From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Rutherfordium (Rf) is an artificial element, and thus a standard atomic mass cannot be given. Like all artificial
elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was either
259
Rf in 1966 or
257
Rf in 1969.
There are 15 known radioisotopes from
253
Rf to
268
Rf (2 of which,
266
Rf and
268
Rf, are unconfirmed) and 4
isomers. The longest-lived isotope is
267
Rf with an estimated half-life of 5 hours. The longest directly measured
half-life is
263
Rf at 11 minutes, and the longest-lived isomer is
261m
Rf with a half-life of 81 seconds.
1 Table
1.1 Notes
2 Nucleosynthesis
2.1 Hot fusion studies
2.2 Cold fusion studies
2.3 Decay studies
2.4 Nuclear isomerism
2.5 Future experiments
3 Chemical yields of isotopes
3.1 Cold fusion
3.2 Hot fusion
4 References
5 External links
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1 of 10 1.3.2014 21:27
nuclide
symbol
Z(p) N(n)

isotopic mass (u)

half-life
decay
mode(s)
[1][n 1]
daughter
isotope(s)
nuclear
spin
excitation energy
253
Rf
104 149 253.10044(44)# 13(5) ms
SF (51%) (various)
(7/2)(+#)
(49%)
249
No
253m
Rf
200(150)# keV
52(14) s
[48(+17-10) s]
(1/2)(-#)
254
Rf
104 150 254.10005(30)# 23(3) s
SF (99.7%) (various)
0+
(.3%)
250
No
255
Rf
104 151 255.10127(12)# 1.64(11) s
SF (52%) (various)
(9/2-)#
(48%)
251
No
256
Rf
104 152 256.101152(19) 6.45(14) ms
SF (96%) (various)
0+
(6%)
252
No
257
Rf
104 153 257.102918(12)# 4.7(3) s
(79%)
253
No
(1/2+)

+
(18%)
257
Lr
SF (2.4%) (various)
257m
Rf
114(17) keV 3.9(4) s (11/2-)
258
Rf
104 154 258.10343(3) 12(2) ms
SF (87%) (various)
0+
(13%)
254
No
259
Rf
104 155 259.10560(8)# 2.8(4) s
(93%)
255
No
7/2+# SF (7%) (various)

+
(.3%)
259
Lr
260
Rf
104 156 260.10644(22)# 21(1) ms
SF (98%) (various)
0+
(2%)
256
No
261
Rf
104 157 261.10877(5) 5.5(25) s
(76%)
257
No
3/2+#

+
(14%)
261
Lr
SF (10%) (various)
261m
Rf
70(100)# keV 81(9) s

+ 261
Lr
9/2+#
(rare)
257
No
262
Rf
104 158 262.10993(24)# 2.3(4) s
SF (99.2%) (various)
0+
(.8%)
258
No
262m
Rf
600(400)# keV 47(5) ms SF (various) high
263
Rf
104 159 263.1125(2)# 11(3) min
SF (70%) (various)
3/2+#
(30%)
259
No
265
Rf
[n 2]
104 161 265.11668(39)# 2.5 min SF (various)
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266
Rf
[n 3][n 4]
104 162 266.11817(50)# 10# h 0+
267
Rf
[n 5]
104 163 267.12179(62)#
5# h
[2.3(+980-17) h]
SF (various)
268
Rf
[n 3][n 6]
104 164 268.12397(77)# 1# h 0+
^ Abbreviations:
EC: Electron capture
SF: Spontaneous fission
1.
^ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of
285
Fl 2.
^
a

b
Discovery of this isotope is unconfirmed 3.
^ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of
282
Uut 4.
^ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of
287
Fl 5.
^ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of
288
Uup 6.
Notes
Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends.
Spins with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty
values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC
which use expanded uncertainties.
Super-heavy elements such as rutherfordium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle
accelerators that induces fusion reactions. Whereas most of the isotopes of rutherfordium can be synthesized
directly this way, some heavier ones have only been observed as decay products of elements with higher atomic
numbers.
[2]
Depending on the energies involved, the former are separated into "hot" and "cold". In hot fusion reactions,
very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets (actinides), giving rise to compound
nuclei at high excitation energy (~4050 MeV) that may either fission or evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons.
[2]
In cold fusion reactions, the produced fused nuclei have a relatively low excitation energy (~1020 MeV),
which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to
the ground state, they require emission of only one or two neutrons, and thus, allows for the generation of more
neutron-rich products.
[3]
The latter is a distinct concept from that of where nuclear fusion claimed to be
achieved at room temperature conditions (see cold fusion).
[4]
Hot fusion studies
The synthesis of rutherfordium was first attempted in 1964 by the team at Dubna using the hot fusion reaction of
neon-22 projectiles with plutonium-242 targets:
242
94
Pu +
22
10
Ne
264-x
104
Rf + 3 or 5 n.
The first study produced evidence for a spontaneous fission with a 0.3 second half-life and another one at
8 seconds. While the former observation was eventually retracted, the latter eventually became associated with
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Diagram of the experimental set-up used in the discovery of
isotopes
257
Rf and
259
Rf
the
259
Rf isotope.
[5]
In 1966, the Soviet team repeated the experiment using a chemical study of volatile
chloride products. They identified a volatile chloride with eka-hafnium properties that decayed fast through
spontaneous fission. This gave strong evidence for the formation of RfCl
4
, and although a half-life was not
accurately measured, later evidence suggested that the product was most likely
259
Rf. The team repeated the
experiment several times over the next few years, and in 1971, they revised the spontaneous fission half time for
the isotope at 4.5 seconds.
[5]
In 1969, researchers at the University of California led by Albert Ghiorso, tried to confirm the original results
reported at Dubna. In a reaction of curium-248 with oxygen-16, they were unable to confirm the result of the
Soviet team, but managed to observe the spontaneous fission of
260
Rf with a very short half-life of 1030 ms:
248
96
Cm +
16
8
O
260
104
Rf + 4 n.
In 1970, the American team also studied the same reaction with oxygen-18 and identified
261
Rf with a half-life
of 65 seconds (later refined to 75 seconds).
[6][7]
Later experiments at the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory in California also revealed the formation of a short-lived isomer of
262
Rf (which undergoes
spontaneous fission with a half-life of 47 ms),
[8]
and spontaneous fission activities with long lifetimes tentatively
assigned to
263
Rf.
[9]
The reaction of californium-249 with carbon-13 was
also investigated by the Ghiorso team, which
indicated the formation of the short-lived
258
Rf
(which undergoes spontaneous fission in 11 ms):
[10]
249
98
Cf +
13
6
C
258
104
Rf + 4 n.
In trying to confirm these results by using carbon-12
instead, they also observed the first alpha decays
from
257
Rf.
[10]
The reaction of berkelium-249 with nitrogen-14 was
first studied in Dubna in 1977, and in 1985,
researchers there confirmed the formation of the
260
Rf isotope which quickly undergoes spontaneous
fission in 28 ms:
[5]
249
97
Bk +
14
7
N
260
104
Rf + 3 n.
In 1996 the isotope
262
Rf was observed in LBNL from the fusion of plutonium-244 with neon-22:
244
94
Pu +
22
10
Ne
266-x
104
Rf + 4 or 5 n.
The team determined a half-life of 2.1 seconds, in contrast to earlier reports of 47 ms and suggested that the two
half-lives might be due to different isomeric states of
262
Rf.
[11]
Studies on the same reaction by a team at
Dubna, lead to the observation in 2000 of alpha decays from
261
Rf and spontaneous fissions of
261m
Rf.
[12]
The hot fusion reaction using a uranium target was first reported at Dubna in 2000:
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238
92
U +
26
12
Mg
264-x
104
Rf + x n (x = 3, 4, 5, 6).
They observed decays from
260
Rf and
259
Rf, and later for
259
Rf. In 2006, as part of their program on the study
of uranium targets in hot fusion reactions, the team at LBNL also observed
261
Rf.
[12][13][14]
Cold fusion studies
The first cold fusion experiments involving element 104 were done in 1974 at Dubna, by using light titanium-50
nuclei aimed at lead-208 isotope targets:
208
82
Pb +
50
22
Ti
258-x
104
Rf + x n (x = 1, 2, or 3).
The measurement of a spontaneous fission activity was assigned to
256
Rf,
[15]
while later studies done at the
Gesellschaft fr Schwerionenforschung Institute (GSI), also measured decay properties for the isotopes
257
Rf,
and
255
Rf.
[16][17]
In 1974 researchers at Dubna investigated the reaction of lead-207 with titanium-50 to produce the isotope
255
Rf.
[18]
In a 1994 study at GSI using the lead-206 isotope,
255
Rf as well as
254
Rf were detected.
253
Rf was
similarly detected that year when lead-204 was used instead.
[17]
Decay studies
Most isotopes with an atomic mass below 262 have also observed as decay products of elements with a higher
atomic number, allowing for refinement of their previously measured properties. Heavier isotopes of
rutherfordium have only been observed as decay products. For example, a few alpha decay events terminating
in
267
Rf were observed in the decay chain of darmstadtium-279 since 2004:
279
110
Ds
275
108
Hs +
271
106
Sg +
267
104
Rf + .
This further underwent spontaneous fission with a half-time of about 1.3 h.
[19][20][21]
Investigations on the synthesis of the dubnium-263 isotope in 1999 at the University of Bern revealed events
consistent with electron capture to form
263
Rf. A rutherfordium fraction was separated, and several spontaneous
fission events with long lifetimes of about 15 minutes were observed, as well as and alpha decays with lifetimes
of about 10 minutes.
[9]
Reports on the decay chain of flerovium-285 in 2010 showed five sequential alpha
decays that terminate in
265
Rf, which further undergoes spontaneous fission with a life-time of 152 seconds.
[22]
Some experimental evidence was obtained in 2004 for an even heavier isotope,
268
Rf, in the decay chain of an
isotope of ununpentium:
288
115
Uup
284
113
Uut +
280
111
Rg +
276
109
Mt +
272
107
Bh +
268
105
Db + ?
268
104
Rf +
e
.
However, the last step in this chain was uncertain. After observing the five alpha decay events that generate
dubnium-268, spontaneous fission events were observed with a long half-time. It is unclear whether these events
were due to direct spontaneous fission of
268
Db, or
268
Db produced electron capture events with long half-times
to generate
268
Rf. If the latter is produced and decays with a short life-time, the two possibilities cannot be
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5 of 10 1.3.2014 21:27
Currently suggested decay level
scheme for
257
Rf
g,m
from the studies
reported in 2007 by Hessberger et al.
at GSI
[28]
distinguished.
[23]
Given that the electron capture of
268
Db cannot be detected, these spontaneous fission events
may be due to
268
Rf, in which case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted.
[24][25]
According to a 2007 report on the synthesis of ununtrium, the isotope
282
113 was observed to undergo a similar
decay to form
266
Db, which undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of 22 minutes. Given that the
electron capture of
266
Db cannot be detected, these spontaneous fission events may be due to
266
Rf, in which
case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted.
[26][27]
Nuclear isomerism
Several early studies on the synthesis of
263
Rf have indicated that this
nuclide decays primarily by spontaneous fission with a half-life of 1020
minutes. More recently, a study of hassium isotopes allowed the
synthesis of atoms of
263
Rf decaying with a shorter half-life of 8
seconds. These two different decay modes must be associated with two
isomeric states, but specific assignments are difficult due to the low
number of observed events.
[9]
During research on the synthesis of rutherfordium isotopes utilizing the
244
Pu(
22
Ne,5n)
261
Rf reaction, the product was found to undergo
exclusive 8.28 MeV alpha decay with a half-life of 78 seconds. Later
studies at GSI on the synthesis of copernicium and hassium isotopes
produced conflicting data, as
261
Rf produced in the decay chain was
found to undergo 8.52 MeV alpha decay with a half-life of 4 seconds.
Later results indicated a predominant fission branch. These
contradictions led to some doubt on the discovery of copernicium. The
first isomer is currently denoted
261a
Rf (or simply
261
Rf) whilst the
second is denoted
261b
Rf (or
261m
Rf). However, it is thought that the
first nucleus belongs to a high-spin ground state and the latter to a
low-spin metastable state.
[29]
The discovery and confirmation of
261b
Rf provided proof for the discovery of
copernicium in 1996.
[30]
A detailed spectroscopic study of the production of
257
Rf nuclei using the reaction
208
Pb(
50
Ti,n)
257
Rf allowed
the identification of an isomeric level in
257
Rf. The work confirmed that
257g
Rf has a complex spectrum with 15
alpha lines. A level structure diagram was calculated for both isomers.
[31]
Similar isomers were reported for
256
Rf also.
[32]
Future experiments
The team at GSI are planning to perform first detailed spectroscopic studies on the isotope
259
Rf. It will be
produced in the new reaction:
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Cold fusion
The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions producing
rutherfordium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements.
+ represents an observed exit channel.
Projectile Target CN 1n 2n 3n
50
Ti
208
Pb
258
Rf
38.0 nb, 17.0 MeV 12.3 nb, 21.5 MeV 660 pb, 29.0 MeV
50
Ti
207
Pb
257
Rf
4.8 nb
50
Ti
206
Pb
256
Rf
800 pb, 21.5 MeV 2.4 nb, 21.5 MeV
50
Ti
204
Pb
254
Rf
190 pb, 15.6 MeV
48
Ti
208
Pb
256
Rf
380 pb, 17.0 MeV
Hot fusion
The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for hot fusion reactions producing rutherfordium
isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents
an observed exit channel.
Projectile Target CN 3n 4n 5n
26
Mg
238
U
264
Rf
240 pb 1.1 nb
22
Ne
244
Pu
266
Rf
+ 4.0 nb
18
O
248
Cm
266
Rf
+ 13.0 nb
^ http://www.nucleonica.net/unc.aspx 1.
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a

b
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c
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c
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Isotope masses from:
M. Wang; G. Audi; A.H. Wapstra; F.G. Kondev; M. MacCormick; X. Xu et al. (2012). "The
AME2012 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references" (http://amdc.in2p3.fr
/masstables/Ame2012/Ame2012b-v2.pdf). Chinese Physics C, 36 (12): 16032014.
Bibcode:2012ChPhC..36....3M (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ChPhC..36....3M).
doi:10.1088/1674-1137/36/12/003 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1088%2F1674-1137%2F36%2F12%2F003).
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon; Bersillon; Blachot; Wapstra
(2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov
/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729 (1): 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A). doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001).
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
J. R. de Laeter, J. K. Bhlke, P. De Bivre, H. Hidaka, H. S. Peiser, K. J. R. Rosman and P. D. P.
Taylor (2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)"
(http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/75/6/0683/pdf/). Pure and Applied Chemistry 75 (6):
683800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200375060683).
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M. E. Wieser (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)"
(http://iupac.org/publications/pac/78/11/2051/pdf/). Pure and Applied Chemistry 78 (11):
20512066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200678112051). Lay
summary (http://old.iupac.org/news/archives/2005/atomic-weights_revised05.html).
Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources. See editing notes on this article's talk
page.
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon; Bersillon; Blachot; Wapstra
(2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov
/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729 (1): 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A). doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001).
National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.1 database" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/).
Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved September 2005.
N. E. Holden (2004). "Table of the Isotopes". In D. R. Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics (85th ed.). CRC Press. Section 11. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.
http://www.radiochemistry.org/periodictable/elements/isotopes_data/104.html
http://www-phynu.cea.fr/science_en_ligne/carte_potentiels_microscopiques/choix/isotopes
/z104_eng.html
http://www.springermaterials.com/docs/info/978-3-540-70609-0_7730.html
Isotopes of lawrencium Isotopes of rutherfordium Isotopes of dubnium
Table of nuclides
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