TRANSFER OF HI GH TECHNOLOGY TO DEVELOPI NG COUNTRI ES

J ane Dr ummond and Pavao St ef anovi c

I nt er nat i onal I nst i t ut e f or Aer ospace Sur vey and Ear t h
Sci ences
SUMMARY: Thi s paper r evi ews, on t he basi s of obj ect i ves and
const r ai nt s, t he char act er i st i c pr obl ems encount er ed when
t r ansf er r i ng t he t echnol ogy associ at ed wi t h comput er i sed
Geogr aphi c I nf or mat i on Syst ems t o devel opi ng count r i es.
1. 0 I NTRODUCTI ON.
Hi gh- t echnol ogy i s an umbr el l a t er m f or t hat br anch of advanced
t echnol ogy whi ch ut i l i zes el ect r oni cs. At I TC we ar e
par t i cul ar l y concer ned wi t h devel opi ng count r i es, and t hi s i s
r eal i sed t hr ough our educat i on, consul t ancy, and r esear ch
pr ogr ammes di r ect ed t owar ds t he r esour ce pr obl ems of such
count r i es. For what ever r eason, t hese count r i es have chosen t o
move away f r om t r adi t i onal pr act i ces; t hese t r adi t i onal
pr act i ces may r ef er t o par t i cul ar agr i cul t ur al , set t l ement , or
l abour pat t er ns. Havi ng been asked t o addr ess t he pr obl em of
hi gh- t echnol ogy t r ansf er t o devel opi ng count r i es, we can do so
onl y wi t hi n t he cont ext of i mpl ement i ng Geogr aphi c I nf or mat i on
Syst ems ( GI S' s) i n t hose count r i es whi ch have had, hi t her t o,
l i t t l e or no exper i ence of comput er t echnol ogy.
Ther e i s evi dence of l ar ge i nvest ment s havi ng been made, GI S' s
havi ng been acqui r ed, and at l east par t i al l y i nst al l ed i n many
devel opi ng count r i es, e. g. Br azi l , Col ombi a, Egypt , I ndonesi a,
I ndi a, I r an, Mal aysi a, Mexi co, Saudi Ar abi a, Senegal , Si ngapor e,
Uni t ed Ar ab Emi r at es. Ther e i s much l ess evi dence t hat t he
syst ems ar e f unct i oni ng sat i sf act or i l y and al most none t hat t hey
ar e cont r i but i ng t o nat i onal devel opment ; al t hough t hi s i s not
onl y a pr obl em i n devel opi ng count r i es. We shal l t r y t o
i dent i f y t hose char act er i st i cs of such count r i es whi ch af f ect
hi gh- t echnol ogy t r ansf er .
Wi t h t echnol ogy t r ansf er t her e ar e suppl yi ng or gani zat i ons and a
r ecei vi ng or gani zat i on. Al l par t i es ar e gui ded by di f f er ent
set s of obj ect i ves. For t he suppl i er t hese ar e: commer ci al ;
i deol ogi cal ; or , pol i t i cal ; and f or t he r ecei ver : pr oduct
r el at ed; educat i onal ; or , pol i t i cal . Thus, as i n any
t r ansact i on, pr obl ems wi l l ar i se as suppl i er and r ecei ver
at t empt t o bal ance t hei r di f f er i ng obj ect i ves.
When a r ecei ver of t echnol ogy at t empt s t o r eal i se t he
obj ect i ves, cer t ai n const r ai nt s wi l l oper at e whi ch wi l l make
t hi s t ask mor e di f f i cul t . These const r ai nt s r el at e t o: f i nance;
manpower ; envi r onment ; l ocat i on; mot i vat i on; i nst i t ut i onal
pr act i ces; and, pol i t i cs.
Some devel opi ng count r i es ar e ext r emel y poor , but , al t hough t he
t echnol ogy t r ansf er may al l evi at e t hi s pover t y, an i ni t i al and
cont i nui ng i nvest ment i s r equi r ed. Some ot her devel opi ng
count r i es may not be poor , but t hei r cul t ur es ( aspect s of whi ch
t he t r ansf er r ed t echnol ogy wi l l change) ar e not t hose of t he
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suppl yi ng count r y, nor , mor e par t i cul ar l y, of t he count r i es i n
whi ch t he t echnol ogy evol ved. Thus even t he non- f i nanci al
const r ai nt s l i st ed above may be ver y di f f i cul t t o over come.
A CI S consi st s of har dwar e, sof t war e, and manpower . Such a
syst em wi l l have par t i cul ar t echni cal speci f i cat i ons. The syst em
wi l l be i mpl ement ed i n phases over a per i od, or i n one go. The
syst em wi l l be i mpl ement ed by t he suppl i er f or t he r ecei ver , or
t hr ough t he mechani sm of consul t ant s ( act i ng f or ei t her t he
suppl i er or t he r ecei ver ) , or bot h, wi t h t he r ecei ver bei ng an
exi st i ng mappi ng or gani sat i on, gover nment or gani sat i on, or a new
speci al l y cr eat ed one wi t h a r emi t i n t he f i el d of CI S. The
t echni cal speci f i cat i ons f or t he syst em, i t s i mpl ement at i on
per i od, and t he mechani sm f or i t s i mpl ement at i on ar e al l
f unct i ons of : t he r ecei ver s' obj ect i ves; t he suppl i er s'
obj ect i ves; and, t he const r ai nt s wi t hi n t he r ecei vi ng count r y.
Thi s i s shown di agr amat i cal l y i n Fi gur e 1. I t i s t he pur pose of
t hi s paper t o addr ess t he pr obl em of hi gh t echnol ogy t r ansf er t o
devel opi ng count r i es, and Fi gur e 1 wi l l be used as a f r amewor k.
We wi l l consi der each of t he number ed ( 1- 5) di vi si ons i n t ur n,
hi ghl i ght t hose i t ems f ound i n each whi ch ar e, i n our opi ni on,
l i kel y t o gener at e pr obl ems i n devel opi ng count r i es, and pr esent
some sol ut i ons.
Fi gur e 1. THE FACTORS AFFECTI NG THE NATURE OF THE
I MPLEMENTED SYSTEM
1. RECEI VERS'
OBJ ECTI VES
" * 4 . TECHNI CAL
/ SPECI FI CATI ONS.
>s I MPLEMENTED
2. SUPPLI ERS.
OBJ ECTI VES
' GEOGRAPHI C
I NFORMATI ON
./SYSTEM
i.IMPLEMENTATION/
STRATEGY
3. CONSTRAINTS'"'
2. 0 RECEI VERS' OBJ ECTI VES.
Lack of up- t o- dat e human and physi cal envi r onment dat a i s a
pr obl em i n devel opi ng count r i es. Pr esent capabi l i t i es wi t h
r espect t o dat a col l ect i on and t hei r use ar e i nadequat e. Ther e
i s a l ack of r esour ces and t r ai ned manpower whi ch r esul t s i n a
f ai l ur e t o meet r equi r ement s and t he advocacy of comput er
assi st ed met hods, whi ch ar e t hought ( and t her ef or e r equi r ed) t o
r educe manpower needs.
Expl osi ve popul at i on gr owt h and a cor r espondi ng i ncr ease i n f ood
demand f or ce gover nment s t o i nvest i n vi t al devel opment
pr oj ect s, and t he t ool s ( i ncl udi ng pl anni ng and mappi ng t ool s)
used must t her ef or e be r el i abl e and t i mel y.
442
Cr i t i cal assessment by devel opi ng count r i es of t he envi r on
ment al and soci al i mpact of t echnol ogy i s now qui t e cust omar y,
and t he use of advanced dat a col l ect i on met hods may onl y be
advocat ed i f t hey do not cause envi r onment al and soci al
pr obl ems.
Fi nal l y advanced i nf or mat i on syst ems ar e of t en i mpl ement ed
because i t i s t hought t hat t hei r exi st ence i mpr oves nat i onal or
pol i t i cal pr est i ge.
3. 0 SUPPLI ERS' OBJ ECTI VES.
Technol ogy t r ansf er i s of t en t he j oi nt vent ur e of sever al
suppl yi ng or gani zat i ons, whi ch may i ncl ude gover nment s,
manuf act ur er s, educat i onal i nst i t ut i ons, and mappi ng
or gani zat i ons. Each of t hese may be gui ded by di f f er ent set s of
obj ect i ves.
One of t he obvi ous obj ect i ves of t echnol ogy t r ansf er i s
i mmedi at e pr of i t . I n addi t i on manuf act ur er s may be i nt er est ed
i n cr eat i ng new mar ket s. Devel opi ng count r i es r epr esent an
unexpl oi t ed mar ket f or comput er t echnol ogy. Manuf act ur er s, and
ot her or gani sat i ons such as t hose i nvol ved i n consul t ancy, ar e
eager t o l ear n about devel opi ng count r i es, and accept ear l y
l osses t o t hat end. Such ent r epr eneur i al act i vi t y may benef i t
devel opi ng count r i es i n t he f i r st i nst ance, but i f becomes
combi ned wi t h equi pment t est i ng, or l at er ext r eme pr of i t t aki ng
t hen i t becomes l ess benef i ci al .
Ther e may be an i deol ogi cal el ement i n t echnol ogy t r ansf er , and
one ai m i s t o el i mi nat e i nequal i t i es among nat i ons; t hi s may
best be achi eved by ef f i ci ent l y managi ng a devel opi ng count r y' s
r esour ces. Anot her i deol ogi cal ai m i s t o pr ovi de hel p t o t he
ver y poor est i n a nat i on, of t en wi t hi n t he cont ext of l and
r ef or m. I n bot h cases CI S may have a par t t o pl ay. Less
i deol ogi cal l y, a suppl yi ng gover nment may wi sh t o el i mi nat e t hat
pover t y i n one count r y whi ch i s seen as a t hr eat t o i t s own
secur i t y. Technol ogy t r ansf er may be per cei ved as a means t o
t hi s end. A f ur t her ai m of a suppl yi ng gover nement may be t o
cr eat e wor k f or i t s own under - ut i l i zed wor k f or ce by f undi ng
devel opment pr oj ect s r est r i ct ed t o i t s own manuf act ur es or
r equi r i ng i t s own exper t i se ( or bot h) .
4 . 0 CONSTRAI NTS.
We ar e consi der i ng seven gr oups of const r ai nt s.
4 . 1 FI NANCI AL CONSTRAI NTS.
Some devel opi ng count r i es ar e poor and l ack r esour ces, ot her s
ar e r i cher but dependent on a f ew commodi t i es. These
char act er i st i cs cr eat e economi es whi ch ar e pr one t o i nf l at i on
and wher e money f l ow i s unpr edi ct abl e. For a poor er count r y
dependent on ai d f or t echnol ogy t r ansf er a si ngl e ( l ar ge or
smal l ) gr ant may be r ecei ved f or acqui si t i on of a CI S, or
sever al ( l ar ge or smal l ) gr ant s may be r ecei ved but be
unpr edi ct abl y spaced. For a count r y pr oduci ng a val uabl e
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commodi t y a f al l i n i t s pr i ce may l enght en t he per i od over whi ch
t he f i nanci al i nvest ment ( whet her l ar ge or smal l ) can t ake
pl ace, or r esul t i n t he compl et e cessat i on of f ur t her
i nvest ment . When pl anni ng t he i nst al l at i on of a CI S syst em an
at t empt must be made t o pr edi ct t he t ype of money f l ow, and t he
t echni cal speci f i cat i ons and i mpl ement at i on st r at egy devel oped
accor di ngl y.
4 . 2 MANPOWER CONSTRAI NTS.
Ski l l s can be descr i bed as pr of essi onal , t echnol ogi cal , or
oper at i onal . I n t he past ski l l s wer e acqui r ed t hr ough on- t he- j ob
t r ai ni ng af t er a gener al secondar y or t er t i ar y educat i on, and
t hi s appr oach may cont i nue t o wor k, even i n hi gh- t echnol ogy
i ndust r i es, as comput er awar eness becomes par t of t he gener al
educat i onal package. However t hi s model does not exi st i n
devel opi ng count r i es. Comput er awar eness i s not gener al . Ther e
may be a r el at i vel y l ar ge pool of academi cal l y t r ai ned per sonnel
wi t h pr of essi onal pot ent i al , but who have had l i t t l e oppor t uni t y
t o devel op comput er ski l l s. Apar t f r om t hose wi t h an academi c
t r ai ni ng t her e may be an ext r emel y smal l pool of educat ed
per sonnel . Ther e wi l l cer t ai nl y not be a hi gh- t echnol ogy i ndust r y
wher e on- t he- j ob t r ai ni ng can be acqui r ed. Any or gani sat i on
hopi ng t o i mpl ement a comput er assi st ed mappi ng syst em i n a
devel opi ng count r y wi l l have t o gi ve f ar mor e consi der at i on t o
manpower t r ai ni ng t han i s expect ed i n devel oped count r i es, and of
cour se mor e f i nance.
On- t he- j ob t r ai ni ng has t o be r epl aced by t r ai ni ng cour ses. I f
t he acqui si t i on of a syst em has al r eady been pl anned such
cour ses have t o be ef f i ci ent , and must be di r ect ed t o t he
manpower needs of t he syst em. Pr of essi onal t r ai ni ng has al ways
been associ at ed wi t h uni ver si t y- l evel i nst i t ut i ons, and may be
under gr aduat e ( 3- 6 year s) or post gr aduat e ( 1- 4 year s) . But f or
t hi s t r ai ni ng t o be ef f i ci ent i t wi l l have t o pr epar e i t s
st udent s t o st ep i mmedi at el y i nt o deci si on maki ng posi t i ons,
whi ch can onl y happen i f st udent s have had exposur e t o a ver y
wi de r ange of syst ems or t he speci f i c syst em t hey wi l l be usi ng,
and exposur e t o a ver y wi de r ange of mappi ng pr obl ems or t he
speci f i c pr obl ems t hey wi l l be f aci ng. The ' ver y wi de r ange'
sol ut i on shoul d be sear ched f or , but may not be f ound. The
' speci f i c' sol ut i on i s f ound i n wel l desi gned st udent pr oj ect s
car r i ed out at i nst i t ut i ons wi t h t he r i ght equi pment ; such
pr oj ect s may be par t of a post - gr aduat e cour se. Post - gr aduat e
cour ses may be t he best way t o t r ai n pr of essi onal s f r om
devel opi ng count r i es, but ver y car ef ul at t ent i on must be pai d t o
sel ect i ng t he cour se. Sui t abl e candi dat es f or t hese cour ses can
be sel ect ed f r om t he pool of young academi cs i n t he devel opi ng
count r y; such peopl e need t echnol ogi cal and deci si on maki ng
capabi l i t i es and t hei r uni ver si t y t r anscr i pt s or r ef er ences
shoul d i ndi cat e t hi s. Thei r di pl omas may not .
I n devel oped count r i es t echnol ogi st l evel educat i on i s
associ at ed wi t h col l eges of t echnol ogy. Devel opi ng count r i es
may be poor l y suppl i ed wi t h such col l eges. I n devel oped
count r i es t hese col l eges ar e unl i kel y t o pr ovi de a t echnol ogi st
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f r om a devel opi ng count r y wi t h r el evant pr oj ect exper i ence.
However t he educat i on of t hese peopl e i s ext r emel y i mpor t ant as
t hey wi l l pr ovi de, f or exampl e, t he syst em manager s. They wi l l
have t o be f ami l i ar wi t h many t echni cal aspect s of t hei r syst em.
Manuf act ur er s al so pr ovi de t r ai ni ng cour ses. To be usef ul t o
f ut ur e t echnol ogi st s f r om devel opi ng count r i es such cour ses may
have t o cope wi t h a l ow educat i on l evel on ent r y. Eval uat i on and
f eed- back ar e ext r emel y i mpor t ant . Such cour ses ar e expensi ve.
I dent i f yi ng sui t abl e st af f f or t echnol ogi st post s may be
di f f i cul t , and may r equi r e speci al t est i ng pr ocedur es or ver y
r i gour ous i nt er vi ewi ng. At t he moment t her e i s l i t t l e cont act
bet ween t he convent i onal educat i on est abl i shment s and
manuf act ur er s over t he t r ai ni ng of CI S per sonnel . Consi der at i on
coul d be gi ven t o mor e cooper at i on bet ween t he educat i on
est abl i shment s and t he manuf act ur er s i n t he desi gn and
super vi si on of pr oj ect s f or per sonnel f r om devel opi ng count r i es.
I n devel oped count r i es oper at or l evel t r ai ni ng i s on t he
equi pment st af f wi l l use, and i s car r i ed out by t hei r event ual
super vi sor s, or t r ai ni ng st af f wor ki ng i n cl ose col l abor at i on
wi t h t he super vi sor s. When a syst em has st i l l t o be i nst al l ed
such t r ai ni ng has t o be r epl aced by cour ses. A cour se must be
at an or gani sat i on usi ng si mi l ar equi pment f or si mi l ar pr oj ect s,
and wi t h t r ai ni ng exper i ence. Such an or gani sat i on may be a
mappi ng or gani sat i on i n a devel oped count r y or a sui t abl y
equi pped educat i onal i nst i t ut e. Such cour ses ar e unl i kel y t o
exi st as st andar d of f er i ngs i n any or gani sat i on, and wi l l be
expensi ve. Because of t he number s, t he t r ai ni ng of oper at or s
wi l l be t he most expensi ve t r ai ni ng el ement f or any or gani sat i on
i n a devel opi ng count r y i f i t i s deci ded t hat a pool of t r ai ned
oper at or s have t o be r eady as soon as a syst em i s i nst al l ed.
4 . 3 ENVI RONMENTAL CONSTRAI NTS.
Gener al l y manuf act ur er s i ndi cat e some l i mi t s r el at ed t o
t emper at ur e and humi di t y beyond whi ch t hei r equi pment i s not
guar ant eed t o f unct i on. The nat ur al envi r onment i n many
devel opi ng count r i es does not f al l wi t hi n t hese l i mi t s, t hus i f
user s ar e goi ng t o adher e t o t hei r guar ant ee condi t i ons, ai r
condi t i oni ng wi l l have t o be used. Thi s i s an expense
addi t i onal t o t he act ual syst em. I t may be i n t he
manuf act ur er ' s i nt er est t o ascer t ai n whet her t he envi r onment al
l i mi t s ar e t oo st r i ct .
Wi l dl i f e i n t he f or m of ant s and r at s
may pr esent pr obl ems whi ch have i mpl i cat i ons not f ound i n
devel oped count r i es.
Many devel opi ng count r i es do not suf f er f r om t he ext r emes of
col d f ound i n devel oped count r i es, and t hei r bui l di ng
const r uct i on i s l i ght er . Wi t hout addi t i onal i nvest ment i n
const r uct i on, wor kspaces may be pr one t o r oof l eakage and
vi br at i on.
Dust i s a char act er i st i c of devel opi ng count r i es, and
uncont r ol l ed can af f ect t he sur f aces of st or age medi a.
Fi nal l y, var i abl e el ect r i cal power suppl y can be damagi ng t o
comput er syst ems, and t hi s i s a common pr obl em i n devel opi ng
count r i es. Ext r a i nvest ment may be r equi r ed.
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4 . 4 LOCATI ONAL CONSTRAI NTS.
Devel opi ng count r i es ar e of t en l ocat ed f ar f r om equi pment
manuf act ur er s. Long di st ances pr esent a r i sk t o manuf act ur er s,
and onl y t hose wi t h good capi t al r eser ves can af f or d t o be
i nt er est ed i n such mar ket s. Thi s l eads t o a l ack of
compet i t i on, and pr i ces hi gher t han t hose f ound i n devel oped
count r i es. The pr i ces f or comput er assi st ed mappi ng equi pment
ar e al so ext r emel y hi gh r el at i ve t o l ocal pr i ces f or ot her
goods. These hi gh equi pment pr i ces compar ed t o l ocal l y l ow
l abour cost s cr eat e an unf avour abl e cost - benef i t si t uat i on f or
hi gh t echnol ogy and make such pur chases unat t r act i ve. So t he
number of sal es r emai ns l ow, f ur t her di scour agi ng compet i t i on i n
t he mar ket - pl ace and t hus cont i nui ng t he cycl e. I n consequence
i ni t i al i nvest ment cost s ar e hi gh, st ay hi gh, and cannot easi l y
be met . El i mi nat i on of t hi s pr obl em i s di f f i cul t . Funds ar e
of t en shor t and l oans ( or at l east t hei r r epayment ) may f ur t her
wi den t he economi c gap bet ween i ndust r i al i sed and devel opi ng
count r i es, and t hi s gap cr eat ed pr obl ems i n t he f i r st pl ace.
Gr ant s ar e onl y a t empor ar y r emedy because t hey occur
i nf r equent l y, may not i ncl ude f ol l ow up, and i n t i mes of
economi c depr essi on i n donor count r i es, may cease al t oget her .
Even when equi pment has been successf ul l y i nst al l ed t he l ocat i on
of devel opi ng count r i es causes di f f i cul t i es i n equi pment
mai nt enance. Because of di st ance r epai r men' s vi si t s ar e
expensi ve. Cases ar e known wher e user s have had t o wai t a whol e
year f or a r epai r , l eavi ng t he equi pment i dl e t he whol e t i me.
Manuf act ur er s ar e encour aged t o est abl i sh l ocal r epr esent at i ves
onl y i f t hey can expect a f i nanci al benef i t . Most har dwar e
r equi r ed f or CI S i s not yet commonpl ace i n devel opi ng count r i es
( i n any appl i cat i on) , so an at t r act i ve number of sal es i s not
possi bl e, and l ocal r epr esent at i ves ar e not est abl i shed.
However t he r el i abi l i t y of comput er equi pment has been i mpr ovi ng
and t hi s devel opment i s expect ed t o cont i nue. Cent r al pr ocessi ng
uni t s, di gi t i zer s, pl ot t er s, pr i nt er s, Wi nchest er di sks and
dr i ves, f l oppy di sks and dr i ves ar e al l expect ed t o gi ve l ong
ser vi ce wi t h mi ni mal r epai r . Har d di sks and dr i ves,
al phanumer i c and gr aphi c scr eens, magnet i c t ape uni t s, and
i nt er f aces f ai l mor e of t en, but t he r epai r may consi st mai nl y of
di agnosi s and t he r epl acement of t he f aul t y par t . Of t en
di f f i cul t i es occur when var i ous equi pment i t ems ar e not under
t he r esponsi bi l i t y of one manuf act ur er , or when i nt er f aci ng
bet ween i t ems f r om di f f er ent manuf act ur er s i s new and
i nsuf f i ci ent l y t est ed. But t her e i s some hope f or i mpr ovement .
Fi r st of al l i nsuf f i ci ent l y t est ed i nt er f aces shoul d not be
i ncor por at ed i nt o t he acqui r ed equi pment . Manuf act ur er s shoul d
be encour aged t o st andar di ze and i mpr ove di agnost i c pr ocedur es
so t hat user s may easi l y compl et e t hem wi t h l i t t l e ( e. g. onl y
t el ephone) or no hel p f r om t he manuf act ur er , and r epl ace any
f aul t y par t t hemsel ves. An unf avour abl e aspect of t h s
pr ocedur e i s t hat t he user i s obl i ged t o keep a r at her l ar ge
st ock of spar e par t s, maki ng i nvest ment cost s hi gher . A
possi bl e sol ut i on i s t he use of expr ess del i ver y ser vi ces f r om
t he manuf act ur er s' st ocks, but t hi s i ncr eases cost s t oo.
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Speci al pr obl ems ar e cr eat ed by sof t war e " bugs" , whi ch, al t hough
l ess ser i ous t han har dwar e pr obl ems, ar e much mor e di f f i cul t t o
r epai r , because t he user i s deni ed access t o t he sour ce
pr ogr ams. The pr obl em of sof t war e " bugs" i s wor l d- wi de, but t he
i sol at ed l ocat i on of devel opi ng count r i es makes i t mor e ser i ous
f or t hem. I t i s di f f i cul t t o i magi ne t hat manuf act ur er s wi l l
change t hei r pr ot ect i ve at t i t ude t owar ds sof t war e, al t hough new
t echni ques have been devel oped whi ch enabl e al t er at i ons di r ect l y
t o t he execut abl e ver si ons of pr ogr ams. The way t o avoi d t he
pr obl em of " bugs" i s t o use onl y sof t war e whi ch has been
ext ensi vel y t est ed i n pr act i ce, but t hi s wi l l excl ude t he use of
t he newest pr ogr ams.
Obvi ousl y t he best sol ut i on f or mai nt enance i s t o make t he st af f
at t he l ocat i on i n a devel opi ng count r y mor e sel f - suf f i ci ent , so
t hat t hey can execut e r epai r s on t hei r own. Thi s agai n st r esses
t he cent r al r ol e of educat i on, and of t r ai ni ng i n comput er
r el at ed ski l l s.
For mor e ef f i ci ent mai nt enance i n devel opi ng count r i es i t coul d
be r ecommended t hat al l comput er usi ng or gani zat i ons si t uat ed
cl ose t o each ot her combi ne t hei r ef f or t s. But i t i s
quest i onabl e whet her t hi s wi l l be possi bl e i n pr act i ce, because
of t he var i et y of equi pment and or gani zat i onal pr obl ems.
4 . 5 MOTI VATI ONAL CONSTRAI NTS.
Anot her obst acl e whi ch makes t he t r ansf er of t echnol ogy
di f f i cul t and whi ch j eopar di zes i t s appl i cat i on once i t has been
t r ansf er r ed, i s t he l ow mot i vat i on of empl oyees i n devel opi ng
count r i es. Low sal ar i es ar e t he most ser i ous r eason f or l ack of
mot i vat i on. The empl oyees ar e f or ced t o sear ch f or var i ous
sour ces of i ncome and acqui r e sever al j obs. They cannot devot e
suf f i ci ent at t ent i on t o any si ngl e one of t hem, and t hi s has
consequences when t he appl i cat i on of new t echnol ogy i s i nvol ved.
Ver y of t en even t he si mpl est means of mot i vat i ng st af f ar e
mi ssi ng, such as pr omot i on and achi evement r ecogni t i on. Fi nal l y
t he f ai l ur e t o meet obj ect i ves i n any par t i cul ar pr oj ect causes
cyni ci sm, a f eel i ng of pur posel essness, and i s t hus
demot i vat i ng.
I t seems r at her easy t o r ecommend measur es t hat wi l l i mpr ove
mot i vat i on among empl oyees, but t hei r successf ul execut i on
r equi r es maj or changes i n t he economi c condi t i ons and t he soci al
st r uct ur e of devel opi ng count r i es. I ncr easi ng sal ar i es onl y f or
t he st af f deal i ng wi t h hi gh t echnol ogy wi l l cr eat e a new
t echnol ogi cal el i t e. Mot i vat ed consul t ant s ar e a t empor ar y
sol ut i on.
4 . 6 I NSTI TUTI ONAL CONSTRAI NTS.
I nst i t ut i onal pr act i ces i n devel opi ng count r i es gener at e many
const r ai nt s f or t echnol ogy t r ansf er . Cor r upt on i s t he most
ser i ous of t hese. Al t hough a wor l dwi de pr obl em, t he ext ent of
cor r upt i on i n devel opi ng count r i es must make i t a mat t er f or
concer n. Thr ough cor r upt pr act i ces unqual i f i ed and i ncompet ent ,
but of t en i nf l uent i al i ndi vi dual s may be dr awn i nt o t he r anks of
4 4 7
t he ci vi l ser vi ce. Such execut i ve of f i cer s sur r ound t hemsel ves
wi t h r el at i ves and f r i ends, or ot her cor r upt i ndi vi dual s,
i nst ead of sur r oundi ng t hemsel ves wi t h qual i f i ed and ef f i ci ent
st af f . Cor r upt cust oms and br i ber y sl ow down t he acqui si t i on of
equi pment , make i t addi t i onal l y expensi ve and pr event nor mal
sel ect i on pr ocedur es. The r esul t i s obvi ousl y t he l at e del i ver y
of expensi ve and of t en unsui t abl e equi pment . I n cont r ast t o t he
pr i vat e sect or cor r upt i on i n t he publ i c sect or i s of t en
publ i ci sed, and t hi s cr eat es t he f al se i mpr essi on t hat i t i s
onl y act i ve i n t he publ i c sect or .
Anot her compl et el y di f f er ent pr obl em i s t he dr ai n of qual i f i ed
per sonnel due t o t he ver y ear l y r et i r ement age per mi t t ed i n many
count r i es. I n such a way qual i f i ed and exper i enced st af f end
t hei r car eer j ust when t hey ar e i n a posi t i on t o be most usef ul .
Gover nment s i n devel opi ng count r i es of t en assume an i ncr easi ng
number of r esponsi bi l i t i es i n or der t o pr omot e devel opment . I f
t he soci al st r uct ur e i s r easonabl y democr at i c t hi s may cr eat e
mul t i - l evel bur eaucr aci es, whi ch i nevi t abl y f unct i on sl owl y. To
avoi d t hi s i ndependent gover nment gr oups di r ect l y r esponsi bl e t o
a mi ni st er or even head of st at e may be cr eat ed. Such gr oups
( al t hough per haps sui t abl e f or exper i ment al wor k) ar e pr one t o
expl oi t at i on by empi r e bui l der s, who wi l l not easi l y cooper at e
wi t h ot her gr oups i n si mi l ar f i el ds. Regar dl ess of t he
st r uct ur e i n t he ci vi l ser vi ce, or gani sat i ons ar e est abl i shed
wi t hi n t he publ i c sect or whi ch ar e not r equi r ed t o f unct i on as
ef f ect i vel y as t hey mi ght i f exposed t o al l mar ket f or ces and
apar t f r om t he excessi ve bur eaucr acy and empi r e bui l di ng al r eady
ment i oned aut ocr at i c deci si on maki ng and a l ack of power
del egat i on may go unchecked, r educe ef f i ci ency, and i ncr ease
cost s - t her eby l i mi t i ng t he expl oi t at i on of hi gh t echnol ogy.
A f i nal i nst i t ut i onal char act er i st i c i s t hat t her e may be an
excessi ve number of manager i al st af f wi t h no t echni cal f unct i on,
but havi ng a r equi r ement t o be i nvol ved i n t echnol ogi cal
devel opment s. Thei r i nvol vement al so i ncr eases f i nanci al and
t i me expendi t ur es.
4 . 7 POLI TI CAL CONSTRAI NTS.
Some of t he pol i t i cal condi t i ons i n devel opi ng count r i es
const r ai n t echnol ogy t r ansf er . Pol i t i cal i nst abi l i t y especi al l y
under mi nes l ong- t er m devel opment i n many count r i es. Hi gh
t echnol ogy t r ansf er r epr esent s l ong- t er m devel opment . The
r ej ect i on of west er n cul t ur e i n some count r i es gener at es
r esi st ence t o t echnol ogy. I ncompat i bi l i t y bet ween t he pol i t i cal
syst em of a pot ent i al suppl i er and t he r ecei ver of t echnol ogy
pr event s an ot her wi se advi sabl e t r ansact i on. The abuse of power
i n di ct at or i al r egi mes may l ead t o t he est abl i shment of pr oj ect s
f or compl et el y sel f i sh r easons and t hey ar e t hus al most doomed
t o f ai l . Hi gh t echnol ogy may be consi der ed t o have mi l i t ar y or
st r at egi c si gni f i cance. The t r ansf er of such t echnol ogy may be
r est r i ct ed t o mai nt ai n an ext ant mi l i t ar y power bal ance.
The above ment i oned pol i t i cal and i nst i t ut i onal const r ai nt s may
be di mi ni shed by some admi ni st r at i ve and educat i onal measur es,
4 4 8
but t hei r r oot s l i e deep. The el i mi nat i on of t hese " soci al "
const r ai nt s i s a f or mi dabl e t ask and we wi l l have t o accept t he
devel opment consequences f or some t i me.
5. 0 TECHNI CAL SPECI FI CATI ONS.
The success of an i mpl ement ed mappi ng syst em depends ver y much
on good t echni cal speci f i cat i ons. As shown i n Fi gur e 1
speci f i cat i ons ar e a f unct i on of suppl i er s' and r ecei ver s'
obj ect i ves, and const r ai nt s. Car ef ul and pr eci se speci f i cat i ons
f or al l f our component s of t he syst em - space, har dwar e,
sof t war e and manpower - ar e equal l y i mpor t ant .
As i ndi cat ed i n sect i on 2. 0, r el i abi l i t y i s an ext r emel y
i mpor t ant t echni cal speci f i cat i on i n devel opi ng count r i es. ' Thi s
may t ake t he f or m of guar ant eed mi ni mum downt i me and an
agr eement t o cor r ect al l sof t war e " bugs" f ound. To be an
ef f ect i ve guar ant ee f or har dwar e t hi s wi l l r equi r e f ai r l y l ocal
ser vi ce per sonnel . Good sof t war e can be ser vi ced at a di st ance.
Bad sof t war e can onl y be used by st af f wi t h consi der abl e
exper i ence of t hat sof t war e and i t s " bugs" . So cal l ed por t abl e
sof t war e may not be as por t abl e as envi saged when non- st andar d
per i pher al s ar e used, so por t abi l i t y guar ant ees ar e anot her
aspect of r el i abi l i t y. CI S i s a f ast devel opi ng t echnol ogy.
New and mor e ef f i ci ent sol ut i ons appear al most sooner t han one
i s pr epar ed t o accept t hem. Because i t i s unl i kel y t hat an
or gani sat i on i n a devel opi ng count r y wi l l buy a syst em i n i t s
ent i r et y at one t i me, or because t he vi t al nat ur e of t he
pr obl ems of a devel opi ng count r y wi l l al ways r esul t i n a demand
f or t he best sol ut i ons, syst ems si mpl y have t o be f l exi bl e t o
per mi t t he i ncor por at i on of f ut ur e unpr edi ct ed t echnol ogy.
Even a successf ul l y i mpl ement ed mappi ng syst ems may cause
demot i vat i on i f i t does not del i ver r esul t s as st at ed i n
devel opment pol i ci es. I ndi vi dual syst ems may f or m a par t of a
much l ar ger i nt egr at ed CI S and t her ef or e an i ndi vi dual syst em
shoul d be abl e t o expor t and i mpor t i nf or mat i on t o and f r om
ot her syst ems bot h physi cal l y and concept ual l y.
Speci f i cat i ons shoul d al so i dent i f y manpower r equi r ement s.
Because suf f i ci ent qual i f i ed manpower i s usual l y not f ound
l ocal l y, t he mechani sm f or t r ai ni ng t he avai l abl e manpower has
t o be speci f i ed.
Once speci f i cat i ons have been est abl i shed pr ocedur es f or f i ndi ng
a sui t abl e syst em commence. Compar ed t o si mi l ar exer ci ses i n
i ndust r i al i sed count r i es, an ext r emel l y l i mi t ed choi ce of
har dwar e may be avai l abl e f or t est i ng. The syst ems wi t h good
suppor t i nsi de t he count r y ar e al ways pr ef er abl e t o ot her wi se
super i or syst ems wi t h l i t t l e suppor t . Thi s makes t he sel ect i on
pr ocedur e easi er , but at t he same t i me one may have t o adapt t he
t echni cal speci f i cat i ons t o t he avai l abl e syst ems and make a
number of compr omi ses.
6. 0 I MPLEMENTATI ON STRATEGY.
Syst em i mpl ement at i on st r at egy pr ovi des gui del i nes f or t he
4 4 9
di st r i but i on i n t i me of component s acqui si t i on and
i mpl ement at i on. The component s ar e ei t her physi cal or manpower .
Consi der i ng manpower r esour ces, an or gani sat i on may i mpor t
ski l l ed st af f , or t r ai n i t s own peopl e. Tr ai ni ng may be car r i ed
out ext er nal l y, or i n- house. Di f f er ent t r ai ni ng appr oaches wer e
di scussed i n 4 . 2, but i t i s our exper i ence t hat t r ai ni ng at t he
oper at or l evel must be gi ven i mmedi at el y bef or e ski l l s ar e
i mpl ement ed, or t hey wi l l be l ost .
Consi der i ng physi cal r esour ces, an or gani sat i on may choose t o
i mpl ement a syst em i n i t s ent i r et y, or i n modul es. Modul ar i t y
can be achi eved i n sever al ways. For i nst ance i t may be
achi eved by pur chasi ng a " st ar t er - syst em" consi st i ng of a si ngl e
gr aphi cs/ al phanumer i c scr een; di gi t i zi ng, i nt er act i ve edi t i ng,
and pl ot t i ng sof t war e; a di gi t i zer ; a pl ot t er ( at l east A3
f or mat ) ; some magnet i c st or age; and a " super - mi cr o" cent r al
pr ocessi ng uni t ( cpu) . As mor e f unds become avai l abl e t hi s
syst em can be upgr aded i n sever al ways. For exampl e one can
pur chase an addi t i onal cpu; mor e gr aphi cs scr eens, mor e
di gi t i zi ng capabi l i t y, dat a mani pul at i on sof t war e; mor e pl ot t i ng
capabi l i t y. I f t her e i s an el ement of sel f - f undi ng, pr oduct s
wi l l have t o be sol d bef or e addi t i onal modul es can be pur chased.
Modul ar i t y wi l l be achi eved by i ni t i al l y concent r at i ng on t hose
aspect s of a syst em whi ch pr oduce sal eabl e pr oduct s.
Onl y count r i es wi t h a l ar ge suppl y of assur ed f unds at t he
out set of t he devel opment wi l l be abl e t o adopt a non- modul ar
appr oach and at t he same t i me buy an advanced ( oper at i onal wi t h
hi gh qual i t y out put ) syst em. However such count r i es may opt f or
a modul ar appr oach f or educat i onal or manager i al r easons.
Whet her or not an or gani sat i on adopt s a modul ar i mpl ement at i on
st r at egy, a deci son wi l l have t o be made on whet her t o buy t he
syst em har dwar e and sof t war e f r om one suppl i er , essent i al l y a
" t ur n- key" syst em, or f r om sever al suppl i er s. Wi t h t he pur chase
of a " t ur n- key" syst em one i s dependent on one suppl i er and t he
r esponsi bi l i t y f or ser vi ci ng i s t her ef or e compl et el y cl ear .
However i f t he mar ket i n a count r y t ur ns out t o be par t i cul ar l y
smal l f or t hat suppl i er he may r enege on hi s r esponsi bi l i t i es,
wi t h no ot her suppl i er wi l l i ng t o st ep i n, t hus r ender i ng t he
whol e syst em usel ess. A " t ur n- key" syst em i s not t ai l or ed t o
act ual needs and may al so pr esent t he oper at or wi t h r edundant
sof t war e, and encour age a " bl ack- box" at t i t ude t owar ds t he
syst em, but a t i mel y pr oduct i s guar ant eed. To bui l d a syst em
f r om a var i et y of har dwar e and sof t war e ( i ncl udi ng i n- house
sof t war e) wi l l be a good educat i onal exper i ence, t ake an
unpr edi ct abl e number of ( sal ar i ed? ) manhour s, and def i ni t el y
cr eat e har dwar e and sof t war e ser vi ci ng pr obl ems. I f a
devel opment i s hi ghl y pr oduct dr i ven, t hen a " t ur n- key" syst em
i n conj unct i on wi t h a good ser vi ci ng cont r act i s advi sabl e. An
or gani sat i on may not be ent i r el y f r ee t o choose bet ween t hese
var i ous opt i ons because of f i nanci al const r ai nt s, so, ver y f ew
or gani sat i ons i n devel opi ng count r i es wi l l be abl e t o opt
f r eel y.
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Component s have t o be i mpl ement ed i n t he f ol l owi ng or der ( Fi gur e
2) , al t hough l oopi ng may occur wi t h a modul ar i mpl ement at i on
st r at egy.
Fi gur e 2
SYSTEM I MPLEMENTATI ON
PHYSI CAL COMPONENTS MANPOWER COMPONENTS
1 pl anni ng manpower
2 space pr epar at i on
3 syst ems manpower
4 har dwar e acqui si t i on
5 sof t war e manpower
6 sof t war e acqui si t i on
7 oper at i ons manpower
8 mat er i al s acqui si t i on
9 di st r i but i on manpower
7. 0 CONCLUSI ONS.
Technol ogy t r ansf er i s an i mpor t ant i ssue. At t empt s t o r eal i se
i t must be cont i nued despi t e di f f i cul t i es, but one must pr oceed
sel ect i vel y and caut i ousl y. The successf ul i mpl ement at i on of
t echnol ogy depends not onl y on good t echni cal speci f i cat i ons,
but al so on t he r i ght soci al , pol i t i cal , and i nst i t ut i onal
envi r onment . The exi st i ng t ype and capaci t y of educat i onal
i nst i t ut i ons i n devel opi ng count r i es ar e not adequat e. Educat i on
abr oad i s t her ef or e unavoi dabl e, but usual l y speci al cour ses ar e
r equi r ed. At t he same t i me l ocal educat i onal suppor t has t o be
st r engt hened. Educat i onal i nst i t ut i ons i n devel opi ng count r i es
shoul d be pr ovi ded wi t h comput er f aci l i t i es t o enabl e hands- on
pr act i cal t r ai ni ng. Speci al at t ent i on shoul d al so be pai d t o
on- t he- j ob t r ai ni ng. The t r ai ni ng of t echnol ogi st s and oper at or s
whi ch f or ms t he basi s f or t he i mpl ement at i on of a new t echnol ogy
has t o be gi ven a hi gh pr i or i t y. For t he l ong- t er m pl anni ng
r equi r ed of a CI S r el i abl e f undi ng must be assur ed.
4 51