1. Understanding The Earth Geolog is the s!ienti"i! st#d o" the earth. Geolog is a o#ng s!ien!e$ it has e%isted as a &odern s!ienti"i! dis!i'line "or (#st o)er *++ ears. The st#d o" the earth is traditionall di)ided into t,o -road s#-(e!t areas: 'hsi!al geolog and histori!al geolog. Phsi!al geolog !on!erns the 'ro!eses that o'erate at or -eneath the s#r"a!e o" the earth and the &aterials on ,hi!h thoses 'ro!esses o'erate. .o&e e%a&'les o" geologi! 'ro!esses are &o#ntain -#ilding/ )ol!ani! er#'tions/ ri)er "looding/ earth0#a1es/ and the "or&ation o" ore de'osits. .o&e e%a&'les o" geologi! &aterials and &inerals/ ro!1s/ soils/ la)a/ and ,ater. 2istori!al geolog !on!erns geologi! e)ents that o!!#rred in the 'ast. These e)ents !an -e read "ro& the ro!1 re!ord. 2istori!al geologists tr to ans,er 0#estions s#!h as ,hen the o!eans "or&ed/ ,h the dinosa#rs died o#t/ ,hen the Ro!1 3o#ntain rose/ and ,hen the "irst tree a''eared. 2istori!al geolog hel's #s esta-lish a !hronolog o" e)ents in earth histor and gi)es #s a !onte%t "or #nderstanding o#r 'resent4da en)iron&ent. There are &an &ore s'e!iali5ed areas o" st#d ,ithin the traditional do&ains o" 'hsi!al and histori!al geolog. 6or e%a&'le/ )ol!anologists st#d )ol!anoes and er#'tions$ seis&ologist and st#d earth0#a1es$&ineralogist st#d &inerals and !rstals$ 'aleontologist st#d "ossils and the the histor o" li"e on the Earth$ str#!t#ral geologist st#d ho, ro!1s -rea1 and -end$ e!ono&i!s geologists st#d the "or&ation and o!!#rren!e o" )al#a-le ore de'osits. This s'e!iali5ation is needed -e!a#se geolog en!o&'asses s#!h a -road range o" to'i!s. Geologist are s!ientists ,ho &a1e a !areer o#t o" the s!ienti"i! st#d o" the Earth. Yet to a !ertain e%tent ,e are all geologist. E)erone li)ing on this 'lanet relies on reso#r!es "ro& the Earth: ,ater/ soil/ -#ilding stones/ &etals/ "ossil "#el/ ge&s/ 'lasti!s 7&ade "ro& 'etrole#&8/ !era&i!s 7&ade "ro& !la &inerals8/ salt 7the &ineral halite8/ and &an others. 9e are a""e!ted - geologi! 'ro!esses e)er single da ,e s'end on the s#r"a!e o" this dna&i! 'lanet. B learning as &#!h as ,e !an a-o#t these 'ro!esses/ ,e !an -e!o&e -etter4in"or&ed/ &ore res'onsi-le !areta1ers o" o#r ho&e 'lanet. Na&e there e%a&'les o" geologist 'ro!esses. Tr to thin1 o" at least one e%a&'le that ,as not &entioned in the te%t. Ans,er: e%a&'les in the te%t are &o#ntain -#ilding/ )ol!ani! er#'tions/ ri)er "looding/ earth0#a1es/ and the "or&ation o" ore de'osits. .o&e other e%a&'les are gro#nd,ater &o)e&ent/ oil and !oal "or&ation/ e)a'oration/ and erosion. Can o# thin1 o" an &ore : Na&e there e%a&'les o" geologi! &aterials. Tr to thin1 o" at least one e%a&'le that ,as not &entioned in the te%t. Ans,er: e%a&'les in the te%t are &inerals/ ro!1s/ la)a/ and ,ater. .o&e other e%a&'les are soil/ &ag&a/ gla!ial i!e/ and nat#ral gas. Can o# thin1 o" an &ore : *. Geolog Then And No,: A .!ienti"i! Re)ol#tion E)en a s!ien!e as o#ng as geolog !an ha)e a re)ol#tion/ and that is ,hat ha''ened in the 1;<+s. At the ti&e/ a -rand4ne, theor e&erged and !o&'letel !hanged o#r #nderstanding o" geologi! 'ro!esses. The tools/ the ðods/ and e)en the lang#age o" geolog !hanged as a res#lt o" the s!ienti"i! re)ol#tion. I" o# st#died geolog 'rior to the 1;<+s/ o# &a re&e&-er so&e ter&s that are no longer in #se toda. Ter&s s#!h as =e#geosn!line> and =&iogeosn!line> ,ere #sed to des!ri-e to'ogra'hi! "eat#res o" the Earth?s s#r"a!e that geologists o-ser)ed -#t !o#ld not e%'lain. 9ith the ad)ent o" the theor o" 'late te!toni!s/ these "eat#res too1 on ne, &eaning. Conse0#entl/ geologist -egan #sing ne, ter&s to des!ri-e o#r !#rrent #nderstanding o" the Earth. This "irst !ha'ter444and/ indeed/ &#!h o" the rest o" this -oo1444!on!erns the 'late te!toni! re)ol#tion and ho, it has in"or&ed and trans"or&ed o#r #nderstanding o" the Earth. B#t geolog is !#rrentl #ndergoing another/ &ore s#-tle re)ol#tion. This re)ol#tion is dri)en - the a-ilit o" s!ientists to o-ser)e and !olle!t in"or&ation a-o#t the Earth as a ,hole 'lanet/ #sing instr#&ents &o#nted on satellites. This a-ilit is 0#ite ne,$ re&e&-er that no one had e)er seen a 'i!t#re o" the ,hole Earth #ntil the 1;<+s/ ,hen the "irst 'hotogra'h ,as ta1en o" Earth "ro& s'a!e. .atellite i&ages and data !olle!ted "ro& o#ter s'a!e 'ro)ide a s!ienti"i! "o#ndation"or o#r st#d o" the Erath as a integrated sste&. Earth sste& s!ien!e/ as this a''roa!h is !alled/ is not ne, in 'hiloso'h/ -#t its tools and te!hni0#es are )er ne,. These tools are #sed in a ,ide range o" a''li!ations/ "ro& ,eather "ore!asting to the &onitoring o" !hanges in sedi&entation rates/ &eas#ring the "lo, o" 'olar i!e/ lo!ating &ineral reso#r!es/ do!#&enting the e%tent o" oil s'ills/ tra!1ing de'letion o" stratos'heri! o5one/ and &an others. Thro#gh Earth sste& s!ien!e/ geologist are !ontri-#ting to o#r #nderstanding o" the Earth as a ,hole/ ho, the Earth !hanges o)er ti&e/ and the i&'a!ts o" h#&an a!tions on the Earth sste&. Na&e at least three a''li!ations o" Earth sste& s!ien!e.
Ans,er: E%a&'les in the te%t are ,eather "ore!asting/ &onitoring !hanges in sedi&entation rates/ &eas#ring the "lo, o" 'olar i!e/ lo!ating &ineral reso#r!es/ do!#&enting the e%tent o" oil s'ills/ and tra!1ing the de'letion o" stratos'heri! o5one. Can o# thin1 o" an &ore : @. Geolog Be"ore Plate Te!toni! A#ring the 1B++s/ 'eo'le "a)ored the idea that the Earth/ originall a &olten &ass/ had -een !ooling and !ontra!ting "or !ent#ries. .!ientists arg#ed that &o#ntain ranges "#ll o" "olded ro!1s ,ere e%'ressions o" the !ontra!tion and shrin1age o" the Earth?s interior 7i" the !r#st didn?t !ontra!t as &#!h as the interior/ it ,o#ld "old and !r#&'le li1e the ,rin1led s1in o" a dried 'r#ne8.Contra!tion did a''ear to e%'lain so&e "eat#res o" the Earth?s s#r"a!e/ -#t it !o#ld not e%'lain the sha'es and 'ositions o" the !ontinents. Nor did it e%'lain "eat#res li1e great ri"t )alles/ !learl !a#sed - stret!hing rather than - !ontra!tion. At the -eginning o" the t,entieth !ent#r/ s!ientists dis!o)ered that the Earth?s interior is heated - the de!a o" nat#ral o!!#rring radioa!ti)e ele&ents. This s#ggested that the Earth &ight not -e !ooling -#t rather heating #'/ and there"ore e%'anding. A s&aller Earth &ight on!e ha)e -een !o)ered &ostl - !ontinents. As the Earth e%'anded/ the !ontinents ,o#ld !ra!1 into "rag&ens/ and e)ent#all the !ra!1s ,o#ld gro, into o!eans. The e%'anding Earth h'othesis did e%'lain the a''arent "it -et,een the !oastlines o" A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a/ ,hi!h loo1 as i" the ha)e -een ri''ed a'art "ro& ea!h other. B#t there are other "eat#res that this h'othesis that not easil a!!o#nt "or/ s#!h as "olded &o#ntains ranges "or&ed - !o&'ression. To get aro#nd the "la,s in the e%'ansion and !ontra!tion h'hoteses/ geologists -egan to sear!h "or other ,as o" e%'laining the sha'es and 'ositions o" the !ontinents/ o!eans/ and &o#ntain !hains. B the &iddle o" this !ent#r/ all reasona-le s#ggestions see&ed to ha)e -een e%ha#sted$ the ti&e ,as ri'e "or a totall ne, a''roa!h. This a''roa!h t#rned o#t to -e 'late te!toni!s444the theor that the !ontinents are !arried along on h#ge sla-s/ or 'lates/ o" the Earth?s o#ter&ost laer. In so&e 'la!e the 'lates are slo,l !olliding/ "or&ing !o&'ressional "eat#res li1e h#ge &o#ntain ranges. In other 'la!es the 'lates a &o)ing a'art/ "or&ing e%'lansional "eat#res li1e great ri"t )alles. The theor o" 'late te!toni!s 'ro)ided/ "or the "irst ti&e/ a !oherent/ #ni"ied e%'lanation "or all o" these "eat#res o" the Earth?s s#r"a!e. 9hat ,as ,rong ,ith the =!ontra!ting Earth> h'othesis: Ans,er: it did not ade0#atel e%'lain the sha'es and 'ositions o" the !ontinents/ nor did it e%'lain "eat#res li1e great ri"t )alles/ ,hi!h a''ear to ha)e -een !a#sed - stret!hing. 9hat ,as ,rong ,ith the =e%'anding Earth> h'othesis: Ans,er: it did not ade0#atel e%'lain "eat#res s#!h as "olded &o#ntain ranges "or&ed - !o&'ression. C. Continental Ari"t And The .tor O" 9egener This !ha'ter tells the stor o" ho, the theor o" 'late te!toni!s ,as !on!ei)ed and de)elo'ed and e)ent#all !o&e to -e a!!e'ted. The &odern 'art o" the stor -egan in the earl 1;++s ,ith a Ger&an &eteorologist na&ed Al"red 9egener/ ,ho had so&e !ontro)ersial ideas a-o#t he sha'es and 'ositions o" the !ontinents. In 1;1+/ 9gener -egan le!t#ring and ,riting s!ienti"i! 'a'ers a-ao#t !ontinental dri"t. 2is !ontinental dri"t h'othesis s#ggested that the !ontinents ha)e not al,as -een in their 'resent lo!ations -#t instead ha)e =dri"ted> and !hanged 'ositions. 9egener?s idea ,as that the !ontinents had on!e -een (oined together in a single =s#'er!ontinent>/ ,hi!h he !alled Pangaea 7'rono#n!ed ='an4DEE4ah>8/ "ro& Gree1 ,ords &eaning =all lands>. 2e s#ggested that Pangaeahad s'lit into "rag&ents li1e 'ie!es o" i!e "loating on a 'ond and that the !ontinental "rag&ents had slo,l dri"ted to their 'resent lo!ation. 9egener 'resented a great deal o" e)iden!e in s#''ort o" the !ontinental dri"t h'othesis. Ne)ertheless/ his 'ro'osal !reated a stor& o" 'rotest in the international s!ienti"i! !o&&#nit. Part o" the 'ro-le& ,as that geologist si&'l !o#ld not en)ision ho, the !ontinents !o#ld &o)e aro#nd. Another 'art o" the 'ro-le& ,as that geologists had to -e !on)in!ed that the e)iden!e that the !ontinents had on!e -een (oined ,as tr#l !on!l#si)e. Let?s loo1 at so&e o" the e)iden!e "or !ontinental dri"t/ so o# !an (#dge "or o#rsel". Noti!e that no single 'ie!e o" e)iden!e is !on!l#si)e on its o,n. It too1 se)eral de!ades and the ,eight o" all this e)iden!e 7and &ore8 to "inall !on)in!e geologists that !ontinental dri"t reall ha''ens. 9hat ,as the na&e o" the =s#'er!ontinent> 'ro'osed - Al"red 9egener: Ans,er: Pangaea E. E)iden!e 6ro& Coastline Loo1 at a &a' o" the ,orld. The Atlanti! !oastlines o" A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a see& to &at!h/ al&ost li1e '#55le 'ie!es. The so#thern !oast o" A#stralia si&ilarl see& to &at!h 'art o" the !oast o" Antar!ti!a/ and the sa&e is tr#e o" so&e other !ontinental !oastlines. Is this a''arent "it an a!!ident/ or does it s#''ort the h'othesis that the !ontinents ,ere on!e (oined together: To ans,er the 0#estion o" ,hether !ontinents ,ere on!e (oined/ ,e &#st "irst re!ogni5e that the edge o" the land 444 that is/ the shoreline 444 #s#all isn?t the tr#e edge o" the !ontinent. To "ind the tr#e edge o" a !ontinent/ ,e need to lo!ate the 'la!e ,here the ro!1s o" the !ontinent 444 &ostl &ade o" granite 444 &eet the ro!1s o" the o!ean "loor 444 &ostl &ade o" -asalt. 7o# ,ill learn &ore a-o#t these t,o i&'ortant ro!1 th'es in !ha'ter E8. Along a non!li""ed shoreline/ s#!h as tha Atlanti! !oastso" North A&eri!a/ .o#th A&eri!a/ and A"ri!a/ the land #s#all slo'es )er gentl to,ard the sea 7"ig#re 1.18. This gentl slo'ing land is !alled the !ontinental shel". At the edge o" the !ontinental shel" there is a shar' dro' 444 o"" to the stee'er !ontinental slo'e. At the -ooto& o" the stee' !ontinental slo'e/ the land -egins to le)el o"" again$ this is the !ontinental rise/ ,hi!h &ar1s the transition to the "lat o!ean "loor/ the a-ssal 'lain. The a!t#al 'la!e ,here the graniti! ro!1s o" the !ontinent &eet the -asalti! ro!1s o" the o!ean "loor is #s#all !o)ered - sand/ &#d/ and other loose ro!1 'arti!les. The a!t#al sha'e o" the shoreline de'ends on sea le)el/ the 'resen!e or a-sen!e o" !li""s/ and the details o" the to'ogra'h o" the !ontinental shel" in an 'arti!#lar lo!alit. Th#s/ the a!t#al transition "ro& !ontinent to o!ean &a 7or &a not8 -e #nder,ater. .o/ ho, do ,e identi" the tr#e edge o" a !ontinent: Us#all the edge o" a !ontinent is de"ined as -eing hal",a do,n the stee' !ontinental slo'e. 9hen ,e tr to "it the !ontinents together/ ,e "it the& along this line rather than along the 'resent 444 da !oastline. 9hen ,e "it A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a together in this ,a/ the res#lt is re&ar1a-le 7"ig#re 1.*8. in the =-est4 "it> 'osition/ the a)erage ga' or o)erla' -et,een the t,o !ontinents is onl ;+ 1ilo&eters 71&8 7a-o#t E< &iles F&ilG8. 7Note that 1 1ilo&eter H +.<* &iles$ see A''endi% 1 "or &ore a-o#t #nits/ !on)ersions/ and a--re)iations8. 6ig#re 1.1 6ig#re 1.* 6#rther&ore/ the &ost signi"i!ant o)erla''ing areas !onsist o" ro!1s that ,ere "or&ed a"ter the ti&e ,hen the !ontinents are tho#ght to ha)e s'lit a'art. This strongl s#ggests that A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a ,ere on!e (oined. .1et!h and neatl la-el a diagra& sho,ing the transition "ro& !ontinent to o!ean. .ho, ho, the slo'e o" the land !hanges/ and la-el all o" the to'ogra'hi! "eat#res. On o#r diagra&/ indi!ate the =tr#e> edge o" the !ontinent. Ans,er: Re"er to "ig#re 1.1. <. E)iden!e 6ro& Ro!1s I" A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a ,ere on!e (oined/ one ,o#ld e%'e!t to "ind si&ilar geologi! "eat#res on -oth sides o" the (oin. .#!h !orrelations 'ro)ided so&e o" the &ost !o&'elling e)iden!e 'resented - 9egener in s#''ort o" the !ontinental dri"t h'othesis. 2o,e)er/ &at!hing the geolog o" ro!1s on o''osite sides o" an o!ean is &ore di""i!#lt than o# &ight i&agine. Ro!1 444 "or&ing 'ro!esses ne)er !ease. .o&e ro!1s "or&ed -e"ore the !ontinents ,ere (oined/ so&e ,hile the ,ere (oined/ others d#ring the s'litting o" the !ontinents/ and still others a"ter the se'arated. 2o, !an ,e tell ,hi!h ro!1s are signi"i!ant in tring to "ind a &at!h -et,een the !ontinents: A logi!al starting 'oint is to see i" the ages and orientations o" si&ilar ro!1 t'es &at!h #' a!ross the o!ean. In 9egener?s ti&e/ geologists did not ha)e so'histi!ated tools "or deter&ining the e%a!t age o" a ro!1. B#t no, ,e do ha)e s#!h tools/ and ,e 1no, that there are strong si&ilarities in the ages o" ro!1s a!ross the o!eans. The &a!th is 'arti!#larl good -et,een ro!1s a-o#t EE+ &ilion ears old and older in northeast Bra5il and 9est A"ri!a/ -#t there is not a good &a!th "or o#nger ro!1s. This s#ggests that the t,o !ontinents ,ere (oined together "or so&e 'eriod o" ti&e 'rior to EE+ &illion ears ago/ and the s#-se0#entl s'lit a'art. 9e !an also loo1 "or !ontin#it o" geologi! "eat#res s#!h as &o#ntain !hains. I" ,e re(oin the !ontinents as the ,o#ld ha)e -een in the s#'er!ontinent Pangaea/ &o#ntain -elts o" si&ilar ages see& to line #'. 6or e%a&'le/ the oldest 'ortions o" the A''ala!hian 3o#ntains/ e%tending "ro& the northeastern 'art o" the United .tates tro#ght eastern Canada/ &at!h #' ,ith the Celedonides o" Ireland/ Britain/ Greenland/ and .!andina)ia. A o#nger 'art o" the A''ala!hians lines #' ,ith a &o#ntain -elt a si&ilar age in A"ri!a and E#ro'e. These and other -edro!1 "eat#res that &at!h #' a!ross the o!eans are strong e)iden!e that the !ontinents ,ere on!e (oined together. Another geologi! "eat#re that &at!hes a!ross !ontinental (oins is the de'osits le"t - an!ient i!e sheets. These are si&ilar to de'osits le"t - re!ent gla!iers in Canada/ .!andina)ia/ and the northern United .tates. 6ig#re 1.@ In .o#th A&eri!a and A"ri!a there are )er thi!1 gla!ial de'osits. The de'osits are the sa&e age/ and the &at!h al&ost e%a!tl ,hen the !ontinents are =&o)ed -a!1 together>. As gla!ial i!e &o)es/ it !#ts groo)es and s!rat!hes in #nderling ro!1s and 'rod#!es "olds and ,rin1les in so"t sedi&ents. .#!h "eat#res/ 'ro)ide e)iden!e o" the dire!tion the i!e ,as &o)ing d#ring the gla!iations. 9hen A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a are &o)ed -a!1 together/ the groo)es and s!rat!hes sho, that the i!e ,as radiating o#t,ard "ro& the !enter o" a "or&er i!e sheet 7"ig#re 1.@8. It?s hard to i&agine ho, s#!h si&ilar gla!ial "eat#res !o#ld ha)e -een !reated i" the !ontinents had not on!e -een (oined together. A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a &#st also ha)e had si&ilar !li&ates d#ring this 'eriod/ !older than their 'resent444da !li&ates. This s#ggests that the ,ere not in their 'resent e0#atorial lo!ations. In "a!t/ the so#thern 'ortions o" Pangaea ,as &ost li1el !lose to ,hat ,as then the so#th 'ole. 2o, !an the ages o" ro!1s 'ro)ide e)iden!e that t,o !ontinents 444 no, se'arated "ro& ea!h other - an o!ean 444 ,ere on!e (oined: Ans,er: i" the !ontinents ,ere on!e (oined/ ,e ,o#ld e%'e!t to "ind ro!1s o" si&ilar t'e and age on either side o" the o!ean. There are strong si&ilarities in ro!1s a-o#t EE+ &illion ears old and older in northeast Bra5il and 9est A"ri!a. This s#ggests that the t,o !ontinents ,ere (oined together "or so&e 'eriod o" ti&e 'rior to EE+ &illion ears ago. I. E)iden!e 6ro& 6ossils I" A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a ,ere (oined at one ti&e/ ,ith the sa&e !li&ate and &at!hing geologi! "eat#res/ then the also sho#ld ha)e hosted si&ilar 'alnts and ani&als. To !he!1 this/ 9egener t#rned to the "ossil re!ord. This re)ealed that there ,ere !o&&#nities o" 'lants and ani&als that a''ear to ha)e e)ol)ed together #ntil the ti&e o" the s'litting a'art o" Pangaea/ a"ter ,hi!h the e)ol)ed se'aratel. 9egener 'ointed to s'e!i"i! "ossils "o#nd in &at!hing areas a!ross the o!eans. One e%a&'le he #sed ,as an an!ient "ern/ Glosso'teris/ ,hose "ossili5ed re&ains ha)e -een "o#nd in so#thern A"ri!a/ .o#th A&eri!a/ A#stralia/ India/ and Antar!ti!a. Co#ld the seeds o" this 'lant he)e -een !arried "ro& one lo!ation to another a!ross the o!eans: Pro-a-l not. The seeds o" Glosso'teris ,ere large and hea)/ and !o#ld not ha)e -een !arried )er "ar - ,ind or ,ater !#rrents. This "ern "lo#rished in a !old !li&ate$ it ,o#ld not ha)e thri)ed in the ,ar& 'resent 444 da !li&ates o" the !ontinents ,here is "ossil re&ains are "o#nd. This/ too/ s#ggests that the !ontinents on!e had si&ilar/ !older !li&ates. There are other e%a&'les as ,eel. The "ossili5ed re&ains o" 3esoso#r#s/ a s&all re'tile/ are "o#nd -oth in so#thern Bra5il and in .o#th A"ri!a. The t'es o" ro!1s in ,hi!h the "ossils are "o#nd are )er si&ilar. 3esosa#r#s did s,i&/ -#t ,as 'ro-a-l too s&all to s,i& all the ,a a!ross the o!ean. 6ossili5ed re&ains o" s'e!i"i! t'es o" earth,or&s also o!!#r in areas that are no, ,idel se'arated. 2o, !o#ld the 'ossi-l ha)e &igrated a!ross the o!eans: The land&asses in ,hi!h the li)ed &#st one ha)e -een !onne!ted. 2o, did 9egener #se Glosso'teris to s#''ort the h'othesis o" !ontinental dri"t: Ans,er: 6ossils o"Glosso'teris/ an an!ient "ern/ ha)e -een "o#nd an si&ilar ro!1s in so#thern A"ri!a/ .o#th A&eri!a/ A#stralia/ India/ and Antar!ti!a 444 lo!ations that are no, ,idel se'arated - o!eans. Its seeds ,ere large and hea) and !o#ld not ha)e -een trans'orted )er "ar - ,ind or ,ater. This s#ggests that the areas ,here Glosso'teris "ossils are no, "o#nd &#st on!e ha)e -een (oined together. B. The 3issing Cl#e: Paleo&agnetis& 9egener and his s#''orters gathered &ore and &ore e)iden!e in s#''ort o" !ontinental dri"t/ -#t &an s!ientists re&ained #n!on)in!ed. 9egener died in 1;@+ ,itho#t seeing the end o" the de-ate/ ,hi!h !ontin#ed a"ter his death. A t#rning 'oint o!!#rred in the 1;E+s tro#gh the st#d o" 'aleo&agnetis&/ an!ient &agnetis& 'reser)ed in ro!1s. 9hen la)a !ools and solidi"ies into ro!1/ it -e!o&es &agneti5ed and ta1es and the 'olarit 444 the north 444 so#th dire!tional 444it 444o" the Earth?s &agneti! "ield at that ti&e. D#st as a "ree J s,inging &agnet toda ,ill 'oint to,ard toda?s &agneti! north 'ole/ so too/ does a ro!1?s 'aleo&agnetis& a!t as a 'ointer to,ard the lo!ation o" the Earth?s &agneti! north 'ole at the ti&e o" ro!1 "or&ation. In the 1;E+s/ geologists st#ding the 'aleo&agnetis& o" ro!1 "ro& di""erent lo!alities "o#nd e)iden!e s#ggesting that the Earth?s &agneti! 'ole had ,andered all o)er the glo-e "or at least the 'ast se)eral h#ndred &illion ears. The 'lotted the 'ath,a o" the 'oles on &a's/ and re"erred to the 'heno&enon as a''arent 'olar ,andering 7"ig#re 1.C8. Geologists ,ere '#55led - this e)iden!e. The 1ne, that it ,as e%tre&el #nli1el that the &agneti! 'oles the&sel)es had &o)ed. Instead the !on!l#ded/ so&e,hat rel#!tantl/ that it &#st ha)e -een the !ontinents the&sel)es that had &o)ed/ !arring their &agneti! ro!1s ,ith the&. 9hat is 'olarit: Ans,er: The north J so#th dire!tionalit o" the Earth?s &agneti! "ield. 6ig#re 1.C ;. .ea"loor .'reading The ne, e)iden!e "ro& 'aleo&agnetis& hel'ed re)i)e the h'othesis o" !ontinental dri"t. B#t &an s!ientists ,ere still holding o#t "or a "inal 'ie!e o" e)iden!e that ,o#ld de&onstrate !on!l#si)el that a s#'er!ontinent had a!t#all s'lit a'art and seas had "lo,ed into the ,idening ri"t. The ,ere tring to en)ision a &e!hanis& ,here- the sea"loor !o#ld a!t#all s'lit o'en. This e)iden!e "inall a''eared/ -#t not #ntil the earl 1;<+s 444 three de!ade a"ter 9egener?s death. O!eanogra'hers &eas#ring the 'aleo&agneti! 'ro'erties o" ro!1s o" the Atlanti! O!ean 6loor ,ere astonished to "ind a re'eating series o" ro!1s ,ith alternating &agneti! 'olarities: one stri'e o" ro!1 ,ith the sa&e 'olarit 7sa&e &agneti! north 'ole8 as the Earth?s 'resent da &agneti! "ield/ and the ne%t stri'e ,ith the o''osite 'olarit 7north and so#th &agneti! 'oles re)ersed8. .!ientists !all these nor&al and re)ersed &agneti! 'olarities. The stri'e are h#ndreds o" 1ilo&eters long/ and the are e%a!tl s&&etri!al on either side o" the &idKo!ean ridge that r#ns do,n the &iddle o" the Atlanti! O!ean. In other ,ords/ i" o# !o#ld "old the sea"loor in hal" along the &ido!ean ridge/ the 'attern o" alternating 'aleo&agneti! stri'es on either side ,o#ld &at!h e%a!tl. 9hat !o#ld this 'ossi-l &ean: At "irst/ s!ientists ,ere &sti"ied - these s&&etri!al 'atterns o" &agneti! stri'es in sea"loor ro!1s. Then t,o gro#'s o" geologists/ ,or1ing inde'endentl/ !a&e #' ,ith sa&e e%'lanation. The 'ro'osed that the sea"loor had s'lit a'art along the &ido!ean rigde and that the ro!1s on either side ,ere &o)ing a,a "ro& the rigde 7"ig#re 1.E8. as the ro!1s s'read a'art/ la)a "ro& -ello, ,elled #' into the !ra!1/ solidi"ing into ne, )ol!ani! ro!1 on the sea"loor. 9hen the &olten la)a solidi"ied/ it too1 on the &agneti! 'olarit o" the Earth at the ti&e. O)er ti&e/ the s'reading sea"loor a!ted li1e a !on)eor -elt/ !arring the ne,l &agneti5ed ro!1 a,a "ro& the !enterline o" the ridge in either dere!tion. This 'ro!ess !a&e to -e 1no,n as sea"loor s'reading. The dis!o)er o" sea"loor s'reading ,as 'ro-a-l the single &ost 'o,er"#l 'ie!e o" e)iden!e in s#''ort o" the h'othesis o" !ontinental dri"t. Geologists ha)e sho,n that the ages o" sea"loor ro!1s in!rease ,ith distan!e "ro& the &ido!ean ridge. The o#ngest ro!1s are lo!ated along the !enterline o" the ridge/ ,here ne, la)a rises thro#gh the !ra!1 to the sea"loor. The "arther the ro!1s ha)e &o)ed "ro& the ridge/ the older the are. E)er hal" &illion ears or so/ "or resons that are not entirel #nderstood/ the Earth?s &agneti! "ield re)erses itsel" north -e!o&e so#th/ and so#th -e!o&es north. 7This is dis!#ssed in "#rther detail in !ha'ter @8. As &agneti! re)ersals o!!#rred in the 'ast/ the !hanging 'olarities ,ere re!orded in ne,l "or&ing ro!1s along the &ido!ean ridge. The res#lt ,as s&&etri!al stri'es o" ro!1 ,ith alternating 'olarities nor&al/ re)ersed/ nor&al/ re)ersed. This "inal 'ie!e o" e)iden!e !on)in!ed the great &a(orit o" geologists that sea"loor s'reading had indeed o!!#rred and that the !ontinents had dri"ted "ro& their original lo!ations. 6ig#re 1.E 9hat is the di""eren!e -et,een a ro!1 ,ith nor&al 'aleo&agneti! 'olarit and one ,ith re)ersed 'aleo&agneti! 'olarit: Ans,er: A ro!1 ,ith nor&al 'olarit has a &agneti! north 'ole in essentiall the sa&e orientation as the 'resent da north 'ole. A ro!1 ,ith re)ersed 'olarit has &agneti! north and so#th 'oles re)ersed "ro& their 'resent da orientations. 1+. Plate Te!toni!s In A N#tshell B the 1;<+s &ost s!ientists had -e!o&e !on)in!ed that !ontinental dri"t had reall o!!#rred. 2o,e)er/ it re&ained to '#t all o" this together into a !oherent &odel. This &odel -e!a&e the theor o" 'late te!toni!s. 7it?s !alled a theor no,/ instead o" a h'othesis. A h'othesis is an ed#!ated g#ess$ a theor is s#''orted - e%tensi)e s!ienti"i! e)iden!e and testing8. 2ere a -rie" s#&&ar o" the theor o" 'late te!toni!s. The o#ter&ost/ ro!1 'art o" the earth is the !r#st. As &entioned a-o)e/ there are t,o t'es o" !r#st/ ,hi!h is relati)el thi!1 7 a)erage thi!1ness CE 1&/ or @+ &ill8 and &ostl &ade o" granite/ and o!eani! !r#st/ ,hi!h is relati)el thin 7a)erage thi!1ness B 1&/ or a-o#t E &ill8 and &ostl &ade o" -asalt. Beneath the !r#st is the &antle/ also &ade o" ro!1s/ -#t di""erent "ro& the ro!1s o" the !r#st. At the !enter o" the earth is the !ore/ &ade o" iron ni!1el &etal/ not ro!1. 7o# ,ill learn &ore a-o#t the internal str#!t#re o" the earth in !ha'ter C8. Togheter/ the !r#st and the o#ter&ost 'art o" the &antle &a1e #' the lithos'here/ a thin/ !old/ -rittle/ ro!1 laer 7a-o#t 1++ 1&/ or <+ &ill/ thi!1/ on a)erage8. The &antle -elo, the lithos'here is )er hot/ so it is relati)el &allea-le/ li1e '#tt/ e)en tho#gh it is &ade o" solid ro!1. The 'art o" the &antle i&&ediatel -eneath the lithos'here is !alled the asthenos'here$ it is es'e!iall ,ea1 -e!a#se it is !lose to the te&'erat#re at ,hi!h ro!1s -egin to &elt. I" o# ,ere to do an e%'eri&ent in ,hi!h o# 'la!ed a )er thin/ !ool/ -rittle shell 7li1e the lithos'here8 on to' o" hot/ ,ea1 &aterial that is rather s0#ish 7li1e the asthenos'here8/ ,hat ,o#ld ha''en : o# &ight 'redi!t that the thin shell ,o#ld -rea1 into 'ie!es. That is 're!isel the state o" the earth?s lithos'here$ it is -ro1en into &an large "rag&ents/ or 'lates. Toda there are si% large lithos'heri! 'lates/ ea!h e%tending "or se)eral tho#sand o" 1ilo&eters/ and a large n#&-er o" s&aller 'lates. The 'lates are in a !ondition !alled isostas/ ,hi!h &eans that the are essentiall ="loating> on the ,ea1 asthenos'here/ li1e -lo!1s o" ,ood "loating on ,ater. Yo# !an e%'eri&ent ,ith 'late &otion - !are"#ll heating ,a% in a 'an and the letting it !ool #ntil it "or&s a thin s1in or !r#st. Be !are"#l &olten ,a% is )er hot. Thin1 again a-o#t thin/ -rittle "rag&ents "loating on to' o" hot/ s0#ish &aterial. Yo# &ight e%'e!t that &o)e&ent in the #nderling &aterial ,o#ld !a#se the -rittle "rag&ents to shi"t a-o#t. Again/ that is e%a!tl ,hat ha''ens to the earth?s lithos'heri! 'lates. As &o)e&ent o!!#rs in the hot &antle/ the 'lates shi"t and intera!t ,ith one other. .#!h &o)e&ents in)ol)e !o&'li!ated e)ents that are !olle!ti)el des!ri-ed - the ter& =te!toni!s> 7"ro& the Gree1 ,ord te1ton/ &eaning =!ar'enter> or =-#ilder>8. =Plate te!toni!s> th#s re"ers to the st#d o" the &o)e&ent and intera!tions o" lithos'heri! 'lates. 9hat is the lithos'here: Ans,er: The o#ter 1++ 1& 7<+ &i8 o" the earth$ the !r#st and the #''er 'art o" the &antle/ a-o)e the asthenos'here. 11. Plate 3argins And Intera!tions Lithos'heri! 'lates intera!t ,ith one another &ainl along their edges/ or &argins. Plates !an intera!t in three -asi! ,as$ the !an &o)e a,a "ro& ea!h other 7di)erge8$ the !an &o)e to,ard ea!h other 7!on)erge8$ or the !an slide 'ast ea!h other. Conse0#entl/ there are three 1inds o" 'late &argins: di)ergent/ !on)ergent/ and trans"or& "a#lt &argins. Ai)ergent &argins are h#ge "ra!t#res in the lithos'here ,here 'lates &o)e a'art "ro& one another 7"ig#re 1.<A8. 9hen o!eani! !r#st s'lits a'art/ sea"loor s'reading o!!#rs and a &ido!ean ridge is "or&ed/ li1e the one in the &iddle o" the atlanti! o!ean. 9hen !ontinental !r#st s'lits a'art/ a great ri"t )alle "or&s/ as in East A"ri!a ,here the A"ri!an Plate is -eing stret!hed and torn a'art. E)ent#all/ a ne, o!ean &a "or& in the ,idening !ontinental ri"t )alle$ a &odern e%a&'le o" this is the Red .ea. In -oth !ontinents and o!eans/ di)ergent &argins are !hara!teri5ed - earth0#a1es 7!a#sed - the s'litting and !ra!1ing o" the ro!1s8 and )ol!anis& 7!a#sed - &elted ro!1 "ro& the &antle ,elling #' into the "ra!t#res8. Con)ergent &argins o!!#r ,here t,o 'lates &o)e to,ard ea!h other. There are three -asi! t'es o" !on)ergent &argins: o!ean4o!ean/ o!ean4!ontinent/ and !ontinent4!ontinent. O!eni! !r#st is &ade o" -asalt/ ,hi!h is denser 7hea)4ier8 than the graniti! ro!1s that &a1e #' the !ontinent !r#st. 9hene)er o!eani! !r#st is in)ol)ed in !on)ergent &argin/ the dense o!eani! !r#st sin1s -eneath the other 'late 7"ig#re 1.<B8. This 'ro!ess is !alled s#-d#!tion/ and 'la!es ,here it o!!#rs are !alled s#-d#!tion 5ones. .#-d#!tion 5ones are &er1ed - dee' o!eani! tren!hes and lines o" )ol!anoes/ as in Indonesia 7an o!ean4o!ean s#-d#!tion 5one8 or the Andes 7an o!ean4!ontinent s#-d#!tion 5one8. 9hen one !ontinent &eets another !ontinent at a !on)ergent &argin/ no o!eani! !r#st is a)aila-le to "or& a s#-d#!tion 5one. Instead/ the !ontinents !ollide and !r#&'le #'/ "or&ing h#ge/ #'li"ted &o#ntain ranges li1e the 2i&alaa$ this is !ollision 5one 7"ig#re 1.<!8. !ollision 5ones and s#-d#!tion 5ones ha)e lots o" earth0#a1es a!ti)it/ !a#sed - ro!1s !olliding and grinding 'ast one another. Trans"or& "a#lt &argins are h#ge "ra!t#res in the lithos'here ,here t,o 'lates slide 'ast ea!h other/ grinding along their edges and !a#sing earth0#a1es as the go 7"ig#re 1.<A8. A "a&o#s &odern e%a&'le is the .an Andreas 6a#lt in Cali"ornia/ ,here the 'a!i"i! 'late is &o)ing north4north,est relati)e to the North A&eri!an Plate. All these t'es o" 'late intera!tion are o!!#rring toda/ as the ha)e o!!#rred tro#ghto#t &ost o" Earth?s histor. 9e don?t o"ten noti!e 'late &otion -e!a#se lithos'heri! 'lates &o)e )er slo,l #s#all -et,een 1 and 1+ !enti&eters 'er ear. B#t ,e o"ten "eel the earth0#a1es and o-ser)e the )ol!ani! a!ti)it that ha''ens along a!ti)e 'late &argins. The s!ars and re&nants o" an!ient 'late intera!tions are also 'reser)ed in the ro!1 re!ord "or #s to st#d. 9hat is the di""eren!e -et,een a !ollision 5one and a s#-d#!tion 5one: Ans,er: A !ollision 5one o!!#rs ,here t,o !ontinents !on)erge. A s#-d#!tion 5one o!!#rs along o!ean4 !ontinent or o!ean4o!ean !on)ergent &argins. 1*. Con)e!tion: The Ari)ing 6or!e The theor o" 'late te!toni!s has -een a!!e'ted - al&ost all geologist/ -#t so&e 0#estions re&ain. 9hat !a#ses 'late &otion: 2o, does the &antle intera!t ,ith the !r#st: 9hat &a1es s#-d#!tion o!!#r: .!ientists ha)e a -asi! #nderstanding o" these 'ro!esses/ -#t the details ha)e not -een !o&'letel ,or1ed o#t. 9e 1no, that ther&al &o)e&ent in the &antle is at least 'artl res'onsi-le "or the &o)e&ent o" lithos'heri! 'lates. 9e also 1no, that &o)e&ent in the &antle is !a#sed - the release o" heat "ro& inside the earth. Let?s e%a&ine the Earth?s heatreleasing 'ro!esses and !onsider ho, the !a#se 'late &otion. The te&'erat#re inside the Earth is high a-o#t E+++ o Celsi#s 7C8 7&ore than ;+++ o
6ahrenheit F6G in the !ore. .o&e o" this heat is le"t o)er "ro& the Earth?s -eginnings/ -#t so&e o" it is !onstantl -eing generated - the de!a o" radioa!ti)e ele&ents inside the Earth. This heat &#st -e released$ i" it ,as not/ the Earth ,o#ld e)ent#all -e!o&e so hot that its entire interior ,o#ld &elt. .o&e o" the Earth?s internal heat &a1es its ,a slo,l to the s#r"a!e thro#gh !ond#!tion/ in ,hi!h heat energ 'asses "ro& one ato& to the ne%t. 2o,e)er/ !ond#!tion is a slo, ,a to trans"er heat. It is "aster and &ore e""i!ient "or a 'a!1et o" hot &aterial to -e 'hsi!all trans'orted to the s#r"a!e. This is si&ilar to ,hat ha''ens ,hen a "l#id -oils on a sto)eto'/ as in the ,a% e%'eri&ent des!ri-ed a-o)e. I" o# ,at!h a "l#id s#!h as ,a% or s'aghetti sa#!e as it -oils/ o# ,ill see that it t#rns o)er and o)er. Pa!1ets o" hot &aterial rise "ro& the -otto& o" the 'ot to the to'. As it rea!hes the s#r"a!e/ the hot "l#id !ools and then sin1s -a!1 do,n to the -otto& o" the 'ot/ ,here it is reheated. The !ontin#o#s &otion o" &aterial "ro& -otto& to to' and do,n again is !alled a !on)e!tion =!ell>/ and this t'e o" heat trans"er is !alled !on)e!tion. E)en tho#gh the Earth?s &antle is &ostl solid ro!1/ it is so hot that it releases heat - !on)e!tion 7"ig#re 1.I8. Ro!1 dee' in the &antle heats #' and e%'ands/ &a1ing it -#oant. As a res#lt/ the ro!1 &o)e to,ard the s#r"a!e )er/ )er slo,l in h#ge !on)e!tion !ells o" solid ro!1. Near the s#r"a!e/ the hot ro!1 &o)e along the s#r"a!e ,hile losing heat/ li1e the s'aghetti sa#!e. The &o)e&ent o" hot ro!1 in the asthenos'here is tho#ght to -e the &ain !a#se o" 'late &otion. As the ro!1 !ools/ it -e!o&es denser 7!ool ro!1 is denser/ or hea)ier/ than hot ro!18 and sin1s -a!1 into the dee'er 'arts o" the &antle. This !on)e!tion !!le 'ro)ides an e""i!ient ,a "or the Earth to rid itsel" o" so&e o" its internal heat. Con)e!tion and the &o)e&ent o" 'lates near the s#r"a!e !reate so&e o" the &ost distin!ti)e geologi! and to'ogra'hi! "eat#res o" the Earth?s s#r"a!e: the dee' tren!hes ,here o!eani! 'lates are s#-d#!ted into the &antle$ the &ido!ean ridges and !ontinental ri"t )alles ,here 'lates s'lit a'art$ and the high/ "olded and !r#&'led &o#ntain !hains ,here !ontinents !ollide. Con)e!tion in the &antle is not nearl as si&'le as !on)e!tion in a 'ot on a sto)eto'. .o&e o" the &ost !hallenging #nans,ered 0#estions a-o#t 'late te!toni!s ha)e to do ,ith the e%a!t nat#re o" this 'ro!ess. Aoes the ,hole &antle !on)e!t as a #nit/ or is the to' 'art o" the &antle !on)e!ting se'aratel "ro& the -otto&: In s#-d#!tion 5ones/ are the 'lates dragged do,n into the &antle/ or do the sin1 #nder their o,n ,eight: 9hat is the e%a!t sha'e o" !on)e!tion !ells in the &antle: .!ientists are still see1ing the ans,ers to these and other 0#estions a-o#t 'late te!toni!s. 9hat is the te&'erat#re in the Earth?s !ore: Ans,er: A-o#t E+++ o C 7;+++ o 68. Yo# ha)e !on)ered and enor&o#s a&o#nt o" &aterial in this !ha'ter an entire s!ienti"i! re)ol#tion in a "e, 'agesL 3an o" the !on!e'ts 'resented in this !ha'ter &a see& di""i!#lt and #n"a&iliar to o# no,/ -#t don?t ,orr. Plate te!toni!s is the "o#ndation "or o#r #nderstanding o" the Earth and its 'ro!esses and &aterials/ so &an o" these ideas ,ill -e re)isited in the !ha'ters to "ollo,. No, test o#r 1no,ledge o" his &aterial - tring o#t the sel" test. Self Test 1. The ages o" sea"loor ro!1s generall MMMMM ,ith distan!e "ro& a &ido!ean ridge/ on either side o" the ridge. a. in!rease -. de!rease !. sta the sa&e d. )ar irreg#larl *. The .an Andreas 6a#lt in Cali"ornia is a &odern4da e%a&'le o" a MMMMM 'late &argin. a. !ollisional -. s#-d#!tion 5one !. di)ergent d. trans"or& "a#lt @. The ='lates> in 'late te!toni!s are &ade o" "rag&ents o" MMMM a. !ontinents -. o!eani! !r#st !. the lithos'here d. the &antle C. The ,ea1 laer o" the &antle/ i&&ediatel #nderling the lithos'here/ is !alled the MMMM. E. The Earth has t,o "#nda&entall di""erent t'es o" !r#st: MMMM. !r#st is &ade &ainl o" -asalti! ro!1s/ and MMMMM.. !r#st is &ade &ainl o" graniti! ro!1s. <. Along a non!li""ed shoreline/ the land #s#all slo'es )er gentl to,ard the sea$ this gentl slo'ing land is !alled the a-ssial 'lain. 7T or 68 I. 9here)er there is a !o)ergent 'late &argin/ a s#-d#!tion 5one ,ill de)elo'. 7T or 68 B. Con)e!tion is "aster and &ore e""i!ient than !ond#!tion as a &e!hanis& o" heat trans"er. 7T or 68 ;. Is the !oastline/ ,here the land &eets the ,ater/ the tr#e edge o" a !ontinent: 9h/ or ,h not: 1+. 9hat is the di""eren!e -et,een a h'othesis and a theor: 11. 9h is it tri!1 to &at!h ro!1 t'es and other geologi! "eat#res a!ross a !ontinental s'lit/ s#!h as ,here so#th A&eri!a and A"ri!a ,ere on!e (oined: 1*. 2o, does the disti-ition o" gla!ial de'osits s#''ort the idea that the !ontinents ,ere on!e (oined together in the s#'er!ontinent Pangaea: 1@. .#&&ari5e the &ain t'es o" 'late &argins. Ans,ers: 1. a *. d @. ! C. Asthenos'here E. O!eani!$ Continental <. 6 I. 6 B. T ;. No. The tr#e edge o" a !ontinent is ,here !ontinental !r#st &eets o!eani! !r#st/ -#t this is #s#all !o)ered - &#d 7and so&eti&es - ,ater8. 9e de"ine the edge o" a !ontinent to -e hal",a do,n the !ontinental slo'e. 1+. A theor is s#''orted - e%tensi)e s!ienti"i! e)iden!e and testing$ a h'othesis is an ed#!ated g#ess. 11. Ro!1 "or&ing 'ro!esses ne)er !ease. .o&e ro!1s ,ere "or&ed -e"ore the !ontinents ,ere (oined/ so&e ,hile the ,ere (oined/ others d#ring the s'litting o" the !ontinents/ and still others a"ter the -e!a&e se'arated. 1*. 9hen the !ontinents are rotated -a!1 into the =(oined> 'osition 7Pangaea8/ the geolog and ages o" gla!ial de'osits &at!h re&ar1a-l ,ell a!ross the (oins. Gla!ial groo)es and s!rat!hes sho, that the i!e ,as &o)ing o#t,ard in all dire!tions "ro& ,hat ,as then the so#th 'ole. 1@. The &ain t'es o" 'late &argins are di)ergent 7o!eani! or !ontinental8$ !on)ergent s#-d#!tion 5one 7o!ean4o!ean or o!ean4!ontinent8$ !on)ergent !ollision 5one 7!ontinent4 !ontinent8$ trans"or& "a#lt. BAB 1 PLATE TEKTONIK : REVOLUSI DALAM GEOLOGI 1 . Memahami Bumi Geologi adalah !udi ilmiah "umi . Geologi adalah ilmu muda # !e!a$i !elah ada e"agai ua!u dii$li% ilmiah mode&% elama le"ih da&i '(( !ahu% . S!udi !e%!a%g "umi e)a&a !&adiio%al di"agi me%*adi dua "ida%g !udi +a%g lua : geologi ,i- da% geologi e*a&ah . Geologi ,i- me%+a%g-u! $&o)ee +a%g "e&o$e&ai $ada a!au di "a.ah $e&mu-aa% "umi da% "aha%/"aha% +a%g $&oe !hoe "e&o$e&ai. Be"e&a$a )o%!oh $&oe geologi adalah gu%u%g "a%gu%a% # le!ua% gu%u%g "e&a$i # "a%*i& u%gai # gem$a "umi # da% $em"e%!u-a% de$oi! "i*ih . Be"e&a$a )o%!oh "aha% geologi da% mi%e&al # "a!u# !a%ah # la0a # da% ai& . Geologi e*a&ah me%+a%g-u! $e&i!i.a geologi +a%g !e&*adi di maa lalu . Pe&i!i.a i%i da$a! di"a)a da&i )a!a!a% &o)- . Ahli geologi e*a&ah me%)o"a u%!u- me%*a.a" $e&!a%+aa%/$e&!a%+aa% e$e&!i -e!i-a lau!a% !e&"e%!u- # me%ga$a di%oau&u $u%ah # -e!i-a Ro)- Mou%!ai% %ai- # da% -e!i-a $oho% $e&!ama -ali mu%)ul . Geologi e*a&ah mem"a%!u -i!a mem"a%gu% -&o%ologi -e*adia% dalam e*a&ah "umi da% mem"e&i -i!a -o%!e- u%!u- memahami li%g-u%ga% -i!a aa! . Ada "a%+a- dae&ah +a%g le"ih -huu !udi dalam domai% !&adiio%al geologi ,i- da% e*a&ah . Se"agai )o%!oh# 0ol)a%ologi! mem$ela*a&i gu%u%g "e&a$i da% le!ua% # ahli gem$a da% mem$ela*a&i gem$a "umi # mi%e&al !udi !e%!a%g mi%e&al da% -&i!al # 1oil !udi $aleo%!olog da% e*a&ah -ehidu$a% di Bumi # !udi geologi !&u-!u&al "agaima%a "a!u $e)ah da% !i-u%ga% # ahli geologi e-o%omi mem$ela*a&i $em"e%!u-a% da% !e&*adi%+a de$oi! "i*ih "e&ha&ga . S$eialiai i%i di$e&lu-a% -a&e%a geologi meli$u!i e$e&!i "e&"agai !o$i- . Geologi! adalah ilmu.a% +a%g mem"ua! -a&ie& da&i !udi ilmiah Bumi . Namu% am$ai "a!a !e&!e%!u -i!a emua ahli geologi . Semua o&a%g +a%g hidu$ di $la%e! i%i "e&ga%!u%g $ada um"e& da+a da&i "umi : ai&# !a%ah # "a%gu%a% "a!u # logam # "aha% "a-a& 1oil # $e&ma!a # $la!i- 2 !e&"ua! da&i mi%+a- "umi 3 # -e&ami- 2 !e&"ua! da&i mi%e&al !a%ah lia! 3 # ga&am 2 ga&am -a&a%g mi%e&al 3 # da% maih "a%+a- lai% . Ki!a di$e%ga&uhi oleh $&oe geologi e!ia$ ha&i -i!a me%gha"i-a% di $e&mu-aa% $la%e! i%i di%ami. De%ga% "ela*a& e"a%+a- +a%g -i!a da$a! !e%!a%g $&oe i%i # -i!a "ia me%*adi le"ih "ai-/i%1o&mai # $e%gauh le"ih "e&!a%ggu%g *a.a" da&i $la%e! &umah -i!a . Nama ada )o%!oh $&oe geologi . 4o"alah u%!u- memi-i&-a% e!ida-%+a a!u )o%!oh +a%g !ida- die"u!-a% dalam !e- . 5a.a"a% : )o%!oh dalam !e- adalah gu%u%g "a%gu%a% # le!ua% gu%u%g "e&a$i # "a%*i& u%gai # gem$a "umi # da% $em"e%!u-a% de$oi! "i*ih . Be"e&a$a )o%!oh lai% adalah ge&a-a% ai& !a%ah # mi%+a- da% $em"e%!u-a% "a!u "a&a # $e%gua$a% # da% e&oi . Da$a!-ah A%da memi-i&-a% lagi 6 Nama ada )o%!oh "aha% geologi . 4o"alah u%!u- memi-i&-a% e!ida-%+a a!u )o%!oh +a%g !ida- die"u!-a% dalam !e- . 5a.a"a% : )o%!oh dalam !e- adalah mi%e&al # "a!ua% # la0a # da% ai& . Be"e&a$a )o%!oh lai%%+a adalah !a%ah # magma # e glaial # da% ga alam . Da$a!-ah A%da memi-i&-a% lagi 6 ' . Geologi Lalu Da% Se-a&a%g : Re0olui Ilmiah Bah-a% ilmu emuda geologi da$a! memili-i &e0olui # da% i!ulah +a%g !e&*adi $ada !ahu% 178( . Pada aa! i!u # e"uah !eo&i "a&u mu%)ul da% "e%a&/"e%a& me%gu"ah $emahama% -i!a !e%!a%g $&oe geologi . Ala!# me!ode # da% "ah-a% "ahaa geologi "e&u"ah e"agai hail da&i &e0olui ilmiah . 5i-a A%da mem$ela*a&i geologi e"elum !ahu% 178(/a% # A%da mu%g-i% i%ga! "e"e&a$a i!ilah +a%g !ida- lagi digu%a-a% aa! i%i. I!ilah/i!ilah e$e&!i 9 eugeo+%)li%e 9 da% 9 miogeo+%)li%e 9 digu%a-a% u%!u- me%ggam"a&-a% ,!u& !o$og&a, $e&mu-aa% "umi +a%g ahli geologi +a%g diama!i !e!a$i !ida- "ia me%*ela-a% . De%ga% mu%)ul%+a !eo&i lem$e%g !e-!o%i- # ,!u& i%i me%gam"il ma-%a "a&u . A-i"a!%+a # ahli geologi mulai me%ggu%a-a% i!ilah "a&u u%!u- me%ggam"a&-a% $emahama% -i!a !e%!a%g "umi . Ba" i%i $e&!ama /// da%# mema%g # "a%+a- da&i ia "u-u i%i /// me%+a%g-u! &e0olui lem$e%g !e-!o%i- da% "agaima%a ia !elah dii%1o&mai-a% da% me%gu"ah $emahama% -i!a !e%!a%g "umi . Ta$i geologi aa! i%i eda%g me%galami &e0olui lai% # le"ih halu . Re0olui i%i dido&o%g oleh -emam$ua% $a&a ilmu.a% u%!u- me%gama!i da% me%gum$ul-a% i%1o&mai !e%!a%g "umi e)a&a -eelu&uha% $la%e! # me%ggu%a-a% i%!&ume% +a%g di$aa%g $ada a!eli! . Kemam$ua% i%i )u-u$ "a&u# i%ga! "ah.a !ida- ada +a%g $e&%ah meliha! gam"a& elu&uh "umi am$ai !ahu% 178( # -e!i-a 1o!o $e&!ama diam"il da&i Bumi da&i &ua%g a%g-aa . 4i!&a a!eli! da% da!a +a%g di-um$ul-a% da&i lua& a%g-aa mem"e&i-a% ilmiah 1ou%da!io%1o& !udi -i!a !e%!a%g E&a!h e"agai i!em +a%g !e&i%!eg&ai . Ilmu i!em Bumi # -a&e%a $e%de-a!a% i%i die"u! # "u-a%lah hal +a%g "a&u dalam ,la1a! # !a$i ala!/ala! da% !e-%i- +a%g a%ga! "a&u . Ala!/ala! i%i digu%a-a% dalam "e&"agai a$li-ai# da&i $&a-i&aa% )ua)a u%!u- $ema%!aua% $e&u"aha% !i%g-a! edime%!ai # me%gu-u& ali&a% e di -u!u" # me%)a&i um"e& da+a mi%e&al # me%do-ume%!ai-a% e*auh ma%a !um$aha% mi%+a- # $ela)a-a% $e%i$ia% o:o% !&a!o,& # da% "a%+a- lai%%+a . Melalui ilmu i!em Bumi # ahli geologi "e&-o%!&i"ui $ada $emahama% -i!a !e%!a%g "umi e)a&a -eelu&uha% # "agaima%a Bumi "e&u"ah da&i .a-!u -e .a-!u # da% dam$a- da&i !i%da-a% ma%uia $ada i!em Bumi . Nama e!ida-%+a !iga a$li-ai ilmu i!em Bumi .