01 - WCDMA Principles and Radio Functionality

1
WCDMA Principles and

Radio Functionality
WCDMA Principles and Radio Functionality 2
Topics
1. Principles of Code Division Multiple Access
2. 3GPP Standardization
3. UMTS Overview
4. Multiple Access, Channelisation and Scrambling Codes
5. Rake Receiver
6. Power Control
7. Handovers
2
Principles of Code Division Multiple
Access
Multiple Access Approaches
Frequency
Division
Multiple
Access
Each User has a unique
frequency
(1 voice channel per user)
All users transmit at the
same time
AMPS, NMT, TACS
Each Transmitter has a unique
spreading code
Each Data Channel has a unique
orthogonal code
Many users share the same
frequency and time
IS-95, cdma2000, WCDMA
Code
Division
Multiple
Access
Spread
Spectrum
Multiple
Access
Multiple Transmitters
and Data Channels
Each User has a unique
time slot
Each Data Channel has a unique
position within the time slot
Several users share the
same frequency
IS-136, GSM, PDC
Time
Division
Multiple
Access
3
Channel Capacity
In 1948, Claude Shannon of Bell Laboratories
proved the following remarkable formula:
Capacity measured in bits/second
one bit = yes/no, or on/off, or 0/1
Bandwidth is in hertz
Signal power and noise power measured
in same units, e.g. watts
Shannons result is the best that can ever be achievedits the job
of engineers to design systems which approach this capacity
+ =
power noise
power signal
1 log bandwidth capacity
2
Claude Shannon (19162001)
Orthogonality and Correlation of Signals
In communication receivers,
need to quantify the degree to
which discrete waveforms or
digital symbols 'differ' from one
another.
This can be accomplished by
correlation operation
Two signals s
1
(t) and s
2
(t) are
said to be orthogonal or
in the interval t
1
to t
2
if:
( ) ( ) 0
2
1

2 1
=
dt t s t s
t
t
s (t)
1
t
0
1 2
1
Signalling
interval, T
t
0
1 2
s (t)
2
1
-1
-1
( ) ( ) dt t s t s S
t
t
xy

2
1

2 1
=
4
Correlation Values
( ) ( ) 1
1
0
2 1
+ =
dt t s t s
s (t)
1
t
0
+1
Signalling
Interval, T
t
0
s (t)
2
+1
-1
-1
0.5 1
0.5 1
( ) ( ) 1
1
0
2 1
=
dt t s t s ( ) ( ) 0
1
0
2 1
=
dt t s t s
s (t)
1
t
0
+1
Signalling
Interval, T
t
0
0.5 1
s (t)
2
+1
-1
-1
0.5 1
s (t)
1
t
0
+1
Signalling
Interval, T
t
0
s (t)
2
+1
-1
-1
0.5 1
0.5 1
Similar Signals Dissimilar Signals Orthogonal Signals
DS Spread Spectrum System
t
t
t
t
t
m(t)
m(t)p(t)
p(t)
p(t)
x(t)
Tc
Tb
u(t)
LPF
Coherent
detection
2cos t c
Correlator
p(t)
Recovered
data
signal
Data
signal
m(t)
R
c
=
1
Tc
R
b
=
1
Tb
p(t)
s(t)
Modulator Multiplier
Channel
r(t) u(t) x(t)
dt
T
b T
b
) (
1
0
v(t)
Code
generator
Carrier
cos t
c
Carrier
recovery
Code
generator
Code
sync
5
OC-N
OC-2
OC-1
RF
Modulation
RF
Demod
OC-2
Data Channel 1
Data Channel 2
Data Channel 3
Receiver1
Transmitter 1
Codes in WCDMA
SC-2
RF
Modulation
Transmitter 2
SC-M
RF
Modulation
Transmitter M
SC-1
.
.
.
.
SC-1
Scrambling Code (SC)
Used to distinguish
transmission source (Base
Station or Mobile Station)
SC are NOT orthogonal
codes
Orthogonal Code (OC)
allows multiple data streams
to be sent on the same RF
carrier
Practical Issues with Codes
UEs near to cell edge experiences higher interference due to
DL channels from neighbour cells (i
other
)
Degraded orthorgonality of own cells channels (i
own
)
When there is little multipath with a cell, there is little mutual
interference between DL channels
Antenna downtilt is used to manage interference from other cells
UE3
PN 1
PN 2
OC 1
OC 2
UE2
UE1
CPICH+CCH
6
3GPP Standardization
Why 3G and UMTS?
Evolution of circuit switched and voice centric 2G.
Needed to realize multimedia heterogeneous services for cellular
mobile communication systems.
Both packet and circuit switched data traffic.
Variable data rates.
Peak data rates around 2 Mbps.
Improvement in spectral efficiency.
Lower spectrum cost.
Higher data rates.
Lowering the cost as the result of over-all efficiency improvements.
Lowers cost of equipment and spectrum.
Improves users acceptance while increasing revenues of service
providers and equipment makers.
7
What is 3GPP?
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is a collaboration
agreement that was established in 1998.
Original scope was to prepare, approve and maintain Technical
Specifications (TSs) and Technical Reports (TRs) for a 3G mobile
system.
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) with Frequency
Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) modes.
Systems was to be based on evolved GSM core networks.
The scope was extended.
Maintenance and development of the GSM TSs and TRs.
Evolution of GSM radio access technologies.
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).
Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).
3GPP Roadmap
Release 6 (HSUPA)
Commercial in2007.
MBMS Platform
Release 5 (HSDPA)
Trials in 2004.
Commercial in 2005.
IMS Platform
Release 99 and R4
Trials in 1999.
CS Voice, 2 Mbps PS Data
Bearer independent CS
GSM GPRS EDGE UMTS HSDPA HSUPA
3GPP Responsibility
A number of options studied:
Wideband CDMA.
Wideband TDMA.
OFDMA.
ODMA.
The core supporter of the
research leading to the
selection of 3G technology
was EU.
WCDMA was selected
by ETSI in January 1998.
Release 7 (HSPA+)
HOM 64QAM
MIMO 2x2 16QAM
Release 8 (LTE)
OFDM, MINO 2x2
MIMO 2x2 16QAM
Release 8 (HSPA+)
MIMO 2x2 64QAM
2 carrier 64QAM
Release 9 (LTE)
Enhancements
Release 9 (HSPA+)
2 carrier (10MHz)
MIMO 4x4 64QAM
LTE HSPA+
8
3GPP Roadmap
Release 99 (R99)
Original UMTS system,
CS voice services with peak
data rates up to 2Mbps.
Commercial systems delivered
PS data of up to 384kbps.
Release 4 (R4)
Defined a bearer-independent
CS architecture, separating
switches into gateways and
controllers, and laying the
groundwork for IP Multimedia
Subsystem (IMS).
Release 5 (R5)
Defined High Speed Downlink
Packet Access (HSDPA), with
DL data rates up to 14Mbps.
Completed design of IMS.
Release 6 (R6)
Increased UL data rates to
>5Mbps with High Speed
Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)
Introduced support for
multimedia broadcast/multicast
services (MBMS).
Release 7 (R7)
Further enhancements to
HSDPA and HSUPA, called
HSPA+.
Higher-order modulation
(64QAM)
Multiple-Input/Multiple-Output
(MIMO) antenna systems offer
up to 21.6Mbps (with only
64QAM modulation) and
28.8Mbps (with 2x2MIMO and
16QAM modulation).
3GPP Roadmap
Release 8 (R8)
Defined the Long Term
Evolution (LTE) system,
starting the transition to 4G
technology.
Use of OFDMA as the access
method and MIMO.
HSPA+ is also enhanced in R8
to support up to 42Mbps either
using 64QAM modulation with
2x2MIMO or deploying only
64QAM with dual carriers
(10MHz = 2*5MHz)
Release 9 (R9)
Further LTE enhancements,
including support for MBMS
and definition of Home eNBs
for improved residential and in-
building coverage.
HSPA+ in R9 and beyond will
support 4x4MIMO with 64QAM
on dual carriers of 5MHz each
to provide data rates up to
84Mbps.
Release 10 (R10)
Includes definition of LTE
Advanced
Offers to support 1Gbps on DL
and up to 500Mbps on UL
using 8x8MIMO, channel
aggregation up to 100MHz,
and relay repeaters.
9
UMTS Overview
Basic UMTS Features
Based on Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) air interface.
CDMA chip rate is 3.84 MHz.
Typical channel separation is 5 MHz with 200 KHz raster.
Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) codes used to
support multi-rate and heterogeneous traffic.
Full frequency reuse.
UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) is designed
around WCDMA with a number of specific solutions.
Power control (open and close loop).
Soft and softer handover.
Transmitter and receive antenna diversity.
Admission and load control.
Uses the same core network as GSM/GPRS.
Packet and circuit switched data traffic are supported.
Open interface architecture between network elements.
10
UMTS Spectrum
Specific spectrum is allocated for UMTS.
In USA, FCC the spectrum is partitioned differently.
PCS bands are at 1.9 GHz.
Unlike in EU case, in the USA spectrum is never allocated
exclusively for a specific technology.
3G Extension Band 2500-2690 MHz still debated.
Possible arrangement:
FDD UL (14): 2500 MHz 2570 MHz, FDD DL (14): 2620 MHz 2690 MHz,
TDD (10): 2570 MHz 2620 MHz.
FDD Uplink FDD Downlink
TDD
1920 - 1980MHz 2110 - 2170 MHz
TDD
1900 - 1920MHz 2010 - 2025MHz
4 3 12 12
Relevant Spectrum Allocations
11
Frequency Bands
Operating
Band
UL Frequencies
UE transmit, Node B receive
DL frequencies
UE receive, Node B transmit
TX-RX frequency
separation
I 1920 - 1980 MHz 2110 -2170 MHz 190 MHz
II 1850 -1910 MHz 1930 -1990 MHz 80 MHz.
III 1710-1785 MHz 1805-1880 MHz 95 MHz.
IV 1710-1755 MHz 2110-2155 MHz 400 MHz
V 824 - 849MHz 869-894MHz 45 MHz
VI 830-840 MHz 875-885 MHz 45 MHz
VII 2500 - 2570 MHz 2620 - 2690 MHz 120 MHz
VIII 880 - 915 MHz 925 - 960 MHz 45 MHz
IX 1749.9 - 1784.9 MHz 1844.9 - 1879.9 MHz 95 MHz
X 1710-1770 MHz 2110-2170 MHz 400 MHz
XI 1427.9 - 1452.9 MHz 1475.9 - 1500.9 MHz 48 MHz
XII 698 - 716 MHz 728 - 746 MHz 30 MHz
XIII 777 - 787 MHz 746 - 756 MHz 31 MHz
XIV 788 - 798 MHz 758 - 768 MHz 30MHz
Channel Number
Carrier frequency is designated by the UTRA Absolute Radio
Frequency Channel Number (UARFCN).
For each operating Band, the UARFCN values are defined as
follows:
Uplink: NU = 5 * (FUL - F
UL_Offset
),
for the carrier frequency range F
UL_low
F
UL
F
UL_high
Downlink: ND = 5 * (FDL - F
DL_Offset
),
for the carrier frequency range FDL_low F
DL
F
DL_high
12
Channel Number
For each operating Band, FUL_Offset, F
UL_low
, F
UL_high
, FDL_Offset,
F
DL_low
and F
DL_high
are defined below for the general UARFCN.
Band
UPLINK (UL)
UE transmit, Node B receive
DOWNLINK (DL)
UE receive, Node B transmit
UARFCN formula
offset
F
UL_Offset
[MHz]
Carrier frequency (F
UL
)
range [MHz]
UARFCN
formula offset
F
DL_Offset
[MHz]
Carrier frequency (F
DL
)
range [MHz]
F
UL_low
F
UL_high
F
DL_low
F
DL_high
I 0 1922.4 1977.6 0 2112.4 2167.6
II 0 1852.4 1907.6 0 1932.4 1987.6
III 1525 1712.4 1782.6 1575 1807.4 1877.6
IV 1450 1712.4 1752.6 1805 2112.4 2152.6
V 0 826.4 846.6 0 871.4 891.6
VI 0 832.4 837.6 0 877.4 882.6
VII 2100 2502.4 2567.6 2175 2622.4 2687.6
VIII 340 882.4 912.6 340 927.4 957.6
IX 0 1752.4 1782.4 0 1847.4 1877.4
X 1135 1712.4 1767.6 1490 2112.4 2167.6
XI 733 1430.4 1450.4 736 1478.4 1498.4
XII -22 700.4 713.6 -37 730.4 743.6
XIII 21 779.4 784.6 -55 748.4 753.6
XIV 12 790.4 795.6 -63 760.4 765.6
Identical to
GPRS Core
Network.
Specifically
designed to
support WCDMA
wireless
interface.
Circuit switched.
Packet switched.
MS
MSC
UMTS Network Architecture
13
UMTS Network Elements Acronyms
UE User Equipment, i.e.,
mobile terminal or MS.
Node B base station, or BTS.
Cell is an area covered with a
transmission that corresponds to
a unique WCDMA scrambling
(this is typically a sector served
by a base station).
CN Core Network.
RNC Radio Network
Controller.
Uu - Interface for Node B-to-UE
Communication.
Iu - Interface for RNC-to-CN
Communication.
Iub - Interface for RNC and
Node B Communication.
Iur - Interface for RNC-to-RNC
Communication.
SGSN - Serving GPRS Support
Node.
GGSN - Gateway GPRS
Support Node.
EIR - Equipment Identity
Register.
VLR - Visitor Location Register.
HLR - Home Location Register.
AuC - Authentication Center.
MSC - Mobile Services
Switching Centre.
VLR - Visitor Location Register.
GMSC - Gateway MSC.
PSTN - Public-Switched
Telephone Network.
SIM - Subscriber Identification
Module.
Multiple Access, Channelisation and
Scrambling Codes
14
GSM900/1800 3G (WCDMA)
UMTS & GSM Network Planning
SC1
SC2
SC3 SC7
SC6
SC4
SC5
SC7
SC6
SC4
PN5
SC1
SC2
SC3
SC1
PN2
SC3 SC7
SC6
SC4
SC5
SC1
SC2
SC3 SC7
SC6
SC4
SC5
SC1
SC2
SC3 SC7
SC6
SC4
SC5
Frequency Planning
Scrambling Code Planning
Differences between WCDMA & GSM
WCDMA GSM
Carrier Spacing 5 MHz 200 kHz
Frequency Reuse
Factor
1 1 - 18
Power Control
Frequency
1500 Hz 2 Hz or lower
Quality Control Radio Resource
Management Algorithms
Network Planning
(Frequency
Planning)
Frequency Diversity 5 MHz bandwidth gives
Multipath Diversity with
Rake Receiver
Frequency Hopping
Packet Data Load-Based Packet
Scheduling
Timeslot Based
Scheduling with
GPRS
Downlink Transmit
Diversity
Supported for Improving
Downlink Capacity
Not Supported by the
standard, but can be
applied
High bit rates
Spectral
efficiency
Different quality
requirements
Efficient
packet data
15
WCDMA Technology
3.84 MHz
5 MHz
f
Direct Sequence (DS) CDMA
Time
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
WCDMA
5 MHz, 1 carrier
TDMA (GSM)
5 MHz, 25 carriers
f
Spreading is the basic operation in a WCDMA transmitter.
Each data symbol multiples, i.e., modulates a sequence of WCDMA
chips.
WCDMA Principles - Spreading
d(t)
)
c(t)
)
t
t
chip sym
chip
sym
T T
T
T
=
=
=
gain Spreading
period chip
period symbol
Scrambling Code
Generator
Chip Clock
Fc >> Fd
RF
Modulator
cos(
rf
*t)
Nulls @ N*Rc
F
rf
Filter
PN Code
Mask
Bits
Chips
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
Frequency
P
o
w
e
r

S
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

M
a
g
n
it
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
Frequency
P
o
w
e
r

S
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

M
a
g
n
it
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
x 10
7
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
Frequency
P
o
w
e
r

S
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

M
a
g
n
it
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
) (t d
) (t c
) ( ) ( ) ( t c t d t x =
16
Spectrum Example
In this example, we present spectrum of original input signal d(t) and
output x(t) after spreading.
Spreading factor is 128.
Note that input signal
spectrum is spreaded
across spectrum range
that is 128 larger than
original one.
Even though spreaded
spectrum appears to
be thinner, energy-wise
both signals are
identical.
Spreading and Processing Gain
Processing gain is defined as
where is the spreading factor
Unspread narrowband
signal Spread wideband
signal
Bit rate R
Bandwidth W
(3.84 Mchip/sec)
Frequency
P
o
w
e
r

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
W
a
t
t
s
/
H
z
)
( ) ( ) R W SF G
p
log 10 log 10 = =
SF
17
Processing Gain Examples
Spreading
sequences have
a different length
Processing gain
value depends on
the user data rate
Higher
proceesing gain
gives better
receiver
sensitivity.
dB 10 =
p
G
dB 25 =
p
G
Voice user (R = 12,2 kbit/s)
Packet data user (R = 384kbit/s)
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
P
o
w
e
r

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
W
/
H
z
)
P
o
w
e
r

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
W
/
H
z
)
R
R
Unspread
narrowband
signal
Spread wideband
signal
Bandwidth W
(3.84 Mchip/sec)
Bandwidth W
(3.84 Mchip/sec)
The symbol that is sent over a CDMA code can be retrieved with the
following despreading operation.
In other words, perform multiplication with the spreading sequence
(i.e., its conjugate), and integrate the product over the symbol
duration.
Ideal synchronization is required.
WCDMA Principles - Despreading
c*(t))
x(t))
T
sym
d(t))
c(t))
sym
T
dt
0
18
OC-N
OC-2
OC-1
RF
Modulation
RF
Demod
OC-1
Data Channel 1
Data Channel 2
Data Channel 3
Receiver 1
Transmitter 1
Multiple Access in WCDMA
SC-2
RF
Modulation
Transmitter 2
SC-M
RF
Modulation
Transmitter M
SC-1
.
.
.
.
SC-1
Scrambling Code (SC)
Used to distinguish
transmission source (Base
Station or Mobile Station)
Orthogonal Code (OC)
allows multiple data
streams to be sent on the
same RF carrier
RF
Demod
OC-2
Receiver 2
SC-1
Channelisation Codes in UMTS
Orthogonal code are used to multiplex different data streams that
are send to one or more different users.
Codes with different spreading factor can be selected such that the
orthogonality is preserved.
Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) codes used to
support multi-rate and heterogeneous traffic.
c
10
=(1)
c
20
=(1,1)
c
21
=(1,-1)
c
40
=(1,1, 1,1)
c
41
=(1,1, -1,-1)
c
42
=(1,-1, 1,-1)
c
43
=(1,-1,-1,1)
This branch must be
excluded from further
selection because the
code c
21
is selected
earlier.
The spreading factor of
the OVFS codes is 2
K
,
where K =1, , 9.
RNC allocates which
codes a base station
uses in the downlink.
No need to coordinate
code usage between
base station (because
of unique scrambling).
SF=1 SF=2 SF=4
19
DL & UL Channalisation Codes
Walsh-Hadamard codes:
Orthogonal variable spreading factor codes (OVSF codes)
SF for the DL transmission in FD mode =
SF for the UL transmission in FD mode =
Good orthogonality properties
cross correlation value for each code pair in the code set equals 0
Orthogonal codes are suited for channel separation, where
synchronisation between different channels can be guaranteed
e.g. DL channels under one cell, UL channels from a single user;
Orthogonal codes have bad auto correlation properties and thus not
suited in an asynchronous environment.
UL signals from different users are not time synchronised.
{ } 512 256, 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4,
{ } 256 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4,
Downlink
Reuse 1 - neighboring cells use
the same frequency.
To separate different cells, in the
downlink, each cell uses a unique
scrambling code.
Long scrambling Gold codes are
used with 38,400 chips (10 msec).
There is a set of 512 codes (each
to be assigned to a different cell,
which is a part of cell planning procedure).
64 subsets each with 8 scrambling codes.
A terminal determines the particular code
using the cell search procedure.
Uplink
Long scrambling Gold codes are used with 38,400 chips
(10 msec),
Short scrambling may be with 256 chips (to support MUD).
Complex Scrambling in UMTS
x(t)
)
d
1
(t))
c
1
(t))
d
N
(t))
c
N
(t))
s(t))
OVSF
codes
Scrambling
codes
20
Channelisation and Scrambling Codes
Channelisation code Scrambling Code
Usage Uplink: Separation of physical data
(DPDCH) and control channels
(DPCCH) from same terminals.
Downlink: Separation of downlink
connections to different users within
one cell
Uplink: Separation of mobile
Downlink: Separation of sectors (cells)
Length 4 256 chips (1.0 66.7 us)
Downlink also 512 chips
Different bit rates by changing the
length of the code
Uplink: (1) 10 ms =38400 chips or (2)
56.7us =256 chips
Option (2) can be used with advanced
base station receivers
Downlink: 10 ms =38400 chips
Number of
Codes
Number of codes under one
scrambling code =spreading factor
Uplink: 16.8 million
Downlink: 512
Code
Family
Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor Long 10 ms code: Gold Code
Short code: Extended S(2) code family
Spreading Yes, increases transmission
bandwidth
No, does not affect transmission
bandwidth
Inter-Code Interference
For OVSF codes to be orthogonal, they have to be received
perfectly aligned, i.e., synchronized.
In DL, codes are transmitted perfectly aligned, but due to multipath
propagation, orthogonality is violated.
In UL, transmission from multiple terminals cannot be synchronous,
which violates orthogonality between codes sent by different
terminals.
For codes that randomly interfere
between each other, and are
received with same power,
signal-to-interference-and-noise ratio
is
=
+
=
1
1
/
N
i
No SF P
P
SINR
P - received power
SF spreading factor
No - noise variance (power)
N number of codes that randomly interfere
21
RAKE Receiver
Wireless Channel
Path loss
Shadowing
Multipath propagation
Small-scale (fast) fading
Frequency selectivity
Temporal variations
3. Remote scattering
with significant delay
Large scale fading
1. Direct
2. Multiple scattering
with similar delay
22
Multipath
The same signal can arrive at a receiver multiple times via different
paths, with different time delays and signal strengths.
WCDMA systems can use these multipaths to its advantage by
adjusting the multipath phases and recombining them into one
stronger signal.
Both subscriber devices and RBSs are able to recombine
multipaths, allowing them to further reducing transmit power.
Scrambling Codes & Multipath Propagation
1
code
Scrambling
C
3 1
+ C
2
code
Scrambling
C
1 1
+ C
2 1
+ C
2
C
23
Multipath Fading
Fast (Rayleigh) Fading
Time between fades is related to
RF frequency
Geometry of multipath vectors
Vehicle speed:
Up to 4 fades/sec per kilometer/hour
time (mSec)
Composite
Received
Signal
Strength
Deep fade caused by destructive summation
of two or more multipath reflections
msec
Multipath Diversity
Each path experiences
independent small-scale fading.
Having multiple paths, there is a
greater chance to experience one or
more paths with high channel
magnitude, i.e., channel quality.
More paths
PRO: more diversity.
CON: higher interference
because each path acts as
additional interfering WCDMA
code*.
*Using equalizer instead of the RAKE
receiver may suppress the interference
while exploiting the diversity.
Path 1 strong
Path 2 weak
Path 1 weak
Path 2 strong
24
Temporal Diversity
Temporal variations provide UMTS
with one more source of diversity.
We present time variations of SNR for
different velocities (3, 60 and 120
kmph), for up to 0.1 sec.
The higher terminal velocities result in
greater time diversity, i.e., there is a
greater chance that the channel
reaches higher magnitude.
Higher velocity
PRO: more diversity.
CON: higher channel estimation
noise*.
The RAKE Receiver
WCDMA Mobile Station RAKE Receiver Architecture
Each finger tracks a single multipath reflection. Also be used to
track other base stations signal during soft handover
One finger used as a Searcher to identify other base stations
Finger #1
Finger #2
Finger #N
Searcher
Finger
Combiner
Sum of
individual
multipath
components
Power
measurement
of Neighboring
Base Stations
MRC
25
Power Control
WCDMA Reception Issues
Unequal received power levels degrade SSMA performance
Near-Far Ratio, terrain, RF obstacles,
Turn-the-Corner effects, ...
Multipath fading cancellation
Time of Arrival delay spread
26
Power Control
Benefits
Works against detrimental channel fading (large and small scale,
i.e., fast fading) maintaining the target SINR to ensure the required
QoS.
Lowers the interference that the transmission causes by preventing
the excessive transmit power levels.
Extends mobile terminal battery life.
Mechanisms
Open loop power control.
Closed loop power control.
Outer power control loop.
Applied both in the uplink and downlink.
Not all physical layer channels are power controlled.
Some common and shared channels are not power controlled
using closed loop mechanism.
Open Loop Power Control
Main idea
Using the estimate of the received signal power, the transmitter
sets its power assuming that the downlink and uplink channels are
symmetric.
Application
Used in the initial phases before the closed loop power control is
established;
Channels that are not subject to the closed loop power control use
this mechanism;
Practical problems:
In UMTS-FDD systems, uplink and downlink channels are not
identical. This causes the transmit power mismatch between true
and the assumed channel.
Usually this mechanism works well against large scale fading
(which is typically identical for the uplink and downlink).
Small scale, i.e., fast fading, cannot be mitigated using the open
loop power control.
27
Closed Loop Power Control
Main idea
The receiver measures quality of the channel.
Based on the measurements, it sends a request for higher or lower
transmit power so that the target SINR is maintained.
The feedback is just one bit, indicating whether the transmit power
should be changed.
It is sent 1500 times per second (1.5 KHz), allowing mitigation of
the fast fading.
Outer Loop
Closed loop power control needs a target SINR.
For a given communication session, the UMTS Quality-of-Service
(QoS) mechanism sets the target Block Error Rate (BLER).
For the downlink, the target BLER is sent by the RNC to the mobile
terminal.
SINR required to achieve the target BLER depends on a number of
parameters:
Multipath profile of the radio channel;
Mobile terminal speed;
Errors in the closed loop power control;
An uplink example:
If RNC detects greater Block Error Rate than targeted, it will
elevate the target SINR. The target is passed to a base station that
provides access for the particular mobile terminal.
On the contrary, if the BLER is low, the target SINR may get
lowered.
28
WCDMA Power Control
Open-Loop Power Control
Compute
Initial
Transmit
Power
Measure
received power
from BTS
Read BTS transmit
power from Broadcast
Channel
Transmit
Access Preamble
Access
Acknowledged?
Increase Transmit
Power by 1 dB
No
Yes
UE Begins
Uplink TCH
Transmission
Outer-Loop (slow) Power Control Inner-Loop (fast) Power Control
FER/BLER
Acceptable
?
Raise Rx
Power Target
Lower Rx
Power Target
No
Yes
Received
power
> target?
Increase UE
Transmit Power
by 1 dB
Decrease UE
Transmit Power
by 1 dB
No
Yes
WCDMA Power Control
Inner-loop power control
(Initial receive power target)
BS Receive Power Target
Open-loop Power Control
Access Preambles
Outer-loop power control
(Update receive power target of inner-loop)
BTS
Receive Power
time
800 updates/sec (IS-95, cdma2000)
1500 updates/sec (WCDMA)
The PRACH is power controlled by means of preamble ramping i.e. UL open loop PC
Preambles DPCH RACH
29
Closed Loop Power Control
Practical problem
Feedback rate and frequency (1.5 Kbps) can be too slow for fast
varying wireless channels.
If maximum transmit power is reached, power control fails to
increase the SINR (e.g., a UE being at the edge of a cell).
Typically, link budget needs to take account of this by adding a
Power Control Headroom margin.
Soft Handover
30
Inter-Cell Interference
In UMTS, the frequency reuse is 1 between the neighboring cells
and sectors - causes inter-cell interference both in the uplink and
downlink.
Instead of being detrimental, this effect is applied
in the soft handover procedure that is beneficial
to mobile terminals at the cell edge.
For example, in the downlink a mobile
terminal that is at the edge of a cell experiences
comparable signal strengths of the neighboring
base station downlink transmissions.
Handover Methods
Softer handover, WCDMA only (Make-before-break)
Soft handover, WCDMA only (Make-before-break)
Hard handover, all access methods (Break-before-make)
Sector A2
C2
B2
Softer
Handover
Softer
Handover
Soft Handover
with neighboring cells
(same carrier)
Hard
Handover
between
cells with
different
carriers
Hard Handover
between cells with
different carriers
Sector A
Softer
Handover
B
Sector A1
C1
B1
Softer
Handover
Softer
Handover
Softer
Handover
C
31
Handover Methods
Softer handovers, WCDMA only
Make-before-break
A new connection can be made prior to breaking the old connection
Occurs between sectors with the same carrier within each cell
Soft handover, WCDMA only
Make-before-break
Occurs between neighboring cells with same carrier
Hard handover, all access methods
Break-before-make
Mobile must disconnect (or break) its connection with old cell before
connecting to new cell
Occurs between neighboring cells with different carriers
Soft Handover Advantages
Reduction in TX power reduces interference and increases capacity.
Hard Handover
Soft Handover
32
Soft Handover Advantages
Transition from one Node B sector to another is triggered by signal
strengths of the pilots.
Since WCDMA allows soft handover to occur, UE is frequently
demodulating and combining signals from multiple Node Bs.
This allows for lower transmit power on downlink.
Furthermore, multiple Node B sectors in soft handover are
demodulating multiple signals from UE and forwarding them to the
RNC.
This allows UE to lower its transmit power as well.
Lower power on both down and uplink equate to increased system
capacity and allow for longer battery life for UEs.
WCDMA Without Soft Handover
time
Trouble zone: Prior to Hard Handover,
the MS causes excessive interference to BTS2
BTS2 Receive Power Target
UE responding to BS1
power control bits
power control bits
time
BTS1 Receive Power Target
33
WCDMA With Soft Handover
time
BS2 Receive Power Target
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
power control commands
time
BS1 Receive Power Target
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
BTS1 BTS2 Action
0 0 Reduce power
0 1 Reduce power
1 0 Reduce power
1 1 Increase power
UE responds to
from both BS1 and BS2
CDMA Soft Handover
One finger of the RAKE receiver is constantly scanning
neighboring Pilot Channels.
When a neighboring Pilot Channel reaches the w_add threshold,
the new BTS is added to the active set
When the original Base Station reaches the w_drop threshold,
originating Base Station is dropped from the active set
WCDMA Soft Handover
Monitor Neighbor BTS Pilots Add Destination BTS Drop Originating BTS
34
Soft Handover Procedure in UMTS
Assisted by mobile terminal Mobile Evaluated Handover (MEHO).
Base station that initially connects to the mobile terminal, informs it
about the base stations in the neighborhood (the neighbor list).
Mobile terminal monitors strength of downlink received signal (i.e.,
common pilot) from each base station in the neighbor list.
Upon a request or if particular trigger conditions are met, mobile
terminal informs RNC (i.e., RRC) about measurements.
If the received power exceeds certain threshold, for certain duration
of time, the RNC commands the mobile terminal to get in a
handover with the selected base station.
If resources available, the RNC will command that the base station
connects to the mobile terminal, i.e., joins its active set.
Similarly, if received power is below certain threshold, mobile
terminal initiates removal of corresponding base station from
handover.
Note that not all UMTS channels can can support soft handover.
Hysteresis and trigger time (T) are used to prevent series of short
term changes of cell associations i.e., to prevent ping-pong effect.
Hysteresis characteristic - drop window is typically slightly larger
than add window.
Handover Example
A Hysteresis-Based Algorithm
Connected to 1
Add 2 Replace 1 with 3 Drop 3
E
c
/
I
o
=

P
i
l
o
t

p
o
w
e
r

/

R
e
c
e
i
v
e
d

p
o
w
e
r

[
d
B
]
Base station 2
Base station 3
E
c3
/I
o3
- E
c1
/I
o1
> W
REPLACE
T
T
[Event 1A] [Event 1C] [Event 1B]
T
E
c2
/I
o2
- E
c3
/I
o3
> W
DROP
E
c1
/I
o1
- E
c2
/I
o2
<W
ADD
Base station 1
Assume
Active Set = 2
35
Soft Handover and Micro-Diversity
In downlink, from a number of neighboring base stations, the same
information is sent to a mobile terminal that is in a soft handover.
Each base station uses different scrambling allowing the mobile
terminal to separate the received signals.
received signals are combined in mobile terminal (e.g., using
maximum ratio combining).
In uplink, different multipaths from mobile are received by antenna
diversity and combined in Node B using maximum ratio combining.
Node B
RAKE
Receiver
MS
RAKE
Receiver
Micro Diversity Points
Maximum ratio combining is used
Summed signal
Macro Diversity in the RNC
In the uplink, the signal
from a mobile terminal
in a soft handover is
received and decoded
by a number of
neighboring base
stations.
The decoded
messages are sent to
the serving RNC that
picks a version that has
a correct CRC.
This is known as
selection combining.
Macro Diversity Point
selection combining is used
Active cell
set
Node B
Node B
Node B
D-RNC
S_RNC
Core
Network
36
Soft Handover and Macro-Diversity
PRO - There is improvement in diversity because the same
message is sent to and from multiple base stations, thus
experiencing different channels. This is known as macro-diversity.
This is particularly beneficial at the cell edge where there is a little
room left for the power control to mitigate channel fading.
CON - One mobile terminal is occupying a multiplicity of resources
because it is connected to a number of base stations.
Downlink inter-cell interference is also increased.
Cell Breathing
If number of mobile terminals or data rates are increasing in
downlink, the relative power of the primary pilot (P-CPICH) is
diminishing, i.e., its E
c
/I
0
is getting lower.
The effective cell area is getting smaller.
Lower E
c
/I
0
leads to a higher probability of mobile terminal
performing handover to the neighboring cells.
This is a form of load control mechanism in WCDMA networks.
Effective coverage is
getting smaller with the
higher cell loading.
As cell shrinks, the mobile
terminal will more likely perform a
handover to one of the neighboring cells.
37
Soft Handover and Cell Breathing Example
E
c
/
I
o
=

P
i
l
o
t

p
o
w
e
r

/

R
e
c
e
i
v
e
d

p
o
w
e
r

[
d
B
]
Base station 2
Handover condition: E
c2
/I
o2
- E
c1
/I
o1
>W
REPLACE
Base station 1
Low loading
Base station 1
High loading
Handover condition
met later
Handover
condition
met earlier
Softer Handover
This is equivalent procedure involving neighboring sectors of one
base station and mobile terminals at the boundary of the sectors.
RNC is not involved thus it is consider simpler and faster, i.e., softer
than the inter-cell soft handover.
Combining is performed in one base station, and it is Maximum
Ratio Combining (MRC), providing a slightly larger gain compared to
selection combining.
Cell with three 120
o
sectors.
In softer handover.
In soft handover.
38
Types of Handovers
Soft and softer handover;
Only intra-carrier.
Hard handover;
The old connection is terminated before a new one is created.
Inter-carrier handover;
Typically used for load control, i.e, capacity management.
It is hard handover.
Inter-mode handover between TDD and FDD modes;
Inter-mode handover between GSM and UMTS
IRAT HO Inter Radio Access Technology Handover
When UMTS coverage is extended via GSM network.
Used by a load control mechanism
(e.g., move voice traffic from UMTS to make room for data traffic).
Same as hardhandover between different RNCs.
WCDMA Soft Handover
Key points to remember about Soft Handover
SSMA used to distinguish all transmitters in a Cellular CDMA
system
Fast power control is required to sustain SSMA performance
When fast power control is used, soft handover is essential
Allows MS to operate in most conservative power control mode
Soft handover provides performance benefits
Seamless coverage at cell fringes
Handover may be less noticeable to the user
Increases apparent system capacity when system is lightly loaded
Soft handover also degrades system capacity
Uses redundant physical layer resources from adjacent or overlapping cells
39
Summary
1. Principles of Code Division Multiple Access
Code orthogonally, Scrambling and OVSF codes
2. UMTS Overview
Features, Spectrum and Network Architecture
3. Multiple Access, Channelisation and Scrambling Codes
WCDMA & GSM, Spreading & Desptreading, Processing Gain,
Channalisation Codes, Inter-Code Interference
4. Rake Receiver
Multipath Effects, Rake Receiver
5. Power Control
Open and Closed Loop Power Control
6. Handovers
Handoff Methods, Soft Handover, Micro and Macro Diversity
Soft Handover Procedure, Cell Breathing
Types of Handover

01 - WCDMA Principles and Radio Functionality

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