a model for the hvish sculp-
ment of pillars and the shapeof the shrine, is a tured work found in typical Solairki monu-
prelude to the nagnificent shapesof various ments that distinguishcs them fiom those of
486 IATER NoRTHERN scHoors
oa aa
aa aa
sso,,2qa
5 t0 15 30 45 60
Mr'
)=
i .:-::: nat1/apa other schools of Indic architecture. Hardly a rebuilt during the eleventh century by Bhima I
t.:,:::. Gujartt, surfaceis left uncarved as figures, foliate motifs, and then again by Kumarapala in the twelfth
E: : Dedicated and architectural devicesabound (Fig. zo.a8). century. Supposedly, Bhima II also added a
-. irE3 (A.D. The assemblyhall and shrine form an integral maqlapato the temple. Literary and archaeologi-
unit. Measuring just over three meters square cal evidence suggeststhat when complete the
inside, the shrine is small, especially in com- complex consisted of the main temple, a tora4a,
parison to the overall grand scaleof the temple a kitchen, and a theaterhall and was surrounded
scheme. ln contrast to the rest of the temple, by a number ofother nearby temples.The main
which is lavishly carved, the interior walls of object ofworship, a llrg,z,was partially destroyed
the shrine are olain. A basement cell beneath by Mahmud of Ghazni (perhapsin an attempr
the main shrine may have been used for storage to find the treasure buried beneath it) and was
of treasure, a practice cornmon in the temples removed to his capital at Ghazni where it was
of western India. It may be suggested,in fact, set up at the entranceto a mosoueso that Muslim
that the Muslim destruction of Hindu temples devolees could tranple upon- it as a reminder
was not always for iconoclastic purpor.r. Por- of rhe idol worship they abhorred. Ahhough
sibly, and very probably, raiders were seeking the much destroyed temple is difl-rcult to study
the treasureso often housed in the temple. Not except as a pastiche of various periods and
only would the treasurebe desirablefor its own styles, the plan (Fig. 2o.49), which is itself the
value, but its loss could help to undermine the product of several building periods, reveals a
economicbasisof a ruling dynasty.
Considerable damage has been sustained by
the temple, including the loss of the roof over
the sabhamapfupa, damage to the entranceway
of the shrine, and the loss of the superstructure
over the shrine area, Yet, its grandeur is still
visible. The exterior surfaces of the temple,
strictly divided horizontally into basement,wall,
and superstructure,with the numerous elabora-
tions to the plan that provide almost rounded
contours to the exterior of the buildings, speak
of the increasing elaboration of Solairki archi-
recture,
Although very damaged, the Somanatha
temple at Palan cannot be eliminated from a
study of Solairki architecture (Fig. 2o.49). Not
less than three temples, each built on the ruins
of the former, occupy the site and testify that
after each destruction(the most famous of which
was by Mahmud of Ghazni in roz5), the sacred
temple was restoredand rebuilt; thus, its history
is a virtual recapitulation of the history of tbis
period and the religious and political problems
that plagued western krdia during this time.
Eventually, the temple was converted into a
mosque. Although it has a legendary origin
as a sacred pilgrimage site, t}te temple as we
know it (dedicated to a form of Siva known
as "Moon Lord" or Soma Natha) was built 2o.49,Plan ofSomanatha temple. Palan, Gujarar,India.
in the first half of the tenth centurv. but was First half of tenth century, with severallaier rebuildings.
490 LATERNORTHERNSCHOOLS
:}*1
|'.",...
'l '.-
TI
t
forn that n.ray be seen as a logical outgrowth visited thc site, it has been especialiysacredto
of that of thc Nilakantha Mahadeva ternple at the Jains as a titha, ot place of pilgrirnage. Its
Sunak. Especially inPortant is the elaboration sacredcharacteris further suggestedby the fact
of the exterior wall of the tcmple and the in- that thc so-calledAgni-lel1,r(frre-pit clan)Rajputs
crcasednumber of pillars cncircling the central claim to have originated there.
space of thc mandapa strpportitte thc ceiling As a ternple city, it ranks among the finest
above and forming a dynan.ric pattern within onesof the Jains.Built over a period of tinc, it
the hali itsell was added to. rcfurbished, and elaboratedupon,
Among the n-rostnotablc monuments of the rcfecting the sustained patronage of wcalthy
Solanki period are the Jain temples on Mount Jains whose rcligion dictated that they acquire
Abrr in ie;asthan (Fig. zo.5o). Although Abu, thcir mcansthrough peaceableocctlpations,such
named aftcr the sacrcd mountain in the Sirohi as banking and tracling, rather than through the
district, had bccn famous for centuries,it carlc spoils of war. The irrportant ports of western
into special prominence under the Paramala India, at which cloth (particularly Gujarati
suzcrains of the Solankis. Inscriptional and cotton), ivory, and other items wcre traded with
archacologicalcvidence testifiesthat it was holy thc Arab and European worlds, enabled this
both to S"i-ritesand Jains from an early period, region to become pcrhaps the wealthiest in all
but since Mahavira himself is supposcdto have of India during this pcriod. As a conscquence,
THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS
I 1.0
t0
almost no expense was spared in the production not surprisingthat during the reign of Bhrma I
of images and shrines for the religion. The his minister, Vmala, built a masnificenr tem-
white marble temples, generally stark and plain ple at Dilwara (Delvada, Ciry oi Temples) on
on the exterior but intricately carved inside, Abu, anddedicated it to Adinatha(\.;abhanatha),
demonstrate that the Indic artists and their the first Jain tirthaibara(Fig.zo.5ra).(A second
patrons had not lost their zeal for sculpture in temple at Mount Abu is also dedicatedto
spite of the fact that their energies were now Adinatha pig. zo.5rcl.) Supposedly,Vimala
diverted fiom primarily rock-cut monuments built the templeout of his desireto atonefor
to stluctural temples. the sins of kllling (hirnsa),wbich he had com-
Apparently, Jains played an important role in mitted in carrying out the dutiesof statecraft.
:': in all Solanki society, even from the time of the Jain legend recordsthat Vimala, who had no
founder of the dynasty, Miilaraja. Thus, it is male heirs, propitiated the goddessAmbila,
492 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS
2o.j3. Interior, xdlid-chok|, Vi,mal^'s temple. Mount 2c.54. Tt/thaihau in shrine on florth side of cloister,
Abu, Rajasthtn, Irdia. Solanki period. Ca. late eleventh Vimala's temple.Mount Abu, Rajasthan,India. Solaiki
oeriod. Ca. twelfch centurv. White marble.
ceiling, may belong to the mid-twelfth century, as the one illustrated (Fig. 2o.54), epitomize the
when repairs were carried out at the temple (Fig. fully developedJain sculpture style of western
2o.j2). Almost every section of the ceiling and India in which the forms of the body are ab-
:::gular in wall surfacesas well as the pillars is carved into stracted to almost pure geometric equivalents.
: :\is with intricate pattems. The sabharua4lapa and the next The torso, for example, takes the shape of a
mot.t/apa,the rava-chokr(nine-compartmenthall; triangle; the arms and legs are taperedcylinders;
:g a row Fig. 2o.53), arc distinguished from the main and the head is a slightly squared sphere. The
.:.-Csouth body of the temple by their open form, as they surfacesof the body arc smooth. serving as r
E::rry-rwo are unwalled. These two pillared halls precedea physicalsyrnbol of the spiritual perfection ofthe
!5t-,:=rionsof tlird na4lapa that does not have pillars, but tifihaikff a-'fhe style of subsidiaryfi guresadorn-
E-::'rent' ln that is uni{ied with the sbrine area. This unit ing rhe remple reflecrsthat of the major icons,
r.::d by a comprises the central core, which is virtually although unlike the shrineimages,othersmaking
e.: e styles, ubiquitous in Hindu temple architecture after up the elaboratedecorativeschemeofthe temPle
E:- almosta the Cupta period. though sometimesits sim- are generally very animated in their poses. A
E:::nt effect oliciw seemsobscured becauseof the addition representationof a female musician on a pillar
lr : -.- cloister of piil"r"d halls and other architectural units. capital in the sabhana1lapa twists in space so
[: laructules The original image of the shrine has been re- that her body seemsto revolve around a spiral
placed by a later sculpture. However, the ap- axis fiom her grounded foot to her turned head
n: : tanlapa, pearanceof this figure may be inferred from the (Fig. 2o.55).Her limbs are rodlike cylinders, and
tl: :.---and the reDresentationsof I i haikarasin the srnallshrines the parts of her body are juxtaposed in an an-
Ec=-: domed inlhe cloister ofthe temple. These figures, such gular, geometric fashion.
+94 LATrR NORTHERNSCHoOIS
-:--d l[na
:: sI 0f this
.---hdy les
:::! struc-
:.:=e scale
::r:-Vimala
--- c-^l-.
:c build
--:: Solariki
:-ra ruler
: : remple,
:.: ie than
: lavishly
::plicate
--:'' \"6.
_-1e wesl
- :esuuc-
.: s tem-
:nest of
--: tnlel1or
--rch the
: ius led
tures of Tejpdla and his wife Anupamadevi at thought, that is, the absorption of the individual
the temple (Fig. zo.5S). Hardly based on the into the entire pattem of the cosmos.In spite of
actual physical appearanceof the individuals, the fact that the extraordinary opulence of
the stylized facial Gatures,with the large wide- such a monument almost seemsto contradict
open, almond shaped eyes, painted to become the world-negating asceticismof the Jain reli-
-: :irtatn a focus of attention, and the typically swaying gion, perhapsit portrays the multiplicity within
:: :eveal poses resemble the numerous other portrayals the Unity that underliesJain belief
in sculpture at the temple. Conceived as types In addition to religious architecture in the
rather than as individuals, the sculpted figures Solairki period, a number of other types of
in various elements of the temple, such as a structures survive. Notable among these are
ceiling panel fiom one of the corridors (Fig. the var (wav) step-wellsthat continued a popular
2o.J9), became part of the patternized forms tradition fiom an early period in Gujarat,
that pervade the temple, which are expres- although strong Islamic influence that may date
sions of the highest religious goal in Indic from post-Solanki times can be seen in the
tit. d'ii ara Tiif e!ji)ili iilnr'i:i -1.i/'
-lft::11.!
ro.i!. J r ( i L i \ ' , ' , i i ' , . r i a L , r . i r \ u : r rl i ! i f : r l r r
t | i - , f i r ' 1 . . \ i o - r L r |' \ l ' L r i l i , i : i l r , i , : . l i : . . S L ' l r r i i : i i . r ' r l o r i . .-.... i
. t .:
i l . L .r l r i r t c c u r l r , r i i r t r . . \ ' l r i i , ' f r i , l f . l
':1,]]
.JI'ffif;:i;#;.';:::ffilii''*il*""
i:.::."lililf
.o0
*:L:il}:il
L;:t.i' il :i,*iTi:if:
*i:';4:',*.il:*:lill
lml:ru
$;lli:#$il:l,"'r.ns''a'[es
iHil:;:i::of 'tructtrres'.alrho'rgh irs
,na a.'"a.0, "uch
T:':h:"::il':il$
n'::::{::,tl'li,ffi
the M.slimpcriod(Fis'
l:.;;; in
il'ill:
r:ru'ff
1""r,;,1*, 1 i:;
Ii*"{
:#i:t
iin-:,il
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u:i*,'
Soiankiperiod end rePresentatiols
.^ ^.'.', Val rrl Gulrrar' lndra
"-wcll 6sn1u.rrrdr'1'rer' structure.
i:J i;:: "4;:';"''n;' 1';"'"''11'
THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS 4gg
THE GAHApvILAS or V.[RlNASi (ca. ro75 ro rzoo)
As the sculpture styles of the Rejputs grew tions e painting schoolin rhe west,comParable
increasinglyitifl stylized, and rePetitive, Paint- ro that oF the east. s,rpposedly founded by an
ing see-s io h",r. g.o*o freer, more charming, artist named Srigadhari,zs who lived around the
.rr"d -or" innovative' As in the east during the time of the Maitraka ascendancy. However,
Pirla period, manuscriptsprovide the main oaintinq remains fiom earlier than the eleventh
.our.. of ou, knowledge about painting styles i"r,ru.ri in western India have not been found,
,tumerous exampleson palm leaf from
in the west, although it may be assumedthat "lthough
wall paintingswere also produced Taranarha, the t*ilfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries
the seventeenth-century Tibetan historian, men- indicaterhat many workshopsand stylesexisted
THE ART oF THE RAJPUT cLANs 5,,
for the writing and illustration of religious elaborately garbed in bright clothes, appear at
texts. After around r4oo, paper, largely intro- the right. Yet, in spite of the fact that they are
duced by the Muslims, became increasingly arranged in distinct painted areasseparatedby
popular as a support, although palm leaf manu- a considerablespan oftext in between, the art-
scripts continued to be produced. Virtually all ists have bridged this gap with the arangement
of the earlv manuscriots of westem India that of the two groups of figures facing each other
have survived belong to the Svetambara Jain and with poses and gesturesthat indicate a psy-
religion, probably commissioned by lay wor- chological and conversational relationship be-
shipers in order to gain religious merit. The rween them. Clearly, the lay women are having
study of these paintings forms a crucial link in an audience with the two nuns, whose hands
understanding the relationship between the art depict the gesture of discowse (vitarka mudra),
of ancient hrdia orior to Muslim control and the while the lay women have their hands together
culture of the Islarnic period. Therefore, al- in the devotional afijali wudra.
though they are most often discussed in the Color, which has always been extremely
context of Islamic-period art of ancient India, important in religious iconography of South
they are relevant here. Possibly, as iconoclastic Asia, but which has generally been lost in
pressuresof the Muslims began to afect the sculpture, is here a primary component of the
production of temple sculptureand architecture, composition and may have had symbolic value.
rnore paintings were produced instead, to be The palette is limited to a Gw unmixed colors
given as gifts to the Jain establishmentswhere as is normally the case in the Jain nanuscript
they were kept in llbraries (bhandarc).The styles, tradition, and as was seen in the Pala-Sena
clearly related to sculptural modes, eventually school. In this case, red, yellow, green, black,
made their mark on the Islamic stvles oro- and white are used. Often, although not here,
duced at the Mughal and orhe. courtr, since blue is an important element in the pictorial
many of the artists who later worked for the design and gold is used increasingly in later
Muslim rulers were trained in the Jain ateliers. centuries. The red background, a feature also
Although perhaps representative of a provin- of Pala-Senamanuscripts, rnay have served a
cial sryle, rather than a major workshop, a page symbolic purpose. ln later Rajput painting
-: as the from a mannscript containing the Kdlpesuba styles ofthe sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies,
:a Amo- and Kalakacaryakatha dated to rz78 (Vikrama it servesas a symbol ofpassion. Color is applied
1. LrarK sdtitrqt 1335) demonstratesthe early style (P1. in a fat manner, without mixing of pigments or
c: ::is date 3r). It was found in a bhandarin Patan and nay shadingofany kind, and there is little suggestion
:: iemon- be of the Solanki period. The Kalpasutrais a of pictorial depth. The forms of the figures and
:,-':rly the Jain religious text to which the story of the other clements of the composition are outlined
i:ddhism acarya Kalaka is often appended. The Kalaka in black: color is con{lnedto specificarea..
story (Kalakacatyakatha) was the product of a Probably bccausethe paintings are so small,
long tradition but was probably consolidatedby only about fivc centimeters in height, it was
the rwelfth centrry or earlier. It is known in necessaryto reduce the composition to a few
several versions and was a popular subject for important elcments.In later paintings, cspecially
Jain manuscript illumination. The horizontal those on paper, in which the format rs not
1,::lparable format of the page has been determined by the restricted by the shape of a leaf, more detail is
I i:J by an palm leaf irself. Ar rhis time. rhe wrirren rext introduced. Here, the figures convey the primary
!r irund the comprisedthe primary focu. of the manuscripr meaning while other elements, such as the
I .Jowever, producers, and the paintings are con{ined to stools upon which thc nuns sit or the canopy
| =r ileventn two small rectangleson the leaf. A hole, sur- above their heads, indicate their rant (the lay
t :t-o found, rounded by a painted red dot, held string for women sit directly on the foor and have no
ri= Ieaf from tying leavesof the manuscript together. canopy). The facial featuresare sharply defined,
a= centuries Two Jain nuns, dressedin white, are depicted with prominent nosesand almost caricaturelike
s-, .esexisted in the left illustration while two lav women. rendering. Thc farther eye, as is typical in this
502 SCHOOTS
LATERNORTHERN
garbed irr an Inner Asian costunc comPlctc
ohaseof paintinq,is shown r, if derachedfrom
ih. f^.. i,""Ll ln cmpha'is uhich mry have i"i,h boou. Both compositions show a major
dcrived fronr the protninenceoften given to {isure at the left, and an oppcsing figure or
the evesin lain sculptttrc.(Many J'rin sculptures filur". on rlre righr' ln the Kal'ka )cene' the
,'io s*.11", Salrri balancethe larger figute of
of this p.t;od and enrtierlravc large eyes inlai'l
Kalaka; in thc Balamitra conposition, the wife
with precious stones, or palnted 1n a lnauncr
thrr insurcs grear e,nphrri, on rlretn lfig' servcsasthe solc counterbalanceto thc imposing
f i s u r e o f t l r e k i n q l h e l a c c s l.o o k i n g t o r n a r d s
2o.54].) Tl.rc tiiangular-shaped torsos of the lay
-o-.n sltow affrnities to the geomctrical Jain th"ecentcr. oI rhe comp,rsitiorr' from rhc lcFt
a n d t l r e r i g h r . c r c a t eJ s e n q e o f d y n r r n i ci n t c r -
sculpturc stYies.
action betwccn the figures and focal points in
Two illustrations in a mamrscrlpt on PaPer
the composition to which the eye of thc viewcr
from thc late fourteenth or early fifteenth cen- at the
return again and again while
tury suggestlater dcvelopments of thc painting .looking
on a lnuch
painting.'Tbc two Sehis are dcpicted
,r"diUoir-(pl. 32). Also a manuscript of the their lesscr
irn"ll"ri.al" than Kalaka, indicating
Kalnasutra lrrd Kalakacaryakatha' the selcctions wife is
rank in this contcxt, and Balamitra's
illustrated show Kalaka being visitcd by a Sehi
accorded Ies. rlr.rn I'alI oI rhc cornpo'ition'
(Saka)chief and his attendant' in one case,and a
i<ing,'Bala,ritra, conversing with his wife, in thc s u g q c . t i n ql t c , . e c o n d r r y r o l e S t r c l rp i c t o r i l l
othlr. The forrnxt of the pagcs clcarly derives a""r"1."..*Li.tt irrJic.rrcthc hicrarchyof frgLrres
in the scene and structure the viewer's inter-
f r o m t h e p a l l r l c . r f r y p c :e v c l t h c r e d d o t 5r l l r
prctation of the charactersand cvents, allow the
m r r k c d t l i e s r r i n ql r o l c ' i n t J r ep a l n rl e r F r r t r t t u -
;rtists to emphasizeaspcctsof thc story, Just
scripts ate p"intJ oo tire pages,altl.rough thcy
..ru" no pi,rpota herc 'ince PaPcrllrantr5'riPrs as in the theitcr, lishting and position on the
*ere not tieJ in that mamer. The introduction strge acceotuatethe ccntral charactersand cvents
of a foreiqn type in thc case of the S-hi chicf o["tlrc dramr. t.serrtia]st)listic ferfLrrc\'rg'rin
i. d.,e to it"rr"tiv" conccrns rathe! than foreign include the black outline to dcfinc thc forms and
thc fat usc of nrainly pure prirnary colors' and
stvlistic influcnce per se, sincc the chief plays
i-po.t"ot role in the Kalaka story, which again, the red background. Additional colors'
".r .'.i.1., th" bto-"lt.,ofthe Sahi'sboots or thc light
,uopo..dly occtrrrcd litrirtgthc Srkr pcriod' ",
H o . u e u " r .i l r e p o r r r r y " l o f r l r c S a h rc l r i e fs l r ' ' w s L l . r cs n g g c 'rt m t T i n go f c o l o r ' .u h i c h n r a yb e
,lr. ,"rii, ,.f conrrit uirh Per'ian or othcr
clear cvidcncc of some contact with Islamic
p r i n t i n q' r y l e s ., . h c i ' s l r o q n t n t \ c t l p i c r ) Islamic paitrting schools.Still schcniaticancl llat'
ihre"-,ri'.,rtet laci.rl vicrv of Per'irrr p''irrrirg' .vith the conpositions containing only r fcu'
fo. ilt contrast to the Indic preference esscntialelcments,the Picturessucccedln com-
"t"n-tplc,
fn, th" profile. In addition' hc has a rudcly com- municating complicltcd lspects of a nxrrative
olexion antl is bearded, his cyes are rollcd to wit}rin a small arca.
',rne
side in a non-Indian fashion, and l-re is
CoNcLUSIoN