01-2012

An Introduction to English Pragmatics

.
References - required:
Thomas, J. (1995) Meaning in Interaction. Longman.
Yule, . (199!) "ragmatics, #$%or& 'ni(ersit) "ress.
Additional*
+riel, M. (2010) ,e%ining "ragmatics, -am.ri&ge.
/ro0n, "., 1.-. Le(inson (1923) "oliteness. 1ome uni(ersals in language
use, -am.ri&ge 'ni(ersit) "ress.
-ruse, +. (200!) + lossar) o% 1emantics an& "ragmatics, 4&in.urgh '".
reen, . M. (1939) "ragmatics an& 5atural Language 'n&erstan&ing, L4+.
run&), ". (1995) ,oing "ragmatics, +rnol&.
6orn, L.7., . 8ar& (e&s) (2009) The 6an&.oo: o% "ragmatics, /lac:0ell.
6uang, Y. (2002) "ragmatics, #$%or& 'ni(ersit) "ress.
Leech, . (193;) "rinci<les o% "ragmatics, Longman.
Le(inson, 1te<hen -. (193;) "ragmatics, -am.ri&ge 'ni(ersit) "ress.
Me), L. Jaco. (199;) "ragmatics. +n Intro&uction, /lac:0el.l
"eccei, J. 1. (1999) "ragmatics. Ta)lor = >rancis 7outle&ge.
?erschueren, J. (1999) 'n&erstan&ing "ragmatics, +rnol&.
1
+ssessment* atten&ance an& course 0or:, oral <resentation
(%ormat o% han&out* citation@ summar) or main i&eas gi(en in <oints@
:e) e$am<lesAillustrati(e te$t) or 0ritten <a<er, %inal cre&its test
TOPICS* 1. ,e%inition o% <ragmatics, its <osition 0ithin linguistics@ 2.
-om<uting conte$t@ ;. ,ei$is@ 9. 1<eech acts@ 5. Im<licit meaning*
<resu<<osition - entailment, re%erence - in%erence, con(entional
im<licature@ !. -on(ersational im<licature (non-con(entional im<licit
meaning)@ 2. 5on-o.ser(ance o% the ma$ims@ 3. Testing %or
im<licature@ 9. "oliteness - . Leech@ /ro0n-Le(inson
Definitions of Pragmatics
Jef erschueren (1999, 1)* +t the most elementar) le(el,
<ragmatics can .e &e%ine& as the study of language use, or to
em<lo) a some0hat more com<licate& <hrasing, the stu&) o%
linguistic <henomena %rom the <oint o% (ie0 o% their usage,
<ro<erties an& <rocesses. This .ase-le(el &e%inition &oes not
intro&uce a strict .oun&ar) .et0een <ragmatics an& some other
areas in the %iel& o% linguistics, such as &iscourse anal)sis,
sociolinguistics, or con(ersation anal)sis.
Linguistics of language resources (the ingre&ients that ma:e
u< a language as a tool that <eo<le use %or e$<ressi(e an&
communicati(e <ur<oses@ com<onent &isci<lines*
<honeticsA<honolog), mor<holog), s)nta$, semantics, an& their
res<ecti(e units o% anal)sis)
Linguistics of language use: the pragmatic perspective
(6o0 are the linguistic resources use&B c%. &i%%erent usage
con&itions o% John broke the figurine, The figurine was
broken by John, The figurine was broken, The figurine got
broken)
1ummar) &e%inition* "ragmatics is a general, cogniti(e,
social, an& cultural <ers<ecti(e on linguistic <henomena in
relation to their usage in %orms o% .eha(iour.
!an "uang (2002, 2)* "ragmatics is the s)stematic stu&) o%
meaning .) (irtue o%, or &e<en&ent on, the use o% language.
The central to<ics o% inCuir) o% <ragmatics inclu&e
im<licature, <resu<<osition, s<eech acts, an& &ei$is.
#$ !ule (199!)* >our areas o% <ragmatics* "ragmatics is the stu&)
o% meaning@ "ragmatics is the stu&) o% conte$tual meaning@
"ragmatics is the stu&) o% ho0 more gets communicate& than is
sai&@ "ragmatics is the stu&) o% the e$<ression o% relati(e &istance.
Jenn% Thomas (1995) - overview of the tenor of definitions*
,e%initions in the earl) 1930s* Pragmatics deals with
meaning in use (or meaning in context)
ThomasDs o0n &e%inition* &ragmatics is concerned
'ith meaning in interaction
,ominant contem<orar) a<<roaches*
Pragmatics deals with (a) speaker meaning (<ro&ucer
%ocuse&), (b) utterance interpretation (recei(er %ocuse&)
Meaning and its levels (aspects)*
1. a(stract meaning o% a 0or&, <hrase, sentence (linguistic,
&ictionar), literal sense, %ace (alue, etc.)
2. s&ea)er*'riter meaning, i.e. (i) contextual meaning (or
utterance, sentence meanings)@ an& (ii) force (the s<ea:erDs
intention in communication)@ c%. sentence meaning* 8hat &oes
E meanB (ersus s<ea:er meaning* 8hat &oes 1 mean .)
sa)ing EB
;. inter&reted meaning, i.e. 0hat the hearer un&erstan&s
(i) Contextual meaning arises out o% <ro<erl) assigning* sense,
re%erence an& structural inter<retation in conte$t
Three causes of <otential sentence-level ambiguity*
am.iguit) o% sense, re%erence an& structure
4$am<les o% conte$t &e<en&enc) - &iscuss sentence
meaning (s s<ea:er meaning, source o% am.iguit)*
Whats wrong with cat (-onte$t* 8hat 0e 0ant is the arm) to
ta:e o(er this countr). 1ee a .it o% &isci<line then, 0e 0oul&....
The >orces, thatFs the thing. >log Fem, is 0hat I sa). i(e Fem
something to remem.er across their .ac:si&es. 8hatDs 0rong
0ith catB)
!e swallowed it" (-onte$t* 8hat &i& the cat &o 0ith the
s<i&erB 6o0 &i& the .oss react to )our e$cuse)
+* Whats this #lump$ theyre always on about /* %ead it
out"
+* (74+,1 +L#',) #%e&enue crack down on lump$
/* 'h, isnt it something to do with casual labour on
building sites The way theyre paid ( tax e&asion and
that G5ote* -#4,*
lum&
+
; (the lum<) )ritish informal casual em<lo)ment
in the .uil&ing tra&e@ Hu:IJ:aKBL
In a ne0s<a<er* *orrection The +old pouffe which started
the fire at ,, -ouglas *ottages, as reported last week,
referred to an item of furniture and not to the owner, .r
-onnie .c/rthur"
gra%%iti* 0n Peoples *hina the workers take the lead1 (to
0hich ha& .een a&&e&) 0n capitalist 2ngland, the sods
also take the iron, copper, floorboards and fillings from
your teeth1
+m.iguit) o% re%erence an&Aor structure*
/nd 3ust think, if he hadnt fallen out of bed, 0d ne&er
ha&e found out about it1 (an o(erhear& remar:)
/utumn lea&es may pro&e dangerous to old people,
especially when they fall and become a wet soggy mess
on the pa&ement"
/fterwards, the )ishop walked among the pilgrims
eating their picnic lunches"
This dramatic work deals with the fate of a woman thwarted in
lo&e, while capturing life in %ussia in all its harshness """
)iting flies can pro&e troublesome for )ritish tourists"
(ii) Force or 0hat the s<ea:er reall) means (usuall) more than
he sa)s)* 0s this your car 0ts hot in here"
hy study pragmatics! Most o% our misun&erstan&ings o% other
<eo<le are not &ue to an) ina.ilit) to hear them or to <arse their
sentences or to un&erstan& their 0or&s ... a %ar more im<ortant
source o% &i%%icult) in communication is that 0e so o%ten %ail to
un&erstan& a s<ea:erDs intention
Other ,ie's of &ragmatics
Jaco( -$ .e% (199;, 131-2)* micropragmatics M the <ragmatics
o% the lesser units o% human language use* %rom Cuestions o%
im<licature, &ei$is, ana<hora an& re%erence u< to an& inclu&ing
s<eech acts.
macropragmatics M t0o 0a)s o% un&erstan&ing this term* the
extensional 0a) o% sim<l) enlarging the sco<e o% the units ...* rather
than e$amining isolate& sentences or utterances, 0e consi&er those
same sentences an& utterances <lace& in the conte$ts in 0hich the)
.elong ...@ (this means either) e$ten&ing the sco<e o% the in&i(i&ual
utterances ma:ing u< the te$t (i.e. context)@ or* &ealing 0ith the
larger context in 0hich <eo<le use language, in <articular %or the
<ur<ose o% con(ersation.
(5ote* these terms are use& &i%%erentl) .) ?erschueren*
micro<ragmatic issues M language resources in a <ragmatic
<ers<ecti(e, the <rag-
matics o% small-scale interaction@ macro<ragmatics M intercultural
an& international communication, the <ragmatics o% 0i&e societal
&e.ates)
Ste&hen C$ -e,inson (193;) Possi(le definitions of &ragmatics*
+$ "ragmatics is the stu&) o% those <rinci<les that 0ill account %or
0h) a certain set o% sentences are anomalous, or not <ossi.le
utterances. /$ "ragmatics is the stu&) o% language %rom a
%unctional <ers<ecti(e. 0$ "ragmatics is concerne& solel) 0ith
<rinci<les o% language usage. 1$ "ragmatics is the stu&) o% those
relations .et0een language an& conte$t that are grammaticali2ed,
or enco&e& in the structure o% a language. 3$ "ragmatics is the stu&)
o% all those as<ects o% meaning not ca<ture& in a semantic theor).
4$ "ragmatics is the stu&) o% the relations .et0een language an&
conte$t that are .asic to an account o% language un&erstan&ing 5$
2
"ragmatics is the stu&) o% the a.ilit) o% language users to <air
sentences 0ith the conte$ts in 0hich the) 0oul& .e a<<ro<riate. 6$
"ragmatics is the stu&) o% &ei$is (at least in <art), im<licature,
<resu<<osition, s<eech acts, an& as<ects o% &iscourse structure.
.ira Ariel (2010, 2;0, 2;;)* ... the main argument o% the .oo:
(9.1), namel) our resolution o% the grammarA<ragmatics
<ara&o$, accor&ing to 0hich a grammarA<ragmatics &i(ision
o% la.or is &ra0n .ase& on a co&e (ersus in%erence
&istinction. ... #ne Cuestion is, i% grammar consists o% co&es
an& <ragmatics consists o% in%erences, an& the t0o stan& %or
t0o &istinct cogniti(e <henomena, 0h) is is the
co&eAin%erence &i(ision o% la.or sometimes &i%%icult to
a<<l)B ... 6o0e(er, ha(ing &ra0n the &istinction, 0e ha(e
seen that language use an& inter<retation is more o%ten than
not the <ro&uct o% .oth co&es an& in%erences.
D$ Schiffrin (+<<roaches to ,iscourse, /lac:0ell, 1999, 190)*
"ragmatics is another .roa& a<<roach to &iscourse* it &eals 0ith
three conce<ts (meaning, conte$t, communication) that are
themsel(es e$tremel) (ast an& un0iel&). i(en such .rea&th, it
is not sur<rising that the sco<e o% <ragmatics is so 0i&e, or that
<ragmatics %aces &e%initional &ilemmas similar to those %ace&
.) &iscourse anal)sis. (+n& so 1chi%%rin) ... %ocuses on one
<articular t)<e o% <ragmatics M ricean <ragmatics M not onl)
.ecause some other &e%initions o% <ragmatics co(er much o%
the same groun& as &iscourse anal)sis, .ut .ecause this theor)
has .ecome Hthe hu. o% <ragmatics researchK.
Schifrin, D., Tannen, D. , Hamilton, H. E. (eds)( 2003) Introduction,
in The Handbook o Discourse !nal"sis # $lack%ell# &'ears a(o,
)harles *illmore ca+tured the essence o discourse b" +resentin( the
ollo%in( t%o sentences, each o %hich a++eared as a si(n at a
s%immin( +ool. ,ne si(n said, Please use the toilets, not the pool.
The other si(n said, Pool for members only. -ead se+aratel", each
si(n is reasonable enou(h. $ut %hen the t%o sentences are read as
i the" %ere +art o a sin(le discourse, the second sentence orces a
reinter+retation o the .rst that +ro/okes lau(hter (or, i taken
seriousl", outra(e). *illmore0s e1am+le ca+tures %hat %e mi(ht call
the (it o discourse# ne% meanin(s are created throu(h the
relationshi+ bet%een sentences. $ut it also illustrates %hat %e mi(ht
call the curse o discourse# since more than one meanin( can be
created, ho% do %e decide %hich meanin( is intended, is 2usti.able,
and3or makes the most sense45
Similarl" a si(n on an !merican (as station# Eat here and (et (as.
"istor% and sco&e
"orn-7ard 86an&.oo: o% "ragmatics)* Intro&uction
6ra(matics as a .eld o lin(uistic in7uir" %as
initiated in the 8930s b" :orris, )arna+, and 6eirce,
or %hom s"nta1 addressed the ormal relations o
si(ns to one another, semantics the relation o si(ns
to %hat the" denote, and +ra(matics the relation o
si(ns to their users and inter+reters (:orris 893;). In
this +ro(ram, +ra(matics is the stud" o those
conte1t<de+endent as+ects o meanin( %hich are
s"stematicall" abstracted a%a" rom in the
construction o content or lo(ical orm.
The landmark e/ent in the de/elo+ment o a
s"stematic rame%ork or +ra(matics %as the
deli/er" o =rice0s (89>?) @illiam Aames lectures, a
masterul (i incom+lete) +ro(ram that sho%ed ho% a
re(imented account o lan(ua(e use acilitates a
sim+ler, more ele(ant descri+tion o lan(ua(e
structure. Since then, a +rimar" (oal o +ra(matics
has been the one reBected in $ar<Hillel0s celebrated
%arnin( (89?8# C0D)# &$e careul %ith orcin( bits and
+ieces "ou .nd in the +ra(matic %astebasket into
"our a/orite s"ntactico<semantic theor". It %ould
+erha+s be +reerable to .rst brin( some order into
the contents o this %astebasket.5 :ore recentl",
%ork in +ra(matic theor" has e1tended rom the
attem+t to rescue s"nta1 and semantics rom their
o%n unnecessar" com+le1ities to other domains o
lin(uistic in7uir", ran(in( rom historical lin(uistics to
the le1icon, rom lan(ua(e ac7uisition to
com+utational lin(uistics, rom intonational structure
to co(niti/e science.
In this Handbook, %e ha/e attem+ted to address
both the traditional and the e1tended (oals o
theoretical and em+irical +ra(matics. It should be
noted, ho%e/er, that other traditions < es+eciall"
amon( Euro+ean scholars < tend to em+lo" a broader
and more sociolo(ical conce+tion o +ra(matics that
encom+asses all as+ects o lan(ua(e use not allin(
strictl" %ithin ormal lin(uistic theor"E see or
e1am+le the entries in Ferschueren et al. (899D) and
:e" (899;) and, or a more restricted /ie%,
:oeschler and -eboul (899C). *or reasons o s+ace
and coherence o +resentation, %e ha/e lar(el"
restricted our co/era(e to the more narro%l"
circumscribed, mainl" !n(lo<!merican conce+tion o
lin(uistic and +hiloso+hical +ra(matics and its
a++lications.
The Handbook is di/ided into our +arts. 6art I
contains o/er/ie%s o the basic sub.elds %ithin
+ra(matic theor"# im+licature, +resu++osition, s+eech
acts, reerence, dei1is, and (in)de.niteness. The
domain o discourse, and in +articular the structurin(
o inormation %ithin and across sentences, is the
ocus o the cha+ters in +art II. The cha+ters in +art III
concentrate on the interaces bet%een +ra(matics
and other areas o stud", %hile those in +art IF
e1amine the role o +ra(matics in co(niti/e theor".
*or centuries beore the .eld had a label or identit",
+ra(matics as %e no% understand it has radiated
out%ard rom that as+ect o human inerential
beha/ior =rice calls im+licature, the as+ect o
s+eaker meanin( that distin(uishes %hat is (strictl")
said rom %hat is (more broadl") meant. GPragmatics
and politeness# Sadock < Indirect s+eech acts and
+oliteness ... in most cases some notion o +oliteness
+la"s a roleH
!$ "uang (2002, 9)* 4"4"5 Two main schools of in pragmatics6
/nglo7/merican &ersus 2uropean *ontinental" """ 8ithin the
%ormer conce<tion o% linguistics an& the <hiloso<h) o% language,
<ragmatics is &e%ine& as the s)stematic stu&) o% meaning .) (irtue
o%, or &e<en&ent on, language use. The central to<ics o% inCuir)
inclu&e im<licature, <resu<<osition, s<eech acts, an& &ei$is. This is
:no0n as the com&onent (ie0 o% <ragmatics, namel), the (ie0
that <ragmatics shoul& .e treate& as a core com<onent o% a theor)
o% language, on a <ar 0ith <honetics, <honolog), mor<holog),
s)nta$, an& semantics. /) contrast, other areas such as
anthro<ological linguistics, a<<lie& linguistics, an&
<s)cholinguistics 0oul& lie outsi&e this set o% core com<onents.
8ithin -ontinental tra&ition, <ragmatics is &e%ine& in a %ar .roa&er
(ie0, encom<assing much that goes un&er the ru.ric o%
sociolinguistics, <s)cholinguistics, an& &iscourse anal)sis. 8itness,
%or e$am<le, ?erschuerenDs (1999* 2, 11) &e%inition that
F<ragmatics constitutes a general %unctional (i.e. cogniti(e, social,
an& cultural) <ers<ecti(e on linguistic <henomena in relation to
their usage in the %orm o% .eha(iourD. This re<resents the
&ers&ecti,e (ie0 o% <ragmatics, namel), the (ie0 that <ragmatics
shoul& .e ta:en as <resenting a %unctional <ers<ecti(e on e(er)
as<ect o% linguistic .eha(iour. More or less the same is true o% the
&e%inition o% <ragmatics <ro(i&e& 0ithin the %ormer 1o(iet an& 4ast
4uro<ean tra&ition. 'n&er this a<<roach, <ragmatics (calle&
<ragmalinguistics) is in general concei(e& o% as a theor) o%
linguistic communication, inclu&ing ho0 to in%luence <eo<le
through (er.al messages ("rucha 193;).
Semantics and Pragmatics
#$ -eech (1emantics, 1931, <<. ;19-20): Three a<<roaches to
<ragmatics, semanticism (<ragmatics shoul& .e su.sume& un&er
semantics) M <ragmaticism (semantics shoul& .e su.sume& un&er
<ragmatics) M com<lementarism (s. an& <. are &istinct an&
com<lementar) %iel&s o% stu&)).
A$ Cruse (Meaning in Language. +n Intro&uction to 1emantics an&
"ragmatics, 2009, 2
n&
e&.)* -ontents M "art 1 >un&amental 5otions,
"art 2 8or&s an& Their meanings, "art ; 1emantics an& rammar,
"art 9 "ragmatics
#$ #a2darDs ("ragmatics* im<licature, <resu<<osition an& logical
%orm. 5e0 Yor:* +ca&emic "ress.1929, <. 9) o%ten Cuote& %ormula*
F"ragmatics is meaning 0ithout semantics.D
J$ S$ Peccei (1999, <<. 1-2)* 7"AT IS PRA#.ATICS9
8e e$<lore the &i%%erent meanings o% meaning an& the :in&s o%
issues 0hich are &ealt 0ith .) semantics an& <ragmatics.
8hat &o these chil&ren still nee& to learn a.out using
languageB
+ little .o) comes in the %ront &oor.
Mother* 8i<e )our %eet, <lease.
;
6e remo(es his mu&&) shoes an& soc:s an& care%ull) 0i<es his
clean %eet on the &oormat.
+ %ather is tr)ing to get his ;-)ear-ol& &aughter to sto<
li%ting u< her &ress to &is<la) her ne0 un&er0ear to the
assem.le& guests.
>ather* 8e &onDt ,# that.
,aughter* I N5#8, ,a&&). You &onDt 84+7 &resses.
The chil&renDs :no0le&ge o% (oca.ular) an& grammar &oes not
a<<ear to .e the <ro.lem. 8hen the little .o)Ds mother as:e& him
to 0i<e his %eet, that is e$actl) 0hat he &i&. The little girl e$<laine&
0h) her %ather 0as not <artici<ating in the un&er0ear sho0 0ith
<er%ect grammar an& Cuite im<ecca.le logic. The <ro.lem is that
the chil&ren a<<ear to ha(e un&erstoo& 0hat the 0or&s meant .ut
not 0hat their <arents meant. +s a&ults, 0e usuall) arri(e at the
s<ea:erDs meaning so e%%ortlessl) that 0e ten& to .e una0are o% the
consi&era.le amount o% s:ill an& :no0le&ge that 0e use& to
accom<lish this. 1emantics an& <ragmatics are the t0o main areas
o% linguistic stu&) that loo: at the :no0le&ge 0e use .oth to e$tract
meaning 0hen 0e hear or rea&, an& to con(e) meaning 0hen 0e
s<ea: or 0rite. 8ithin linguistics itsel%, the &i(i&ing line .et0een
these t0o &isci<lines is still un&er consi&era.le &e.ate. 6o0e(er,
generall) s<ea:ing, 14M+5TI-1 concentrates on meaning that
comes %rom <urel) linguistic :no0le&ge, 0hile "7+M+TI-1
concentrates on those as<ects o% meaning that cannot .e <re&icte&
.) linguistic :no0le&ge alone an& ta:es into account :no0le&ge
a.out the <h)sical an& social 0orl&.
9
Ste&hen C$ -e,inson: Pragmatics: Cam(ridge ;P: +<60: &&$
15-30
+$1 Com&uting conte=t: an e=am&le
+.stract &iscussions a.out the sco<e o% <ragmatics li:e 0e
ha(e re(ie0e& a.o(e, ma) 0ell lea(e the rea&er 0ith little
%eeling %or the nature o% <ragmatic <henomena. 6ere an
e$ten&e& e$am<le ma) hel< to clari%) the :in&s o% %acts 0ith
0hich <ragmatic theories are concerne&.
22
Let us ta:e a sim<le
three-sentence e$change .et0een t0o <arties, an& as: 0hat
in%ormation it <ro(i&es us 0ith a.o(e an& .e)on& 0hat might
.e gi(en .) the semantic content o% the com<onent sentences.
More s<eci%icall), 0e can as: 0hat im<lications are carrie& .)
the sentences a.out the conte$ts in 0hich the) are .eing use&.
The e$am<le is constructe& - the rea&er is 0arne& .ecause goo&
reasons %or <re%erring naturall) occurring con(ersational &ata
0ill .e gi(en in -ha<ter !. 6ere is the e$change*
(;2) (i) +* So can %ou &lease come o,er here again right no'
(ii) /* 7ell: I ha,e to go to Edin(urgh toda% sir
(iii) +* "mm$ "o' a(out this Thursda%9
It is not &i%%icult to see that in un&erstan&ing such an
e$change 0e ma:e a great num.er o% &etaile& (<ragmatic)
in%erences a.out the nature o% the conte$t in 0hich (;2) can .e
assume& to .e ta:ing <lace.
23
>or e$am<le, 0e in%er the %acts in
(;;)*
(;;) 4" 0t is not the end of the con&ersation (nor the beginning)
2. + is reCuesting / to come to + at (or soon a%ter) the time o% s<ea:ing@ /
im<lies he canOt (or 0oul& rather not) com<l)@ + re<eats the reCuest %or
some other time
5" 0n re8uesting, / must (a) want ) to come now, (b) think
it possible that ) can come, (c) think ) is not already
there, (d) think ) was not about to come anyway, (e)
expect that ) will respond with an acceptance or
re3ection, and if ) accepts, then / will also expect ) to
come, (f) think that his (/9s) asking may be a possible
moti&e for ) to come, (g) not be, or be pretending not
to be, in a position to order ) to come
:" / assumes that ) knows where / is; / and ) are not in
the same place; neither / nor ) are in 2dinburgh; /
thinks ) has been to /9s place before
<" The day on which the exchange is taking place is not
Thursday, nor Wednesday (or, at least, so / belie&es)
=" / is male (or so ) belie&es); / is acknowledged by )
to ha&e a higher social status than ) (or to be playing
the role of a superior)
#.(ious to the <oint o% te&iousness though some o% these
in%erences ma) .e,
29
the) are not, on a reasona.le circum-
scri<tion o% semantic theor), <art o% the semantic content o% the
three sentences. 7ather, the) re%lect our a.ilit) to com<ute out
o% utterances in seCuence the conte$tual assum<tions the)
im<l)* the %acts a.out the s<atial, tem<oral an& social
relationshi<s .et0een <artici<ants, an& their reCuisite .elie%s
an& intentions in un&erta:ing certain (er.al e$changes. /ut i%
the in%erences are not (or not all) <art o% the FliteralD meaning or
con(entional content o% 0hat is sai&, %rom 0hat sources &o the)
ariseB #ne <ossi.ilit) is that the sentences sim<l) in(o:e
mental associations, in the 0a) that hearing, sa), the 0or&
prognosis might ma:e one thin: o% hos<itals. /ut here that &oes
not seem to .e the case. The in%erences are s)stematic, the) are
&eco&a.le .) &i%%erent inter<reters in the same 0a), an& 0ithout
most o% them the e$change cannot .e un&erstoo&@ most o% them
must there%ore .e <art o% 0hat is communicate&, in riceOs strict
sense o% meant-nn. /ut a.o(e all, 0e can trace each o% these
in%erences to the %acts that trigger them, namel), as<ects o% the
%orm an& Pu$ta<osition o% the utterances themsel(es, an& 0e can
go on to s<eci%) the regular <rinci<les that, gi(en such as<ects
o% utterances, <ro&uce the in%erences in Cuestion. The -ha<ters
.elo0 0ill each .e concerne& 0ith <articular <rinci<les o% this
:in&, .ut let us here Pust i&enti%) the as<ects o% the utterances
that trigger each o% the in%erences.
>irst, 0e :no0 ((;;) 1) that it is not the en& o% the
con(ersation .ecause utterance (iii) is not a <ossi.le closing
utterance* %or one thing, it reCuires a res<onse %rom /, an& %or
another it is not a to:en o% one o% the regular closing %orms that
<ersons use in con(ersation ('kay, see you later or the li:e).
That is, some turns at tal:ing come in <airs@ such that one <art
o% the <air reCuires the secon& <art in res<onse, 0hile
con(ersations ha(e o(erall structures 0ith 0ell-.oun&e&
.eginnings an& en&ings. In short 0e ha(e strong e$<ectations
a.out the structure o% con(ersation 0hich 0arrant man)
&i%%erent :in&s o% in%erence (see -ha<ter !). 8e also
inci&entall) :no0 that it is not the .eginning (although that,
.eing :no0n in a&(ance .) <artici<ants, is not <art o% 0hat is
communicate&), .ecause there is no to:en o% a con(ersational
o<ening (li:e hello), an& the <article so 0ith 0hich utterance (i)
.egins has the %unction o% t)ing the <resent utterance .ac: to
<rior utterances.
8e :no0 the %acts in (;;) 2 in a rather more com<licate&
0a). 8hereas the interrogati(e %orm o% the %irst utterance might
.e claime& to enco&e a Cuestion, that is not all that is inten&e&*
it 0oul& .e stri:ingl) uncoo<erati(e i% / 0ere to sa) yes
(meaning Pust F)es I am a.le to comeD) an& then not go to +.
1omeho0, the interrogati(e %orm can also con(e) a reCuest, an&
this inter<retation is strongl) rein%orce& here .) the <resence o%
the 0or& please (see -ha<ter 5). Much more &i%%icult is to see
ho0 /Os res<onse in (ii) can .e un&erstoo& as a reCuest re%usal,
%or there is no o(ert relation at all .et0een its semantic content
an& that %unction. The im<lication relies on some (er) general
e$<ectation o% interactional co-o<eration, 0hich allo0s one to
assume that i% one utterance calls %or a res<onse (an& the reCuest
in (i) &oes so), then one ma) assume (other things .eing eCual)
that a %ollo0ing utterance is a rele(ant res<onse (see -ha<ters ;
an& !). 1uch an assum<tion is strong enough that 0hen one
comes across a res<onse that is a<<arentl) irrele(ant (as (ii)
o(ertl) a<<ears to .e), an in%erence is triggere& that 0oul&
<reser(e the assum<tion o% rele(ance. 6ere, in (ii), the utterance
<ro(i&es the clue* / has to go to 4&in.urgh@ thus i% + an& / are
.oth %ar %rom 4&in.urgh (an& mutuall) :no0 this), so that it
0ill ta:e the rest o% the &a) to tra(el an& &o things there, then /
is .us) to&a)@ so / is in&irectl) <ro&ucing a reason 0h) he or
she canOt easil) come to see +, an& in so &oing can .e
un&erstoo& to .e re%using +Os reCuest. In actual %act there is Pust
one o(ert trigger %or this in%erence* the <article well in 4nglish
ser(es to 0arn the reci<ient that some in%erencing must .e &one
to <reser(e the assum<tion o% rele(ance. It can .e <lausi.l)
claime& that, li:e so an& man) other 0or&s, well has no
semantic content, onl) <ragmatic s<eci%ications %or usage. (1ee
-ha<ter ;@ an alternati(e account o% this in%erence an& the role
o% well can .e constructe& using the notion o% dis&referred
res<onse in -ha<ter !.)
In (;;) 2 0e also ha(e the in%erence that utterance (iii)
counts as a re<eat reCuest. To account %or this, 0e 0oul& nee&
%irst o% all to e$<lain ho0 the %orm how about >2%)ing is more
or less restricte& to usages in suggestions (again, this loo:s li:e
a linguistic %orm that has <ragmatic rather than semantic
content, a <ro.lem &iscusse& in -ha<ter 5). 1o + is suggesting
that someone &o something on Thurs&a). +gain, in or&er to
<reser(e the assum<tion o% rele(ance, an in%erence must .e
ma&e a.out 0ho is to &o 0hat* since the last mention o%
someone &oing something in(ol(e& / going to +, that is
<resuma.l) 0hat + inten&s, an& ma) thus .e ta:en to ha(e
meant. 6ere 0e seem to .e im<licitl) rel)ing on a %urther
assum<tion, namel) an assum<tion o% to<ical coherence* i% a
secon& utterance can .e inter<rete& as %ollo0ing on a %irst
utterance, in the sense that the) can .e Fhear&D as .eing
concerne& 0ith the same to<ic, then such an inter<retation o%
the secon& utterance is 0arrante& unless there are o(ert
in&ications to the contrar) (again, see -ha<ters ; an& !).
>inall), the <article hmm is not &ismissa.le as Pust a
F<er%ormance errorD or a F%ille& <auseD@ it has s<eci%ic
interactional %unctions, .est e$<licate& in terms o% the s)stem
%or ta:ing turns at s<ea:ing in con(ersation, 0here it can .e
5
seen to .e (amongst other things) a turn-hol&ing &e(ice (see
-ha<ter !).
8e come no0 to the in%erences in (;;) ;. 8hat are the
sources %or theseB 8e ha(e alrea&) seen that in&irectl) the
Cuestion in utterance (i) must .e un&erstoo& as a reCuest. 5o0 it
sim<l) %ollo0s that, i% + is reCuesting / to come, an& + is
.eha(ing rationall) an& sincerel), 0e ma) assume all the %acts
in (a)-(g). 8h)B "artl) .ecause i% 0e e$<licate the conce<t o%
reCuesting, it 0ill .e %oun& to .e constitute& o% the (er) s<ea:er
.elie%s an& 0ishes liste& in <art in (a)-(g) (see -ha<ter 5). /ut
o% course it 0oul& .e <ossi.le to go through the .eha(ioural
motions o% reCuesting 0ithout ha(ing an) o% the reCuisite
.elie%s an& intentions. There%ore one is 0arrante& in ma:ing the
in%erence %rom the .eha(iour to the .elie%s an& intentions o% the
s<ea:er onl) .) a general assum<tion o% sincerit), or co-
o<erati(eness (see -ha<ter ;). I% + :no0s in a&(ance that /
canOt come, then he is .eing &ece<ti(e@ .ut i% he :no0s that /
:no0s that he :no0s that / canOt come, then he cannot .e
inter<rete& as reCuesting at all (utterance (i) might then .e a
Po:e, or i% / is in an inca<acitate& (sa), ine.riate&) state,
<erha<s a gi.e).
The in%erences in (;;) 9 are easier to account %or. The
0or& here, &enotes the (<ragmaticall) .oun&e&) <lace 0here the
s<ea:er (+) is at the time o% s<ea:ing@ i% / &oes not :no0 (or
cannot %in& out) 0here + is, here is uninter<reta.le in the sense
that / cannot com<l) 0ith the reCuest to go there. 1o + 0oul&
.e less than %ull) co-o<erati(e or rational i% he &i& not thin: that
/ :ne0 (or coul& %in& out) 0here he 0as. 8e also :no0 that +
an& / are not in the same <lace (or at least are at some &istance
%rom one another). 8e :no0 this .ecause the 0or& come (at
least 0ith the tense an& as<ect in (i)) &enotes either motion
to0ar&s the s<ea:er at the time o% s<ea:ing (as in *ome to
breakfast, Johnny) or motion to0ar&s the a&&resseeOs location at
the time o% s<ea:ing (as in 09m coming, .ummy). 5ote that as
0ith here, the meaning o% come can onl) .e e$<licate& .)
re%erence to <ragmatic or conte$tual <arameters (s<ea:ers,
a&&ressees, times an& <laces o% s<ea:ing). In utterance (i), come
cannot &enote mo(ement to0ar&s the a&&ressee, .ecause the
su.Pect o% come is )ou, an& the a&&ressee can har&l) mo(e to
0here the a&&ressee alrea&) is. 1o it must &enote mo(ement
to0ar&s the s<ea:er@ .ut again, the a&&ressee can har&l) mo(e
to0ar&s the s<ea:er i% there is no signi%icant &istance .et0een
them@ there%ore + an& / are not in the same <lace. 6ere 0e
might note that the) are also not in 4&in.urgh* 0e :no0 this %or
/ .ecause / claims to ha(e to go to 4&in.urgh, an& go here
means mo(ement a0a) %rom the <lace o% the s<ea:er at the time
o% s<ea:ing@ 0e :no0 it %or + also, .ecause i% + is in 4&in.urgh,
then /Os ha(ing to go to 4&in.urgh can har&l) .e an e$cuse %or
/ not going to + to&a). 8e ma:e all these in%erences on the
.asis o% the &eictic 0or&s, come, go an& here (not to mention
now), together 0ith reasoning a.out the nature o% our <h)sical
0orl& (see -ha<ter 2). + natural inter<retation (.) an o.ser(er
or anal)st) o% this &eictic set-u< is that + an& / are tal:ing on
the tele<hone. >inall), 0e :no0 that (+ .elie(es that) / has
.een to +Os <resent location .e%ore .ecause o% the 0or& again*
this can .e claime& to .e a <ragmatic rather than a semantic
im<lication Pust .ecause, unli:e semantic im<lications, those
associate& 0ith again are not normall) negate& .) the negation
o% the main (er.. 8e are incline& there%ore to sa) that again
&resu&&oses, rather than semanticall) entails, that some e(ent
re%erre& to ha<<ene& .e%ore as 0ell (see -ha<ter 9).
The im<lication (;;) 5, that the &a) o% s<ea:ing is other
than 8e&nes&a) or Thurs&a), is also &ue to &ei$is (e$<laine& in
-ha<ter 2), %or the 0or& Thursday in utterance (iii) is use& in a
&eictic 0a) that in(o:es <ragmatic <arameters (there are other
usages that &o not, e.g. Pay day is Thursday). 6ere the mo&i%ier
this <ic:s out a <articular Thurs&a) in relation to the s<ea:erOs
location in the 0ee:* this Thursday means the Thurs&a) o% the
0ee: in 0hich the s<ea:er is s<ea:ing.
;0
/ut on Thurs&a), the
Thurs&a) o% this 0ee: cannot, .) <ragmatic con(ention, .e
re%erre& to as this Thursday@ 0e must instea& sa) today. /) the
same to:en, 0e cannot sa) this Thursday on 8e&nes&a),
.ecause 0e ought to sa) tomorrow. 1o the e$change in (;2)
ta:es <lace neither on 8e&nes&a) nor on Thurs&a). (There ma)
.e some &i%%erent restrictions on usage here in &i%%erent (arieties
o% 4nglish, an& there are also some interesting am.iguities@ see
-ha<ter 2 .elo0 an& >illmore, 1925)
>inall), 0e ha(e the in%erences in (;;) ! that + is male,
an& o% a<<arentl) higher social status than /. These are .ase&
most soun&l) on the (ocati(e item sir, %or that is 0hat that 0or&
seems to mean. +gain, on a truth-con&itional theor) o%
semantics, those meanings cannot .e ca<ture& - 0e 0oul& not
0ant to sa) that /Os assertion in (ii) 0as %alse i% / ha& sim<l)
misi&enti%ie& + an& assume& mista:enl) that + 0as a male
su<erior (that 0oul& ma:e truths relati(e to 0homsoe(er the)
are a&&resse&).
;1
>urther, in an intuiti(e 0a), the meanings o%
sir here are not <art o% the content o% 0hat is asserte&@ the) are
.ac:groun& assum<tions a.out the conte$t, s<eci%icall) the :in&
o% <erson / is a&&ressing. 8e ma) there%ore sa) that sir
con,entionall% im&licates that the a&&ressee is male an&
sociall) higher in ran: than the s<ea:er (see -ha<ter ;).
There are no doubt many other pragmatic inferences
that can be wrung from an exchange as short and
insignificant as this" )ut these will ser&e to indicate the
general nature of the phenomena that pragmatics is
concerned with" The point is that we can compute out of
se8uences of utterances, taken together with background
assumptions about language usage, highly detailed
inferences about the nature of the assumptions participants
are making, and the purposes for which utterances are
being used" 0n order to participate in ordinary language
usage, one must be able to make such calculations, both in
production and interpretation" This ability is independent of
idiosyncratic beliefs, feelings and usages (although it may
refer to those shared by participants), and is based for the
most part on 8uite regular and relati&ely abstract principles"
Pragmatics can be taken to be the description of this ability,
as it operates both for particular languages and language in
general" ?uch a description must certainly play a role in any
general theory of linguistics"
(<<. 92-5;)
5otes*
22
The mo&e o% e$<lication, an& a num.er o% the <oints, are &eri(e& %rom
>illmore, 192;.

23
There ma) <erha<s .e some eCui(ocation here .et0een in%erences that
<artici<ants, i.e. + an& /, might ma:e, an& in%erences that o.ser(ers or
anal)sts - or rea&ers o% (;2) M might ma:e. >or e$am<le, since + an& / ma)
0ell presume the %acts in 9, 5, an& !, 0e might 0ant to sa) that the) &i&nOt
in%er them@ )et, %rom the %act that <artici<ants 0oul& .e e$<ecte& to correct
errors in such <resum<tions, 0e can conclu&e that the) must ne(ertheless
ma:e the in%erences to chec: that their <resum<tions hol&. 4(en the in%erence
that the con(ersation is not a.out to terminate is, as 0e shall see in -ha<ter 5,
<otentiall) a constant consi&eration %or <artici<ants. 1o at least most o% these
in%erences are ones that + an& / must calculate.
29
+ctuall), all these in%erences nee& %urther Cuali%ication o% a rather te&ious sort*
e.g. the in%erence ! in (;;) that + is male, or at least that / .elie(es that + is
male, shoul& ha(e the a&&itional Cuali%ication For at least, / is acting as i% he
or she thin:s + is maleD, etc.

;0
#r the Thurs&a) in some 0ee: other0ise <ragmaticall) i&enti%ie&, e.g. .)
gesture at a calen&ar.
;1
/ut some assertions, e.g. those 0ith you as argument o% a <re&icate, &o in&ee&
ha(e Pust such a relati(it). The <oint here rests on the %act that the (ocati(e
item sir is not such an argument (e.g. su.Pect or o.Pect o% a (er.)@ thus the
meaning o% sir seems not to .e <art o% the <ro<osition e$<resse& .) (ii), an&
thus not <art o% the truth con&itions.
inference M the listenerDs use o% a&&itional :no0le&ge to ma:e sense o% 0hat is
not e$<licit in an utterance

#rice>s meaning-nn (non-natural) M s<ea:erDs inten&e& meaning, 0hat the
s<ea:er reall) means
!
2
0;-2012
1.9 -om<uting -onte$t* an e$am<le M "oints %or ,iscussion
1. 8h) &oes Le(inson .egin his .oo: 0ith this e$am<leB
2. -an )ou &escri.e the :in& o% in%erence he ma:es in <oints 1 to !B
5" Why does @e&inson think that the inferences are not due to mental associations (like diagnosis 7 hospital)
9. 8hat is the in%erence a.out the <hase o% con(ersation .ase& onB
5. 8hat is the source %or the in%erence a.out +Ds reCuest an& /Ds re%usalB
!. 8hat &oes the in%erence o% +Ds re<eate& reCuest start %romB
2. 8hat arguments he gi(es %or in%erence 5o. ; (<rereCuisites)B
3. 8hat are the clues %or the s<atial in%erencesB
9. 8hat are the clues %or the tem<oral in%erencesB
10. 8hat are the clues %or the social in%erencesB
4" 0t is not the end of the con&ersation (nor the beginning)
2. + is reCuesting / to come to + at (or soon a%ter) the time o% s<ea:ing@ / im<lies he canOt (or 0oul& rather not) com<l)@ + re<eats the reCuest %or some other time
5" 0n re8uesting, / must (a) want ) to come now, (b) think it possible that ) can come, (c) think ) is not already there, (d) think )
was not about to come anyway, (e) expect that ) will respond with an acceptance or re3ection, and if ) accepts, then / will also
expect ) to come, (f) think that his (/9s) asking may be a possible moti&e for ) to come, (g) not be, or be pretending not to be,
in a position to order ) to come
:" / assumes that ) knows where / is; / and ) are not in the same place; neither / nor ) are in 2dinburgh; / thinks ) has been
to /9s place before
<" The day on which the exchange is taking place is not Thursday, nor Wednesday (or, at least, so / belie&es)
=" / is male (or so ) belie&es); / is acknowledged by ) to ha&e a higher social status than ) (or to be playing the role of a
superior)
3
0;-2012
,4IEI1 (an& ana<hora)
A "eixis6 +Pointing &ia language, using a deictic expression, e"g" +this, +here" (Bule, 4CC=, C) 2ssentially, deixis concerns the ways in
which languages encode or grammaticaliDe features of the context of utterance or speech e&ent, and thus also concerns ways in
which the interpretation of utterances depends on the analysis of the context of utterance (@e&inson, 4CE5, <:)
dei=is Q <oints out Q %eatures o% utterance conte=t allo0ing Q inter<retation o% utterance
deictic e=&ression: inde=ical M a linguistic %orm 0hich is use& to in&icate something in the conte$t (e.g. &emonstrati(es, in&e$ical
<ronouns, tense, s<eci%ic time an& <lace a&(er.s an& other grammatical %eatures tie& &irectl) to the circumstances o% utterance)
Gindexicals ma) ha(e .oth &eictic re%erence, in(ol(ing a relation .et0een an
o.Pect in the 0orl& an& a linguistic %orm 0ith no semanticall) &etermine& re%erence, an& non-&eictic, ana<horic or cata<horic, re%erence,
in(ol(ing relations .et0een such a %orm an& some other linguistic e$<ressionL
e=o&hora G4E#-, Routsi&e,O S (+5+)"6#7+L or &ei$is the use o% a 0or&
or <hrase to re%er to something in the e$tralinguistic en(ironment, as that
in @ook at that, sai& .) someone <ointing to a sunset. 4$o<horic relations,
in contrast to en&o<horic relations, &o not <la) a <art in cohesion an& the
inter<retation reCuires re%erence to the e$tralinguistic situation.
dei=is a term use& to su.sume those %eatures o% language 0hich re%er &irectl)
to the <ersonal, tem<oral or locational characteristics o% the situation
0ithin 0hich an utterance ta:es <lace, 0hose meaning is thus relati(e to
that situation* e.g. nowFthen, hereFthere, 0Fyou, thisFthat are &eictics
(F&eicticD or e$o<horic 0or&s). ,ei$is is analogous to the <hiloso<hical
notion o% in&e$ical e$<ression. M The term is also use& %or 0or&s 0hich
re%er .ac:0ar&s or %or0ar&s in &iscourse (ana<hora an& cata<hora
res<ecti(el)), e.g. that, the following, the former. This is sometimes :no0n
as discourse 8or te=t? dei=is, 0hich shoul& .e &istinguishe& %rom social
&ei$is, the enco&ing o% social &istinctions that relate to <artici<ant roles
(s<ea:er-a&&ressee, etc.), as encountere& in such matters as <ronouns,
honori%ics, (ocati(es an& %orms o% a&&ress.
endo&hora G45,#-,R0ithin,O S (+5+)"6#7+L the use o% a 0or& or
<hrase to re%er to something either <rece&ing it or %ollo0ing it 0ithin a te$t
or &iscourse@ ana&hora or cata&hora. 4n&o<horic relations o% ana<horic
an& cata<horic t)<es re%er to the relationshi<s o% cohesion 0hich hel< to
&e%ine the structure o% a te$t.
ana&hora G1530M90@ T LL T :* a .ringing .ac:, re<eating, eCui(. to ana7
R.ac:,O Rre-O* +5+- S -"6#7+, a:in to <hUrein, Rto carr), .ear, .ringOL a term
use& %or the <rocess or result o% a linguistic unit &eri(ing its inter<retation
%rom some <re(iousl) e$<resse& unit or meaning@ ana<horic re%erence
mar:s the i&entit) .et0een 0hat is e$<resse& an& 0hat has alrea&) .een
e$<resse& (e.g. each 0or& in !e did that there might ha(e ana<horic
re%erence, %or instance, to John painted this picture in )ermuda).
+na<hora is o%ten contraste& 0ith cata&hora (0here the 0or&s re%er
%or0ar&), an& sometimes 0ith &ei$is or e$o<hora (0here the 0or&s re%er
&irectl) to the e$tralinguistic situation). M +na<hora is also use& as a
term su.suming .oth %or0ar&s- an& .ac:0ar&s-re%erring %unctions.
gestural# This is "our room.
symbolic# I like this house.
transposed# Suddenl" he sto++ed# this
%as the house.
discourse deictic* This is 0hat I call crea:) (oice
anaphoric endophora# @hen I sa% Aoe, he
%as alone.
cataphoric endophora# ItIs delicious,
that cake.
empathetic# He %ent and hit that
bastard.
recognitional# &Do "ou remember that
holida" %e s+ent in the rain in De/on45
V The narro0est inter<retation o% the term pragmatics is that it re%ers to the stu&) o% in&e$icals, e$<ressions 0hose re%erence is a
%unction o% the conte$t o% their utterance (reen, 12)
V + claim ma&e in /ar-6illelDs <a<er HIn&e$ical 4$<ressionsK* ... more than 90W o% the &eclarati(e sentences <eo<le utter are
in&e$ical in that the) in(ol(e im<licit re%erences to the s<ea:er, a&&ressee, time an&Aor <lace o% utterance in e$<ressions li:e %irst
an& secon& <erson <ronouns (0, you), &emonstrati(es (e.g. this), tenses, an& a&(er.s li:e here, now, yesterday. Thus, utterances o%
sentences li:e those in (1-5) cannot .e %ull) un&erstoo& (i.e., un&erstoo& enough to Pu&ge 0hether the) are true or %alse) 0ithout an
in&ication o% 0ho uttere& the sentence (1, 2), an& 0hen (1, ;, 9, 5), an& 0here it 0as uttere& (9)*
1. I am hungr). 2. This is goo& %or coughs. ;. ItDs raining in Ma&ri&.
9. ItDs .egun to rain. 5. The <resi&ent o% the 'nite& 1tates ha& an au&ience 0ith the "o<e.
G&istinction o%ten ma&e* conte=t the <h)sical en(ironment in 0hich a 0or& is use&@ co-te=t the linguistic en(ironment in 0hich a 0or& is use&L
deictic centre (/Xhler* origo, groun& Yero) the s<ea:erOs (mar:e&, unmar:e&) locationAtime* 07here7now (sel%-centere& or egocentric
organiYation o% &ei$is)
deictic simultaneit% a situation 0hen there is no &i%%erence .et0een the co&ing time an& the recei(ing time
deictic &ro@ection s<ea:ers acting as i% the) are some0here else (e.g. FhereD, Fno0D, are use& contrar) to the actual circumstances)@
the &eictic centre is shi%te& %rom the s<ea:er to another <erson* 0 am not here now (ans0ering machine)" *an 0 go to your office
tomorrow at 4G6HH *an 0 come to your office tomorrow at 4G6HH
T%&es of dei=is*
9
deictic centre
&h%sical*&s%chological
*social distance
&ro=imal e=&ressions
(&eictics im<l)ing Fnear the s<ea:erD)
distal e=&ressions
(&eictics im<l)ing Fa0a) %rom s<ea:erD)
&lace here
this
come
there
that
go
time no0
to&a), tonight, this 0ee:
I amAha(eAcanAli(e
&irect s<eech
then (in %utureA<ast)
)ester&a), tomorro0, ne$t 0ee:
I 0asAha&Acoul&Ali(e&A0ill .e
in&irect s<eech
&erson I (s<ea:er)
e$clusi(e F0eD
)ou (a&&ressee)
he, she, it
inclusi(e F0eD
social status FthouD(arch.), t)A&uAtuAtZ F)eD (arch.), ()A1ieA(ousA'ste&
honori%ic uses o% &eictics, honori%ics
0;-2012
s&atial 8s&ace? dei=is concerns the enco&ing o% s<atial location relati(e to the (<ro$imal, &istal) location o% the <artici<ants in the
s<eech e(ent an& in(ol(es %orms use& to <oint to location, e.g. [hereO, [thereO
tem&oral dei=is concerns the enco&ing o% tem<oral <oints an& s<ans relati(e to the time at 0hich an ut- terance 0as s<o:en (or a
0ritten message inscri.e&) an& in(ol(es %orms use& to <oint to location in time, e.g. [no0O, [thenO@ this time is calle& co&ing
time (-T) an& it ma) .e &istinct %rom recei(ing time (7T)
&erson dei=is concerns the enco&ing o% the role o% <artici<ants (s<ea:er, a&&ressee) in the s<eech e(ent in 0hich the utterance in
Cuestion is &eli(ere& an& in(ol(es %orms use& to <oint to <eo<le, e.g. [meO, [)ouO
social dei=is concerns the enco&ing o% social &istinctions that are relati(e to <artici<ant-roles, <articularl) as<ects o% the social
relationshi< hol&ing .et0een s<ea:er an& a&&ressee(s) or s<ea:er an& some re%erent@ it in(ol(es e$<ressions (honori%ics, titles
or grammatical %orms) use& to in&icate relati(e social status
discourse (te=tual) dei=is is concerne& 0ith the use o% a linguistic e$<ression 0ithin some utterance to <oint to the current, <rece&ing
or %ollo0ing utterances in the same s<o:en or 0ritten &iscourse* This is how birds e&ol&ed from dinosaurs" F That is tonights news"
F !ere goes the main argument" F 0n the last section, we discussed """, F /s already mentioned, the three main branches...
Le(inson* @hereas te1tual dei1is reers to +ortions o the te1t itsel (as in See the discussion above or The pewit sounds
like this: pee-r-weet), ana+horic GJ endo+horicH e1+ressions reer outside the discourse to other entities b" connectin(
to a +rior reerrin( e1+ression (ana+hora) or a later one (cata+hora, as in In ront o him, 6ilate sa% a beaten man).
4$am<les*
1. 4$<lain the &i%%erence .et0een the use o% you in
sentences a, . an& c. ,istinguish in 0hich o% them you
re<resents FgesturalD &ei$is, Fs)m.olicD &ei$is an& 0here
it is not &eictic.
a. 0 know you+ll en3oy reading the chapter"
.. Bou and you, but not you, go back to your dorms1
c. Bou ne&er know whether you ha&e to read e&ery
chapter or skip one or two"
2. The %ollo0ing sentences ma) .e <uYYling an&
am.iguous %or a non-nati(e s<ea:er M e$<lain 0h) .)
means o% the in&e$ical <ronoun.
Bou 3ust ha&e to read this chapter"
Bou dont want to go to @ondon"
;. 5ame all the %actors that ma:e the %ollo0ing sentence
<olite (+ s<ea:ing to /)*
?hall we sit down and discuss it
9. i(e t0o &i%%erent conte$ts in 0hich the sentence
coul& a<<ear to illustrate Finclusi(eD an& Fe$clusi(eD use
o% we* What are we supposed to do
5. 8hen the fatwa 0as <ronounce& on the author 1alman
7ush&ie %ollo0ing the <u.lication o% his no(el The
?atanic >erse, he ma&e a 0ritten statement a<ologiYing
%or the &istress his .oo: ha& cause&. -onsi&er the
%ollo0ing sentence ta:en %rom this a<olog)*
FLi(ing as 0e &o in a 0orl& o% so man) %aiths, this
e$<erience has ser(e& to remin& us that 0e must all
.e conscious o% the sensi.ilities o% others.D
-omment on the use o% F0eD. Tr) to &eci&e 0hether )ou
thin: he meant to use we an& us inclusi(el) or
e$clusi(el) (or e(en non-&eicticall)).
!. 8hich o% the italiciYe& e$<ressions are use& &eicticall)
(in a s)m.olic or gestural 0a)) an& 0hich non-
&eicticall)*
6i, is Mar) thereB
"ress the .utton now.
Bou 0ill ne(er %ail until you gi(e u<.
,oes that shirt .ecome youB
John sai& that he 0as thoroughl) e$hauste&.
2. Imagine a situation in 0hich + as:s / 0here 7oom 5
is. + ma) .e gi(en t0o &i%%erent ans0ers an& )et .oth
ma) .e correct. 8h)B
+* *ould you tell me where %oom < is
/* Just along the corridor on the left"
Just along the corridor on the right"
3. 8hich o% the %ollo0ing utterances in(ol(e a &eictic
<roPectionB
IDll bring the ,?, to )ou tomorro0
We ma) lose customers i% our <rices are (er) high.
The next station is "icca&ill) -ircus. "lease change
here %or the "icca&ill) line.
9. There are three <ossi.le inter<retations o% the time s<an re%erre& to
as Fthis )earD in the %ollo0ing sentence. Tr) to thin: o% them*
I hope you are going to do well this
year.
10. 4$<lain the re%erence o% the in&e$ical Fto&a)D in the
%ollo0ing three sentences*
Todays always a bad day
0ll see to it today"
0 filled up with petrol today"
11. 8hat :in& o% &ei$is &oes that ha(e here*
"u%% <u%% <u%%* that is 0hat it soun&e& li:e
12. -onsi&er the use o% &ei$is in the inscri<tion on the
tom.stone set in the insi&e 0all o% 5or0ich -athe&ral,
commemorating Thomas oo&ing, 0ho &ie& 900 )ears
ago*
AAll %ou that do this &lace &ass (%e
Remem(er death for %ou 'ill d%e$
As %ou are no' e,en so 'as I
And as I am so shall %ou (e$
Thomas #ooding here do sta%e
7a%ting for #odBs @udgement da%$>
1;. 4$<lain 0h) the %ollo0ing
sentence is not nonsense an& su<<l) a
meaning%ul conte$t %or it*
We are not at home at the moment" Bou
can lea&e us a message after the beep"
19. ,istinguish .et0een gestural an&
s)m.olic usage o% &eictic e$<ression*
We cant afford a holiday this year
This one is genuine, but this one is a fake
This city is really beautiful
Hes not the Duke, he is. Hes the
butler
10
0;-2012
15. 8hich e$<ressions in the %ollo0ing <airs are use&
&eicticall) an& 0hich not*
(a) LetDs go to a nearby ca%e.
John too: Mar) to a nearby ca%U.
(.) There 0as a car acci&ent in #$%or& )ester&a). + local
&ri(er 0as arreste&.
8h) not em<lo) a local tour gui&eB
Joan -utting, "ragmatics an& ,iscourse (7outle&ge, 2002)
-onte$t an& -ote$t (e$cer<ts %rom <<. ;-9)
11
0;-2012
12
09-2012
S&eech Act Theor% (Teorie mlu(n\ch a:t])
attri(uted to the #$%or& <hiloso<her John L. +ustin (1911M19!0)@ <osthumousl) <u.lishe& lectures !ow to do things with words (19!2@ Jak udIlat
nIco slo&y, 2000)@ his i&eas 0ere re%ine&, s)stematiYe&, an& a&(ance&, es<. .) his #$%or& <u<il, the +merican <hiloso<her John 7. 1earle
the central tenet o% s<eech act theor)* the uttering o% a sentence is, or is <art o%, an action 0ithin the %rame0or: o% social institutions an& con(entions@ sa)ing is
(<art o%) &oing, or 0or&s are (<art o%) &ee&s. S&eech act* an action <er%orme& .) the use o% an utterance to communicate, a<olog), com<laint, etc.
&hiloso&hical (ac)ground in the 19;0s* logical <ositi(ism (the ?ienna -ircle), 0ith the central &octrine (Fthe &escri<ti(e %allac)D) - the onl)
<hiloso<hicall) interesting %unction o% language is that o% ma:ing true or %alse statements (its (ersion - the (eri%icationist thesis o% meaning*
sentences that are not use& to ma:e (eri%ia.le or %alsi%ia.le <ro<ositions (i.e., testa.le %or their truth or %alsit)) are sim<l) meaningless)
J$ -$ Austin
The Performati,e*Constati,e Dichotom% %ollo0s %rom +ustinDs t0o o.ser(ations* (1) some or&inar) language sentences are not em<lo)e& to ma:e
a statement, an& as such the) cannot .e sai& to .e true or %alse (Jood afternoon1, 0s he a %epublican *ome in, please")@ (2) others resist a truth-
con&itional anal)sis@ the <oint o% uttering them is not Pust to sa) things, .ut also acti(el) to &o things. +ccor&ingl) he &istinguishe& .et0een
Fconstati,es> (assertions, or statement-ma:ing utterances) an& F&erformati,es> (use& to &o things or <er%orm acts).
Performati,es can %urther .e &i(i&e& into t0o t)<es* e=&licit <er%ormati(es (0ith a <er%ormati(e (er.* 0 christenFname this ship the Princess
2liDabeth") an& im&licit <er%ormati(es (0ll come to your talk tomorrow afternoon")"
S%ntactic and semantic &ro&erties of e=&licit &erformati,es in 4nglish* (i) the) contain a <er%ormati(e (er., (ii) it is rein%orce& .) a&&ing the
a&(er. hereby, an& (iii) the) occur in sentences 0ith a %irst-<erson singular su.Pect o% a <re&icate ((er.) in the sim<le <resent tense, in&icati(e moo&,
an& acti(e (oice. 4$ce<tions* the) can sometimes ta:e a %irst-<erson <lural su.Pect (We suggest that """); a secon& <erson singular or <lural su.Pect, as
in (Bou are fired)@ an& a thir&-<erson singular or <lural su.Pect (Passengers are hereby re8uested """)"
Austin>s felicit% conditions on <er%ormati(es (it ma:es no sense to call a <er%ormati(e true or %alse@ i% it is to .e success%ul or F%elicitous,D it must
meet a set o% con&itions@ (iolating an) o% the con&itions ma:es it unsuccess%ul or in%elicitous)* 8a?(i) There must .e a con(entional <roce&ure ha(ing
a con(entional e%%ect. (ii) The circumstances an& <ersons must .e a<<ro<riate, as s<eci%ie& in the <roce&ure. 8(? The <roce&ure must .e e$ecute& (i)
correctl) an& (ii) com<letel). 8c? #%ten (i) the <ersons must ha(e the reCuisite thoughts, %eelings an& intentions, as s<eci%ie& in the <roce&ure, an& (ii)
i% conseCuent con&uct is s<eci%ie&, then the rele(ant <arties must so &o. - I% con&itions (a) or (.) are not o.ser(e&, then a Fmis%ireD ta:es <lace@ i%
con&ition (c) is (iolate&, then 0hat +ustin calle& an Fa.useD is committe& (inclu&ing, .ut not onl), cases o% insincerit)). 1a&oc: (2009) &iscusses
these con&itions in terms o% misin(ocation, mise$ecution, an& a.use.
T'o shifts in Austin>s arguments* the initial &istinction ma&e .et0een <er%ormati(es an& constati(es 0as soon rePecte& in %a(our o% a general theor) o%
s<eech acts M first, there is a shi%t %rom the (ie0 that <er%ormati(es are a s<ecial class o% sentencesAutterances 0ith <eculiar s)ntactic an& semantic <ro<erties
to the (ie0 that there is a general class o% <er%ormati(es that encom<asses .oth e$<licit an& im<licit <er%ormati(es@ the second shi%t is %rom the
<er%ormati(eAconstati(e &ichotom) to a general theor) o% s<eech acts, o% 0hich the (arious <er%ormati(es an& constati(es are Pust s<ecial su.-cases.
Reasons* constati(es, li:e <er%ormati(es, are also su.Pect to the %elicit) con&itions@ <er%ormati(es an& constati(es ma) .e im<ossi.le to &istinguish
e(en in truth-con&itional terms (hence constati(es are nothing .ut a s<ecial class o% <er%ormati(es - all utterances, in a&&ition to meaning 0hate(er
the) mean, <er%orm s<eci%ic acts (ia the s<eci%ic communicati(e %orce o% an utterance.)@ also, +ustin intro&uce& a three%ol& &istinction among the
acts one simultaneousl) <er%orms 0hen sa)ing something*
A s&eech act>s three facets* (i) -ocutionar% act* the <ro&uction o% a meaning%ul linguistic e$<ression. (ii) Illocutionar% act* the action inten&e& to
.e <er%orme& .) a s<ea:er in uttering a linguistic e$<ression, .) (irtue o% the con(entional %orce associate& 0ith it, either e$<licitl) or im<licitl). (iii)
Perlocutionar% act* the .ringing a.out o% conseCuences or e%%ects on the au&ience through the uttering o% a linguistic e$<ression, such conseCuences
or e%%ects .eing s<ecial to the circumstances o% utterance. Cotes* an illocutionar) act re%ers to the t)<e o% function the s<ea:er inten&s to %ul%ill
(accusing, a<ologiYing, .laming, congratulating, &eclaring 0ar, gi(ing <ermission, Po:ing, marr)ing, nagging, naming, <romising, or&ering, etc.)@ the
%unctions or actions are commonl) re%erre& to as the illocutionar) Fforce> (or F<ointD) o% the utterance@ illocutionar) %orce is %reCuentl) con(e)e& .)
an Fillocutionar) %orce in&icating &e(iceD (IDID@ 1earle (19!9)), such as an e$<licit <er%ormati(e (er. (also attitu&inal a&(er.s, frankly, briefly,
seriously@ &iscourse mar:ers, well, now, oh@ 0or& or&er@ stress@ intonation, e.g. lo0er (oice Cualit) %or a 0arning or a threat@ <unctuation@ (er.
moo&)@ the termDs<eech actD in its narro0 sense is o%ten ta:en to re%er e$clusi(el) to illocutionar) acts@ the same linguistic e$<ression can .e use& to
carr) out a 0i&e (ariet) o% &i%%erent s<eech acts (The gun is loaded), i.e. can count as ha(ing &i%%erent illocutionar) %orces in &i%%erent conte$ts@
con(ersel), the same s<eech act can .e <er%orme& .) &i%%erent linguistic e$<ressions.
Austin>s t%&olog% of s&eech acts* (i) (er&icti(es* gi(ing a (er&ict, (ii) e$erciti(es* e$ercising <o0er, rights or in%luence, (iii) commissi(es*
<romising or other0ise un&erta:ing, (i() .eha.iti(es* sho0ing attitu&es an& social .eha(ior, an& (() e$<ositi(es* %itting an utterance into the course
o% an argument or con(ersation. G&erformati,e h%&othesis (the late 19!0s, 7oss, La:o%%, 1a&oc:)* <resu<<oses that e,er% sentence is em.e&&e& into a higher clause 0ith a
<er%ormati(e (er. an& a 1st <erson sg su.Pect (e.g. 0 state). 1uch a clause can .e either e$<licit (0 state to you that the world is flat) or im<licit, a.stract (The world is flat), the general %ormula
.eing* I (here.)) ?< )ou (that) 1D (^ +ustinDs <er%ormati(e %ormula at &ee< structure le(el).L
J. 7. 1earle (?peech /cts" /n 2ssay in the Philosophy of @anguage, 19!9)
Searle>s Delicit% Conditions on S&eech Acts (H<o&m\n:) Y&a_ilostiK) M in 1earleDs (ie0 +ustinDs %elicit) con&itions are not onl) 0a)s in 0hich a
s<eech act can .e a<<ro<riate or ina<<ro<riate, .ut that the) also Pointl) constitute the illocutionar) %orce, i.e. the) are the constituti(e rules o% s<eech
acts that create the acti(it) itsel%. 6e &e(elo<e& the original +ustinian %elicit) con&itions into a neo-+ustinian classi%ication (1, s<ea:er@ 6, hearer@ +,
action@ e, linguistic e$<ression) - an e$am<le o% con&itons %or <romising* (i) &ro&ositional content (0hat the s<eech act is a.out)* %uture act + o% 1@
(ii) &re&arator% conditions (state the real 0orl& <rereCuisites %or the s<eech act)* (a) 6 0oul& <re%er 1Ds &oing + to his not &oing +, an& 1 so
.elie(es (.) It is not o.(ious to .oth 1 an& 6 that 1 0ill &o + in the normal course o% e(ents@ (iii) sincerit% condition* 1 inten&s to &o +@ (i()
essential condition (the s<ea:er has the intention that his utterance 0ill count as an act, an& that this intention is recogniYe& .) the a&&ressee)* the
utterance o% e counts as an un&erta:ing to &o +. >ailure to meet the essential con&ition has the conseCuence that the act has not .een carrie& out. I%
the sincerit) con&ition is not %ul%ille&, the act is still <er%orme&, .ut there is an a.use.
Searle>s s&eech act formula M a s<eech act consists o% t0o com<onents* illocutionar) %orce (>) S <ro<osition (<). > is the action si&e o% e(er)
s<eech act, 0hile < is un&erstoo& here as the content o% the s<eech (consisting o% re%erence S <re&ication)@ >(<) in&icates that the <ro<osition is
em.e&&e& into the illocutionar) %orce .) means o% I>I,s
Searle>s T%&olog% of S&eech Acts - s<eech acts are uni(ersall) grou<e& into %i(e t)<es along %our &imensions* (i) illocutionar) <oint, (ii) &irection
o% %it .et0een 0or&s an& 0orl&, (iii) e$<resse& <s)chological state, an& (i() <ro<ositional content*
(i) Re&resentati,es (or asserti(es@ the constati(es o% the original
+ustinian <er%ormati(eAconstati(e &ichotom)) commit the s<ea:er to
the truth o% the e$<resse& <ro<osition an& thus carr) a truth-(alue.
The) e$<ress the s<ea:erDs .elie% (asserting, claiming, conclu&ing,
re<orting, an& stating* The )erlin Wall came down in 4CEC").
(ii) Directi,es are s<eech acts 0here.) the s<ea:er attem<ts to ma:e the
a&&ressee %ul%il his 0ishA&esire (a&(ice, comman&s, or&ers, Cuestions,
an& reCuests* Put the cake in the o&en").
(iii) Commissi,es commit the s<ea:er to some %uture course o% action,
e$<ress his intention to &o something (o%%ers, <le&ges, <romises,
re%usals, an& threats* 0ll ne&er buy you another computer game").
(i() E=&ressi,es e$<ress a <s)chological attitu&e or state o% the s<ea:er
such as Po), sorro0, an& li:esA&isli:es (a<ologiYing, .laming,
congratulating, <raising, an& than:ing* Well done, 2liDabeth1).
(() Declarations (or &eclarati(es) e%%ect imme&iate changes in some
current state o% a%%airs, o%ten rel) on e$tralinguistic institutions %or
their success%ul <er%ormance (institutionaliYe& <er%ormati(es* o<ening
s<eeches, &eclaring 0ar, e$communicating, %iring %rom em<lo)ment,
nominating a can&i&ate, etc.* 0 ob3ect, Bour !onor")

Indirect S&eech Acts M starting 0ith .asic sentence t)<es* &eclarati(e, interrogati(e, an&
im<erati(e,t)<icall) associate& 0ith the three .asic illocutionar) %orces, namel), assertingA
stating, as:ingA Cuestioning, an& or&eringAreCuesting, res<ecti(el). In the case o% a &irect
match .et0een a sentence t)<e an& an illocutionar) %orce, 0e ha(e a direct s&eech act. In
a&&ition, e$<licit <er%ormati(es, 0hich ha<<en to .e in the &eclarati(e %orm, are also ta:en
to .e &irect s<eech acts (0 re8uest you to pass the salt"), .ecause the) ha(e their illocutionar)
%orce e$<licitl) name& .) the <er%ormati(e (er. in the main <art (or Fmatri$ clauseD) o% the
sentence. I% there is no &irect relationshi< .et0een a sentence t)<e an& an illocutionar) %orce, 0e ha(e an indirect s&eech act, e.g. an interrogati(e is
use& to ma:e a reCuest, as in (*an you pass the salt)" This is calle& Fliteral %orce h)<othesisD (Le(inson,193;)* there is a &irect structure-%unction
correlation in s<eech acts (sentence %orm is a &irect re%le$ o% its un&erl)ing illocutionar) %orce). Pro(lems* (i) cases o% s<eech acts 0here e(en the
&irect lin: .et0een <er%ormati(e (er.s an& s<eech acts .rea:s &o0n (0 promise to sack you if you dont finish the 3ob by this weekend.)@ (ii) most usages are
in&irect (reCuesting is (er) rarel) <er%orme& .) means o% an im<erati(e in 4nglish an& man) (arieties o% sentences can .e use& to in&irectl) ma:e a reCuest).
Three a&&roaches to anal%2ing indirect s&eech acts* 8+? 1earle (1925)* the) ha(e &ual illocutionar) %orce, literal or &irect = nonliteral or in&irect (^
<rimar))@ the %unction as an in&irect s<eech act &e<en&s on the rele(ance o% %elicit) con&itions (c%. *an you pass the salt (s. ?alt is made of sodium chloride)@
the in%erence a.out the %orce is .ase& on the ricean coo<erati(e mo&el o% communication (im<licatures)@ 0hile the rele(ant im<licature is in <rinci<le
calcula.le, in <ractice it is not calculate& in highl) con(entionaliYe& s<eech acts .ecause sel%-e(i&ent (Fshort-circuite& im<licatureD, Morgan (1923))@ 8/?
or&on an& La:o%% (1925)* the amount o% in%erence nee&e& to inter<ret a con(entionaliYe& in&irect s<eech act is re&uce& .) in%erence rules calle&
Fcon(ersational <ostulatesD (i% *an you pass the salt cannot .e inten&e& .) the s<ea:er as a Cuestion, then it 0ill .e rea& a reCuest)@ 80? 1a&oc: (1929)* the
i&iom mo&el - the reCuest inter<retation constitutes a s<eech act i&iom that in(ol(es no in%erence at all. *an you pass the salt is sim<l) recogniYe& as a reCuest,
09-2012
0ith no Cuestion .eing <ercei(e&@ <ro.lems 0ith this mo&el M in&irect s<eech acts are o%ten semanticall) com<ositional, s<ea:ers ma) res<on& to .oth %orces.
The <ur<ose o% in&irect s<eech acts* the) are usuall) consi&ere& to .e more <olite than their &irect counter<arts.
1<eech acts M e$ercises*
+$ 1u<<ose a teacher 0ho is ha(ing trou.le maintaining or&er in J.7.1earle, 1<eech +cts, Min&, = 1ocial 7ealit). In re0en&or%, Meggle (&tto, Nlu0er, 2002)
the classroom ma:es the utterance 0ll keep you in after class.
,escri.e the three as<ects (&imensions) o% this s<eech act.
/$ 1u<<l) the conte$t %or the sentence* 0ll call the police"
,escri.e the three as<ects (&imensions) o% this s<eech act.
0$ +ssign <otential illocutionar) %orce to these statements*
0 am here now" ?orry """ x 0m sorry1
0t is cold outside" 0ll see you later"
This is a no smoking Done" Bou are fired"
1$ In(ent t0o &i%%erent s<eech e(ents (thin: o% t0o &i%%erent
sets o% circumstances) in 0hich the %ollo0ing utterance 0ill
.e inter<rete& (a) negati(el) an& (.) <ositi(el) (name the
res<ecti(e s<eech acts)* This tea is really cold1
3$ 6o0 0oul& )ou &escri.e this short e$change in terms o%
the actions <er%orme& .) the s<ea:ersB
Motorist* .y car needs a new exhaust system. Mechanic* 0ll be busy with this other car all day.
4$ >orm a sentence using the <er%ormati(e 0 guarantee""" 0hich
&oes not <er%orm the s<eci%ie& action. +<<l) the notions o%
locution, illocution an& <erlocution to )our sentence.
5$ 'se a &eclarati(e sentence, an im<erati(e sentence an& a )es-no
Cuestion an& a 0h-Cuestion to e$<ress the s<eech act o% warning"
The situation* )ouD(e Pust notice& a lion a<<earing .ehin& )our %rien&.
6$ +ssign each %i(e o% the %ollo0ing (er.s to 1earleDs %i(e
categories o% s<eech acts, i.e. asserti,es: directi,es: commissi,es:
e=&ressi,es: declarations*
a. undertake, order, belie&e, beg, congratulate, &. permit, assert, deplore, welcome, promise,
.. thank, sentence, suggest, re8uest, pledge, %. offer (to help), affirm, condole, &ow, plead,
c. agree, predict, forbid, declare, apologise, g. be8ueath, regret, state, engage oneself (to repay debt), tell
<$ >orm t0o sentences in 0hich the <er%ormati(e tell <er%orms t0o &i%%erent actions* ?he told us """
+E$ ,istinguish .et0een <er%ormati(e an& non-<er%ormati(e (er.s, assign the <er%ormati(e (er.s to 1earlDs s<eech-act categories*
4" !e &ouched for the authenticity of the materials"
G" ?he ad&ised us that there had been a mistake"
5" ?he ad&ised us to arri&e early"
:" They commiserated with him o&er the loss of his 3ob"
<" Jeorge &olunteered to show them around"
=" 0 will resign from )russels if the treaty is re3ected, says
-elors"
," 0 remember that you ha&e mentioned it"
E" 0 ne&er resent my daughter for whats happened"
C" They warned us that food was expensi&e"
4H" They warned us to take enough money"
11. I conclu&e& that the climate 0as slo0l) changing.
4G" 0 name this ship the Titanic"
45" 0, ?hane Paul '-oherty, swear that 0 will stri&e to bring
about the establishment of an all70reland 0rish %epublic"
4:" 0 sympathiDe with those publishers who were originally
offered the manuscript, and turned it down"
4<" !e suggested that they should come later"
4=" !e suggested that the train may ha&e been delayed"
4," /s soon as your policy is issued, we guarantee renewal
regardless of how many claims you make"
4E" Kot many people know that, 0ll warrant"
++$ #% the %ollo0ing utterances, 0hich are <er%ormati(es an& 0hich are constati(esB
(i) The cou<le li(e in a house on the corner o% 6enr) 1treet.
(ii) I o.Pect, )our honour. (() I secon& the motion.
(iii) JohnDs %uture is %ull o% ho<e. ((i) John is gro0ing .ear&.
(i() I &eclare this .ri&ge o<en. ((ii) (/s a call in bridge) Three clu.s
+/$ #% the %ollo0ing <er%ormati(es, 0hich are e$<licit an& 0hich are im<licitB
(i) +ll a<<lications must .e su.mitte& to the &ean .) ;1
st
March.
(ii) 8ho &o )ou ti< %or the <ostB
(iii) You are here.) %or.i&&en to lea(e this room.
(i() 6o0 a.out going to the /ritish Museum to&a)B ((i) ('ne .P to another in Parliament)
(() Nee< all me&icines out o% reach o% chil&ren. I a<ologiYe %or calling m) honoura.le %rien& a liar.
+0$ #% the %ollo0ing utterances, 0hich are &irect an& 0hich are in&irect s<eech actsB
(i) 8oul& all &ri(ers <lease <rocee& to the car &ec: an& return to their (ehicles, as 0e 0ill .e &oc:ing shortl)B
(ii) (/t a fitness club in 'xford) "lease sho0er .e%ore entering the <ool. "lease o.ser(e <ool rules locate& at <oolsi&e. You
are a&(ise& against s0imming alone.
09-2012
(iii) 8ho cares` (i() 6a(e a nice 0ee:en&`
-on(entional im<licit meaning* Presupposition ( 2ntailment ( *on&entional 0mplicature
im&licit meaning M t)<es o% meaning that go .e)on& 0hat is Fgi(enD .) the language %orm itsel%, or 0hat is literall) Fsai&D (a range o%
meanings emerging %rom the Fconte$tuall) em.e&&e& action character o% s<eechD). Three elements in(ol(e&* im<ossi.ilit) o% %ull
e$<licitness, con&entional means %or co<ing 0ith it, non7con&entional strategies to e$<loit it an& a(oi& e$<licitness
im&ossi(ilit% of com&lete e=&licitness M an) linguistic utterance al0a)s lea(es more in%ormation une$<resse& or im<licit (see .elo0
.ac:groun& in%ormation) than e$<resse& (e$<licit), a %act 0hich ma) com<licate un&erstan&ing o% utterances
(ac)ground information M the 0orl& o% une$<resse& in%ormation 0hich an utterance carries along@ alternati(e terms common
knowledgeFground or mutual information (I :no0 that )ou :no0 that I :no0) 5ote* -I con(ersational im<licature
c%. 0 found an old bicycle lying on the ground" The chain was rusted and the tires were flat
M im<licit in%ormation that is not %ull) e$<licit (%ull e$<licitness 0oul& .e F<ragmaticall)D o&&
here)* .ic)cle is a (ehicle %or trans<orting <eo<le, it has a chain an& tires, a chain is ..., a tire is
..., a %lat tire is ..., to rust is ... the chain is ma&e o% metal, that is 0h) it rusts, metal is .., etc.
- the im<ossi.ilit) o% %ull e$<licitness an& the nee& to Fe$<licateD as<ects o% general .ac:groun&
in%ormation to achie(e a %ull un&erstan&ing ma) .e mitigate& or resol(e& .) means o% e=&licat-
ure8s?# e$<licit re<resentation(s) o% im<licit %orms o% meaning* The *entre is closed in January ("os-
si.le e$<licatures* a %urther s<eci%ication o% 0hich F-entreD@ &oes FJanuar)D mean Januar) o% a s<e-
ci%ic or o% e(er) )earB@ &oes Fclose&D mean %or e(er)one or those 0ho come in to use the centre
%or its usual <ur<osesB)
Con,entional means for con,e%ing im&licit meaning
M stan&ar&, con(entonaliYe& tools (<rocesses) %or lin:ing e$<licit content to rele(ant as<ects o% .ac:groun& in%ormation (me&iating
im<licit in%ormation)*
+$ Presu&&osition* something that s<ea:er assumes to .e the case <rior to ma:ing an utterance (im<licit meaning that must .e <re-
su<<ose&, un&erstoo&, ta:en %or grante& %or an utterance to ma:e sense). H+ <resu<<osition is a <ro<osition G^ statementL 0hose truth
is ta:en %or grante& .) the <ro&ucer o% an utterance an& 0hich must .e :no0n an& ta:en account o% %or the utterance to ma:e sense to
an inter<reter. Ta:e the case o% Pete has stopped smoking" 1omeone using this sentence to ma:e a .ona %i&e literal statement ta:es it %or
grante& that "ete 0as <re(iousl) a smo:er, although this is not e$<licitl) state&. +n& the <resum<tion that "ete ha& .een a smo:er is
necessar) %or the sentence to ma:e sense to a hearer, e(en i% that %act 0as not <re(iousl) :no0nK (-ruse, 200!).
&otential &resu&&osition a share& .ac:groun& assum<tion t)<icall) associate& 0ith use o% a linguistic %orm, e.g. the use o% the (er.
FregretD in F6e regrets &oing thatD carries an assum<tion that he actuall) F&i& thatD. T%&es of &otential &resu&&osition (i.e. the) can .ecome
actual in conte$t 0ith s<ea:ers)* e=istential &resu&&osition an assum<tion that s. or sth, i&enti%ie& .) use o% a noun <hrase, &oes e$ist (0
saw the film a it e$ists). facti,e &resu&&osition the assum<tion that in%ormation state& a%ter certain 0or&s, e.g. F:no0D, FregretD, is true (0
remember seeing it a I sa0 it). non-facti,e &resu&&osition the assum<tion that certain in%ormation, as <resente&, is not true (!e pretended
to ha&e seen the film a 6e &i&nDt see it). counterfactual &resu&&osition the assum<tion that certain in%ormation is contrar) to %act (0f 0 had
seen the film a I &i&nDt see it). le=ical &resu&&osition the assum<tion that, in using one 0or&, the s<ea:er can act as i% another meaning
(0or&) 0ill .e un&erstoo& (0 went to see the film again a I ha(e seen it .e%ore). structural &resu&&osition the assum<tion that <art o% a
structure contains in%ormation .eing treate& as alrea&) :no0n (When did you see the film a You sa0 it).
&ro&erties of &resu&&osition* constanc% under negation the <resu<<osition hol&s no matter 0hether the sentence is true or %alse,
an& so the main <ro<osition o% a sentence can also .e negate& 0ithout a%%ecting the <resu<<osition, i.e. the <resu<<osition Fsur(i(esD
negation* 0 know when he will come x 0 dont know when he will come (%acti(e <resu<<osition* he 0ill come)@ defeasi(ilit% M conte$t-
sensiti(it) o% <resu<<ositions* the) are &e%easi.le, i.e. can .e annulle& or terminate& (un&one), 0hen the conte$t changes* 0 dont
know whether he will come (neutraliYe& %acti(e <resu<<osition)@ &ro@ection &ro(lem in some cases <resu<<osition-carr)ing
constructions 0hen <art o% a more com<le$ structure ma) not <reser(e their <resu<<ositions* !e managed to win e&en without trying
(cancelle& le$ical <resu<<osition o% manage through its e$<licit negation)@ in other cases the) sur(i(e (i.e. the) <roPect their
<resu<<ositions onto the 0i&er structure* !e managed to win (le$ical <resu<<osition* he trie& to 0in)* When he managed to win, she
was happy M ?ince he didnt manage to win, she was unhappy.
&resu&&ositional l%ing F <ur<ose%ull) mislea&ing use o% <resu<<osition* 0 didnt manage to get away (and so 0 came late) M .) using
the usual <resu<<osition attache& to manage is create& the %alse im<ression o% tr)ing in or&er to alle(iate oneDs %ault
Presu&osition >acts, .elie%s or o<inions 0hich are not actuall) asserte& in an utterance .ut 0hich are im<lie&. Ta:e the %ollo0ing e$am<les. 1)
Lornication in the kitchen is surely not allowed. 2) *ome in out of the rain. ;) .arias sister is ill. 8hat is Fta:en %or grante&D as gi,en in%ormation in these
three sentencesB The %irst sentence <resu<<oses that there is %ornication going on in the :itchen. + 0a) o% sa)ing this 0ithout using <resu<<osition 0oul& .e to
assert that there is %ornication in the :itchen %irst, as in There is fornication in the kitchen and it is surely not allowed. 1imilarl), the secon& sentence
<resu<<oses that it is raining M to a(oi& using <resu<<osition 0e 0oul& ha(e to sa) something li:e 0t is raining, so come in out of the rain" >inall) the
<resu<<osition in the thir& sentence is that Maria has a sister. + &e%ining %eature o% <resu<<ositions is that the) remain the same 0hen the &olarit% o% the
sentence is re(erse&. >or e$am<le .arias sister is not ill still contains the <resu<<osition that Maria has a sister. -ont come in out of the rain still <resu<<oses
that that it is raining. +n& Lornication in the kitchen is allowed still contains the <resu<<osition that there is %ornication going on. "resu<<ositions are o%ten
associate& 0ith <articular le$ical items or grammatical structures, sometimes :no0n as <resu<<osition FtriggersD- -ommon triggers inclu&e definite
descri&ti,e and referring e=&ressions* 0 heard the church clock strike nine (there e$ists a church cloc:)@ Afacti,e> constructions* That really makes me regret
changing schools (I change& schools)@ change-of-state ,er(s* Jane stopped the chainsaw (the chainsa0 ha& .een running)@ tem&oral clauses* ?he ate a bowl
of custard before she went to bed (she 0ent to .e&)@ cleft sentences* 0t wasnt me who tempted you (some.o&) tem<te& )ou)@ iterati(es* 0 didnt try again (I
trie& .e%ore)@ com&arisons and contrasts* 0m not as cle&er as ?tan (1tan is cle(er).
1ometimes 0hat is <resu<<ose& is uncontentious (as in the e$am<les a.o(e). /ut man) <resu<<ositions ta:e %or grante& 0hat is Cuestiona.le, as in this
e$tract %rom a s<eech .) the '1 1ecretar) o% ,e%ense ,onal& 6. 7ums%el& (#cto.er 2002). -ontentious <resu<<ositions ha(e .een un&erline& an& glosse& in
.rac:ets* The 0ar on terrorism (there is a 0ar on terrorism) .egan in +%ghanistan, to .e sure, .ut it 0ill not en& there. (it is continuing) It 0ill not en& (it is
continuing) until terrorist net0or:s (there are terrorist net0or:s) ha(e .een roote& out, (the) are Fhi&&enD) 0here(er the) e$ist. It 0ill not en& (it is continuing)
until the state s<onsors o% terror (there are state s<onsors o% terror) are ma&e to un&erstan& (the) &o not un&erstan&) that ai&ing, a.etting an& har.oring terrorists
(the) are &oing these things) has &ea&l) conseCuences %or those that tr) it. It 0ill not en& (it is continuing) until those &e(elo<ing nuclear, chemical an&
.iological 0ea<ons (the) are &e(elo<ing these 0ea<ons) en& their threat (there is an ongoing threat) to innocent men, 0omen an& chil&ren. ("earce, 2002)
/$ Entailment (logical im<lication)* something that logicall) %ollo0s %rom 0hat is asserte& - im<licit meaning that can .e logicall)
in%erre&, arri(e& at %rom a %orm o% e$<ression, a logical conseCuence %ollo0ing %rom a sentence (the assertion ma&e in an utterance).
4ntailment is not the same as <resu<<osition. HTa:e a genuine case o% entailment as that .et0een F"ete :ille& the .eetleD an& FThe .eetle
&ie&D. >irst, i% 0e negate the entailing sentence, the entailment %ails* F"ete &i& not :ill the .eetleD entails neither FThe .eetle &ie&D nor
FThe .eetle &i& not &ieD. 6o0e(er, F"ete has not sto<<e& smo:ingD carries the same <resum<tion G<resu<<ositionL as the a%%irmati(e
(ersion, as &oes F6as "ete sto<<e& smo:ingBD. 1econ&, an entailment cannot .e &enie& 0ithout contra&iction* F"ete :ille& the .eetle,
.ut it &i& not &ieD is a contra&iction. + <resu<<osition, on the other han&, can .e &enie& (although it nee&s a s<ecial intonation F"ete
6+15DT sto<<e& smo:ing, .ecause he ne(er ,I, smo:eD K (-ruse, 200!).
&resu&&osition 8P? ,s entailment 8E?: 8a? negation cancels 4, .ut not ", 8(? denial o% 4 causes contra&iction, .ut not in " (see
a.o(e)@ 8c? chronological perspecti&e* " e$ist <rior to the utterance@ 4 comes a%ter the utterance@ 8d? orientation6 " is s<ea:er-
oriente&, i.e. s<ea:ers ha(e <resu<<ositions@ 4 is utterance-oriente&, utterances ha(e entailments
09-2012
0$ Con,entional im&licature* an a&&itional unstate& meaning associate& 0ith the use o% a s<eci%ic 0or&, e.g. F+ .ut /D im<lies a contrast
.et0een + an& /, so FcontrastD is a con(entional im<licature o% F.utD@ it can .e con(entionall) in%erre& %rom %orms o% e$<ression (it is not
calcula.le %rom conte$t)@ it is neither conte1t<de+endent and <sensiti/e (it does not /ar" %ith conte1t and cannot be
cancelled b" conte1t). nor truth<unctional (unlike entailments)# H+n utterance such as 2&en J'!K dri&es a Porsche has the
same truth con&itions as the corres<on&ing utterance 0ithout the %ocus <article, i.e., John dri&es a Porsche. ... 6o0e(er, i% the con(entional
im<licature is .oun& to the s<eci%ic le$ical item e&en, an& %or this reason is &etacha.le, then the im<licature seems to .e <art o% the literal
meaning o% this le$ical item. There%ore, it is &i%%icult to &istinguish .et0een con(entional im<licatures on the one han& an& entailments
(.elonging to the F0hat is sai&D) on the other han&. >or this an& other reasons, some researchers &o not acce<t that there is a categor) o%
con(entional im<licature ...K (:eibauer, Im+licature, Else/ier, 200>)
)ruse (200>)# con,entional im&licatures ... are com<onents o% the meanings o% utterances 0hich are not <ro<ositional in nature, .ut
0hich ha(e a sta.le association 0ith <articular linguistic e$<ressions an& 0hich there%ore cannot .e cancelle& 0ithout anomal). >or instance,
Pete hasnt registered yet an& Pete hasnt registered are <ro<ositionall) i&entical, .ut the <resence o% yet in the %ormer im<licates that Pete is
still expected to arri&e (still an& already ha(e similar <ro<erties). -ontra&icting this lea&s to o&&ness* Pete hasnt registered yet and 0 know
for a fact he does not intend to. +nother e$am<le is the Finterrogati(eD as<ect o% the meaning o% a Cuestion such as Why are you here, 0hich
cannot .e &escri.e& as true or %alse an& 0hich lea&s to anomal) i% &enie&* FBI &onDt 0ant to :no0 the reasons %or )our <resence, .ut 0h) are
)ou hereB
entailments ,ersus con,entional im&licatures* entailments M truth7conditional in%erences (in the sense that + entails or logicall)
im<lies / i% an& onl) i% e(er) situation that ma:es + true also ma:es / true)@ con(entional im<licatures M non7truth7conditional
in%erences (the) are ho0e(er attache& .) con(ention to s<eci%ic %orms o% e$<ression, such as le$ical items)*
(a) This MK soldier is the local peace7keeper (logicall) im<lies This MK soldier is a local peace7keeperK@ the %ormer is true i% an& onl) i% the latter is true)
(.) The MK managed to bring about peace and forgot to announce it
(c) The MK managed to bring about peace but forgot to announce it
-omment* /oth (.) an& (c) ha(e the same logical im<lications an& truth con&itions (there is <eace, The '5 &i&nDt announce it)@ (.) an& (c)
ha(e &i%%erent con(entional im<lications attache& to Fan&D an& F.utD. F+n&D con(entionall) im<licates Fin a&&itionD, F<lusD. F/utD con(entionall)
im<licates contrast, 0hich is not, ho0e(er, a necessar) <ro<ert) o% the 0or& itsel% .ut largel) a %unction o% its use (-%. non-a&&itional and in* The
'5 ... an& mo(e& else0here@ non-contrasti(e but in* There has ne(er .een a <eace .rought a.out .ut the '5 0ill %orget to announce it)

0ndirect speech acts
Introduce 8reformulate? the follo'ing sentences (%
means of e=&licit &erformati,es that 'ill indicate the
s&eech act in,ol,ed:
You shoul& ta:e an as<irin
IDm going to gi(e )ou a .i:e %or )our .irth&a)
ItDs going to rain
You mustnDt smo:e here
You ma) ta:e another one.
Indicate the direct s&eech acts and the indirect s&eech
acts &erformed (% them:
You <a) no0 an& IDll <a) ne$t time.
,o )ou 0ant to set the ta.le no0B
8h) &onDt )ou loo: at the .ra:e liningB
6o0 a.out turning out the lightB
ItDs sto<<e& raining.
,o )ou ha(e a matchB
,onDt lea(e me no0`
ThereDs a 0il& &og in the neigh.ourhoo&.
*on&entional implicit meaning
+$ Presu&&ositions are u(iquitous F identif% them in the
follo'ing utterances (-ruse)*
a. The %l)ing saucer lan&e& right here.
.. LiY regrets A &oes not regret selling the house.
c. LiY <la)s A &oes not <la) the .assoon .rilliantl).
/$ Tr% to assign &resu&&osition to the e=&ressions in
italics in these sentences F focus on e=&ressions in italics
8?erschueren, 1999, 29?*
a. The )ear o% <ros<erit) an& <eace has ended.
.. I regret that the )ear o% <ros<erit) an& <eace has en&e&.
c. The '5 managed to .ring a.out <eace.
&. + time o% <ros<erit) an& <eace 0ill return.
e. While the '5 0as :ee<ing the <eace in /osnia, a 0ar
.ro:e out in baire.
%. 0t was the '5 that .rought a.out <eace in /osnia.
g. What the MK did 0as to .ring a.out <eace in /osnia.
h. 19!! 0ill .e a )ear or <ros<erit) an& <eace, an& 1992
0ill .e a real &isaster.
i. 199!, which was a year of prosperity and peace, 0ill .e
remem.ere& %ore(er.
P. 0f 4CC= had been a )ear o% <ros<erit) an& <eace, there
0oul& not .e so man) re%ugees to&a).
:. 8ill 199! .e <eace%ul or (iolentB
l. 2&en 199! coul& .e calle& <eace%ul.
m. I% e&en 199! coul& .e calle& <eace%ul, 1995 0as hea(en.
n. /ll of 199! 0ill .e <eace%ul.
0$ Distinguish (et'een the t%&es of &otential
&resu&&osition:
Imagine there is hea(en`
-ut us another slice o% .rea&`
8hen &i& )ou meet him %or the %irst timeB
The lorious 7e(olution too: <lace .et0een 1!33 an&
1!39.
8ho sa)s 0e canDt go thereB
IDm gla& )ou tol& us a.out it in time.
I &reamt a &ream` 8hat can it meanB +n& that I 0as a
mai&en cueen (8. /la:e, The +ngel)
I 0ish I 0ere li:e )ou.
ItDs tragic that he shoul& li(e to see this.
The >rench e(entuall) &iscontinue& the nuclear tests.
8e soon realise& 0hat 0as ha<<ening.
6e 0as greete& .) the %ormer <resi&ent.
8hat a <it) )ou ha(enDt seen it.
1$ Assign &resu&&osition and &otential entailments to
the sentence: ID(e ne(er .een to 7ome
3$ #i,e the con,entional im&licature of the items in
italics: 2&en 0e :ne0 0hat 0as going on. 'h 0hat a <it).
5o-one has in%orme& him yet.
4$ 7hat im&licit meanings are associated 'ith the
follo'ing utterances9
1ome <eo<le .elie(e in o&
,amon 6ill &i& 0ell in his %irst season in >ormula 1
ID(e got d100 in the .an: Lin%or&
-hristie can run 100m in 9.9 secon&s
5$ Consider the con,entional im&licit meaning:
(a) in a un%a(oura.le theatre re(ie0 Cuote* !umor mIl
obstarati !ornNOek@
(.) "o 5Iro&n\ t_\&e <roP\f&\ :oJIr :nefn) Lo.:o0icY. +.eles
ghouchI &o Ytum<acho(atelUho 7ou.\J:a* -o ta: .l.e JumeP,
7ou.\Je:B + 7ou.\Je: Yasnene <ra(\* Jegte Pe&nou .)ch se chtel
milo(at s :nefnou Lo.:o0itY ... +.eles se s (el:im YIPmem
<_i<onachil\ a <ologe<tem na<o(\&I* Ta: to (oni, 7ou.\Je:, uf
Pa:o se sleJnou :nefnou ne:&) neco ... Pa:o tamto ...B 7ou.\Je:
se (rac\ &o realit)* jle hou.elec. +le uf Pe&nou Psem chtel.
-ruse, +. (200!) + lossar) o% 1emantics an& "ragmatics, 4&in.urgh* 4&in.urgh 'ni(ersit) "ress
"earce, M. (2002) The 7outle&ge ,ictionar) o% 4nglish Language 1tu&ies, %outledge;
02-2012
5on-con(entional im<licit meaning M strategic a(oi&ance o% e$<licitness
0mplicit meaning is generated by two means6
4" con&entional 7 presupposition, entailment, con&entional implicature6 standard, i"e" inferable,
logical and lexically contained, meaning which is not occasion7specific (dependent on
context andFor cotext)
G" non7con&entional (occasion7specific)6 conversational implicature, implicit meaning which
results from #breaking the rules$ of con&ersation, or the system of #con&ersational logic$
based on intuiti&e principles (maxims of con&ersation Pkon&erDaOnN maximyQ) which are
supposed to guide con&ersational interaction in keeping with a general #co7operati&e
principle$ (*P)"
!"P" Jrice (@ogic and con&ersation" 0n" P" *ole and J"@" .organ (eds)(4C,<)" ?yntax and ?emantics 56 ?peech acts" Kew
Bork6 /cademic Press):
Our talk exchanges do not normally consist of a succession of disconnected remarks, and would not
be rational if they did. They are characteristically, to some degree at least, cooperative efforts;
and each participant recognizes in them, to some extent, a common purpose or set of purposes, or
at a mutually accepted direction. This purpose or direction may be fixed from the start e.g., by an
initial proposal of a !uestion for discussion", or it may evolve during the exchange; it may be fairly
definite, or it may be so indefinite as to leave very considerable latitude to the participants as in
a casual conversation". #ut at each stage, $O%& possible conversational moves would be excluded as
conversationally unsuitable. 'e might then formulate a rough general principle which participants
will be expected ceteris paribus" to observe, namely( %ake your conversational contribution such
as is re!uired, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchange in which you are engaged. One might label this the )OO*&+,T-.& *+-/)-*0&.
On the assumption that some such general principle as this is acceptable, one may perhaps
distinguish four categories under one or another of which will fall certain more specific maxims and
submaxims, the following of which will, in general, yield results in accordance with the
)ooperative *rinciple. &choing 1ant, - call these categories 2uantity, 2uality, +elation, and
%anner.3 p. 45"
$pecification of maxims6 cuantit) (the right amount of information), cualit) (not false or
unfounded information), 7elation (information to the point), and Manner (efficient
presentation of information)" /nalogy with non7&erbal transactions (Jrice, p" :,)6
4" %uantity" 0f you are assisting me to mend a car, 0
expect your contribution to be neither more nor
less than is re8uired; if, for example, at a
particular stage 0 need four screws, 0 expect you
to hand me four, rather than two or six"
G" %uality" 0 expect your contribution to be genuine
and not spurious" 0f 0 need sugar as an ingredient
in the cake you are assisting me to make, 0 do not
expect you to hand me salt; if 0 need a spoon, 0
do not expect a trick spoon made of rubber"
5" &elation' 0 expect a partners contribution to be
appropriate to immediate needs at each stage of
the transaction; if 0 am mixing ingredients for a
cake, 0 do not expect to be handed a good book,
or e&en an o&en cloth (though this might be an
appropriate contribution at a later stage)"
:" Manner" 0 expect a partner to make it clear what
contribution he is making, and to execute his
performance with reasonable dispatch"
Conversational implicature (restatement)6 implicit
meaning inferred from the ob&ious flouting (non7
obser&ance) of a con&ersational maxim in
combination with assumed adherence to the co7
operati&e principle"
P" Jrundy (4CC<6 :H7:4)6
There are guiding principles which govern co6operative talk. 1nowing these principles maxims"
enables an addressee to draw inferences as to the implied meanings implicatures" of utterances.
&very utterance, whether it abides by or flouts the maxims, has both 7natural8 meaning
12
02-2012
entailment" and 7non6natural8 meaning implicature". 9louting a maxim is a particularly salient
way of getting an addressee to draw an inference. Thus there is a trade6off between abiding by
maxims the prototypical way of conducting a conversation" and flouting maxims the prototypical
way of conveying implicit meanings"3.
Generalised vs particularised conversational implicatures + &istinction
can .e &ra0n .et0een t0o t)<es o% conversational implicature. +n im<licature
counts as Fgeneralise&D i% it is a &e%ault rea&ing, that is to sa) it arises unless it is e$<licitl)
cancelle& an& is to that e$tent in&e<en&ent o% conte$t. >or instance, Some of the parents
came to the meeting 0ill normall) im<l) that not all o% them &i&. /ut in Some of the
parents, if not all of them, came to the meeting the im<licature Fnot allD is
cancelle&. The %act that this is not anomalous sho0s that 0e are not &ealing 0ith an
entailment. + F<articularise&D im<licature is one that &e<en&s on s<eci%ic conte$ts an& is
not a &e%ault message com<onent. >or instance, Jane is in the shower &oes not con(e) a
&e%ault message com<onent F1he cannot come to the tele<honeD. This reCuires a <articular
conte$t* +* -an I s<ea: to JaneB /* 1heDs in the sho0er. (-ruse, 200!)
Conversational implicatures have several identifying features6 Lirst of all, #Pthey are not
entailments, that is, they do not follow logically from what is said! "or
instance, we can infer from #Pete has a cousin$ that #%t least one of Pete$s
parents is not an only child$, but since this is an entailment it is not a
conversational implicature! &n the other hand, in the e'ample given
under implicature: %: (an I speak to Jane) *: Jane$s in the shower! the
inference from *$s answer, that Jane is not able to take a telephone call,
is not an entailment!+ "or the other identifying features, i!e! they are
calcula.le@ cancella.le (or &e%easi.le)@ non-&etacha.le; not %ull) &etermina.le an& conte$t-
sensiti(e (the same proposition expressed in a different context can gi&e rise to different implicatures) see
!andout ,"
2xamples
>erschueren (4CCC, 5,)6 0dentify a con&ersational implicature in the dialogue" The flouting of which
maxim or maxims produced it What implicit meaning is con&eyed by the implicature, if any
?uggest how the con&ersational implicature could be cancelled" Point out how ( as a result of its
calculability ( the implicature can be 8uestioned" ?uggest how the implicature can be made
explicit"
,e..)* o an)0here to&a)B
,an* Yes, 0e 0ent &o0n to -omo. '< .) .us, an& .ac: .) h)&ro%oil.
,e..)* +n)thing to see thereB
,an* "erha<s not the most interesting o% Italian to0ns, .ut itDs 0orth the tri<.
,e..)* I might &o that ne$t 1atur&a).
Jane* 8hat &o )ou mean 0hen )ou sa) <erha&s not the most interesting o% Italian
to0nsB
Jac:* 6e means certainl) not the most interesting . . .
,an* Just tr)ing to .e <olite . . .
Tr% to GcalculateH the con,ersational im&licatures: if there are an% 8'hich con,ersational
ma=ims 'ere flouted to &roduce them?:
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
Mother* The)Dre either in the gar&en or in the <la)room, IFm not sure 0hich.
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
Mother* ,o )ou :no0 0hat the time isB 8here ha(e )ou .eenB
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
Mother* 8here &o )ou e$<ect them to .e at this late hourB
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
Mother* #n a sa%ari.
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
13
02-2012
Mother* 1ome0here aroun&.
+ (stan&ing not %ar %rom a cloc:)* 8hatDs the timeB
/* 8ell, accor&ing to this cloc: itDs a Cuarter to %our.
+ to / (on returning to their car an& %in&ing it 0heel-clam<e&)* reat, thatDs Pust 0hat I 0ante&.
+* 6as -hris gi(en u< smo:ingB
/* 8ell, heDs certainl) sto<<e& .u)ing his o0n.
+* 8ho 0as that )ou 0ere 0ith last nightB
/* ,i& )ou :no0 )ou 0ere 0earing o&& soc:sB
+ la&) .u)ing some %ruit at a greengrocerDs e$<laine& that she 0ante& it %or her hus.an&, 0ho
0as ill, an& as:e& 0hether it ha& .een s<ra)e& 0ith <oisonous %ertiliYer or an)thing li:e that.
F5o, ma&am,D re<lie& the greengrocer. FYouDll ha(e to get that %rom the chemist.D
When Jeneral de Jaulle was in /lgiers during the war, he called a hurried meeting" 'ne of his
ministers arri&ed in shorts, pullo&er and gym shoes, ha&ing recei&ed the summons while he was
on the beach" -e Jaulle looked at him coldly and said6 +!a&ent you forgotten something
+What asked the minister" +Bour hoop, replied de Jaulle"
+s:e& 0h) he &i& not Poin a clu. roucho Mar$ is re<orte& to ha(e re<lie&*
FI 0oul&nDt 0ant to Poin an) clu. that 0oul& acce<t me.D
(roucho Mar$* 1390M1922, an +merican come&ian an& %ilm star, %ame& as a master o% 0it. 6e ma&e 15
%eature %ilms 0ith his si.lings, the Mar$ /rothers)
Ma) I .orro0 )our <enB
Yes, .ut 0hat ha<<ene& to )oursB
That scar here on m) %orehea&. ThatDs 0h) I &onDt ri&e motorc)cles an)more.
19
02-2012
5on-con(entional im<licit meaning M strategic a(oi&ance o% e$<licitness
0mplicit meaning is generated by two means6
4" con&entional 7 presupposition, entailment, con&entional implicature6 standard, i"e" inferable,
logical and lexically contained, meaning which is not occasion7specific (dependent on
context andFor cotext)
G" non7con&entional (occasion7specific)6 conversational implicature, implicit meaning which
results from #breaking the rules$ of con&ersation, or the system of #con&ersational logic$
based on intuiti&e principles (maxims of con&ersation Pkon&erDaOnN maximyQ) which are
supposed to guide con&ersational interaction in keeping with a general #co7operati&e
principle$ (*P)"
!"P" Jrice (@ogic and con&ersation" 0n" P" *ole and J"@" .organ (eds)(4C,<)" ?yntax and ?emantics 56 ?peech acts" Kew
Bork6 /cademic Press):
Our talk exchanges do not normally consist of a succession of disconnected remarks, and would not
be rational if they did. They are characteristically, to some degree at least, cooperative efforts;
and each participant recognizes in them, to some extent, a common purpose or set of purposes, or
at a mutually accepted direction. This purpose or direction may be fixed from the start e.g., by an
initial proposal of a !uestion for discussion", or it may evolve during the exchange; it may be fairly
definite, or it may be so indefinite as to leave very considerable latitude to the participants as in
a casual conversation". #ut at each stage, $O%& possible conversational moves would be excluded as
conversationally unsuitable. 'e might then formulate a rough general principle which participants
will be expected ceteris paribus" to observe, namely( %ake your conversational contribution such
as is re!uired, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchange in which you are engaged. One might label this the )OO*&+,T-.& *+-/)-*0&.
On the assumption that some such general principle as this is acceptable, one may perhaps
distinguish four categories under one or another of which will fall certain more specific maxims and
submaxims, the following of which will, in general, yield results in accordance with the
)ooperative *rinciple. &choing 1ant, - call these categories 2uantity, 2uality, +elation, and
%anner.3 p. 45"
$pecification of maxims6 cuantit) (the right amount of information), cualit) (not false or
unfounded information), 7elation (information to the point), and Manner (efficient
presentation of information)" /nalogy with non7&erbal transactions (Jrice, p" :,)6
4" %uantity" 0f you are assisting me to mend a car, 0
expect your contribution to be neither more nor
less than is re8uired; if, for example, at a
particular stage 0 need four screws, 0 expect you
to hand me four, rather than two or six"
G" %uality" 0 expect your contribution to be genuine
and not spurious" 0f 0 need sugar as an ingredient
in the cake you are assisting me to make, 0 do not
expect you to hand me salt; if 0 need a spoon, 0
do not expect a trick spoon made of rubber"
5" &elation' 0 expect a partners contribution to be
appropriate to immediate needs at each stage of
the transaction; if 0 am mixing ingredients for a
cake, 0 do not expect to be handed a good book,
or e&en an o&en cloth (though this might be an
appropriate contribution at a later stage)"
:" Manner" 0 expect a partner to make it clear what
contribution he is making, and to execute his
performance with reasonable dispatch"
Conversational implicature (restatement)6 implicit
meaning inferred from the ob&ious flouting (non7
obser&ance) of a con&ersational maxim in
combination with assumed adherence to the co7
operati&e principle"
P" Jrundy (4CC<6 :H7:4)6
There are guiding principles which govern co6operative talk. 1nowing these principles maxims"
enables an addressee to draw inferences as to the implied meanings implicatures" of utterances.
&very utterance, whether it abides by or flouts the maxims, has both 7natural8 meaning
20
02-2012
entailment" and 7non6natural8 meaning implicature". 9louting a maxim is a particularly salient
way of getting an addressee to draw an inference. Thus there is a trade6off between abiding by
maxims the prototypical way of conducting a conversation" and flouting maxims the prototypical
way of conveying implicit meanings"3.
Generalised vs particularised conversational implicatures + &istinction
can .e &ra0n .et0een t0o t)<es o% conversational implicature. +n im<licature
counts as Fgeneralise&D i% it is a &e%ault rea&ing, that is to sa) it arises unless it is e$<licitl)
cancelle& an& is to that e$tent in&e<en&ent o% conte$t. >or instance, Some of the parents
came to the meeting 0ill normall) im<l) that not all o% them &i&. /ut in Some of the
parents, if not all of them, came to the meeting the im<licature Fnot allD is
cancelle&. The %act that this is not anomalous sho0s that 0e are not &ealing 0ith an
entailment. + F<articularise&D im<licature is one that &e<en&s on s<eci%ic conte$ts an& is
not a &e%ault message com<onent. >or instance, Jane is in the shower &oes not con(e) a
&e%ault message com<onent F1he cannot come to the tele<honeD. This reCuires a <articular
conte$t* +* -an I s<ea: to JaneB /* 1heDs in the sho0er. (-ruse, 200!)
Conversational implicatures have several identifying features6 Lirst of all, #Pthey are not
entailments, that is, they do not follow logically from what is said! "or
instance, we can infer from #Pete has a cousin$ that #%t least one of Pete$s
parents is not an only child$, but since this is an entailment it is not a
conversational implicature! &n the other hand, in the e'ample given
under implicature: %: (an I speak to Jane) *: Jane$s in the shower! the
inference from *$s answer, that Jane is not able to take a telephone call,
is not an entailment!+ "or the other identifying features, i!e! they are
calcula.le@ cancella.le (or &e%easi.le)@ non-&etacha.le; not %ull) &etermina.le an& conte$t-
sensiti(e (the same proposition expressed in a different context can gi&e rise to different implicatures) see
!andout ,"
2xamples
>erschueren (4CCC, 5,)6 0dentify a con&ersational implicature in the dialogue" The flouting of which
maxim or maxims produced it What implicit meaning is con&eyed by the implicature, if any
?uggest how the con&ersational implicature could be cancelled" Point out how ( as a result of its
calculability ( the implicature can be 8uestioned" ?uggest how the implicature can be made
explicit"
,e..)* o an)0here to&a)B
,an* Yes, 0e 0ent &o0n to -omo. '< .) .us, an& .ac: .) h)&ro%oil.
,e..)* +n)thing to see thereB
,an* "erha<s not the most interesting o% Italian to0ns, .ut itDs 0orth the tri<.
,e..)* I might &o that ne$t 1atur&a).
Jane* 8hat &o )ou mean 0hen )ou sa) <erha&s not the most interesting o% Italian
to0nsB
Jac:* 6e means certainl) not the most interesting . . .
,an* Just tr)ing to .e <olite . . .
Tr% to GcalculateH the con,ersational im&licatures: if there are an% 8'hich con,ersational
ma=ims 'ere flouted to &roduce them?:
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
Mother* The)Dre either in the gar&en or in the <la)room, IFm not sure 0hich.
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
Mother* ,o )ou :no0 0hat the time isB 8here ha(e )ou .eenB
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
Mother* 8here &o )ou e$<ect them to .e at this late hourB
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
Mother* #n a sa%ari.
>ather* 8here are the chil&renB
21
02-2012
Mother* 1ome0here aroun&.
+ (stan&ing not %ar %rom a cloc:)* 8hatDs the timeB
/* 8ell, accor&ing to this cloc: itDs a Cuarter to %our.
+ to / (on returning to their car an& %in&ing it 0heel-clam<e&)* reat, thatDs Pust 0hat I 0ante&.
+* 6as -hris gi(en u< smo:ingB
/* 8ell, heDs certainl) sto<<e& .u)ing his o0n.
+* 8ho 0as that )ou 0ere 0ith last nightB
/* ,i& )ou :no0 )ou 0ere 0earing o&& soc:sB
+ la&) .u)ing some %ruit at a greengrocerDs e$<laine& that she 0ante& it %or her hus.an&, 0ho
0as ill, an& as:e& 0hether it ha& .een s<ra)e& 0ith <oisonous %ertiliYer or an)thing li:e that.
F5o, ma&am,D re<lie& the greengrocer. FYouDll ha(e to get that %rom the chemist.D
When Jeneral de Jaulle was in /lgiers during the war, he called a hurried meeting" 'ne of his
ministers arri&ed in shorts, pullo&er and gym shoes, ha&ing recei&ed the summons while he was
on the beach" -e Jaulle looked at him coldly and said6 +!a&ent you forgotten something
+What asked the minister" +Bour hoop, replied de Jaulle"
+s:e& 0h) he &i& not Poin a clu. roucho Mar$ is re<orte& to ha(e re<lie&*
FI 0oul&nDt 0ant to Poin an) clu. that 0oul& acce<t me.D
(roucho Mar$* 1390M1922, an +merican come&ian an& %ilm star, %ame& as a master o% 0it. 6e ma&e 15
%eature %ilms 0ith his si.lings, the Mar$ /rothers)
Ma) I .orro0 )our <enB
Yes, .ut 0hat ha<<ene& to )oursB
That scar here on m) %orehea&. ThatDs 0h) I &onDt ri&e motorc)cles an)more.
22
02-2012
Differences (et'een Con,entional Im&licature and Con,ersational Im&licature
8(et'een semantic or con,entional and noncon,entional: con,ersational
meaning?
Con,entional im&licatures:
(a) noncalculable (the meanin( need not be deri/ed,
%orked out, it is +art o the orm)E
(b) noncancellable (the meanin( cannot be
%ithdra%n %ithin the situation o utterance %ithout
an" contradiction)E
(c) detachable, i.e., i the elements that tri((er them
are re+laced, the res+ecti/e im+licature does not
arise.
(d) nonvariable (not con/e"in( diferent thin(s in
diferent conte1ts)E
Con,ersational im&licatures (J.M. 1a&oc:Ds summar) o% their
si$ characteristics accor&ing to rice, 1925)*
(a) -on(ersational im<licata are ca<a.le o% .eing H0or:e& outK on
the .asis, inter alia, o% the -oo<erati(e "rinci<le. That is the) are
C(LC)L(*L+ (also, the) can .e ma&e e$<licit, the) can .e Cuestione&)
(.) -on(ersational im<licata are C(,C+LL(*L+ (or &e%easi.le, i.e. the)
can .e eliminate& or change& .) mo&i%)ing or a&&ing to the utterance).
(c) -on(ersational im<licata are ,-,"+.(C/(*L+ (i.e. the) are
<ro<erites o% the meaning o% utterances as a 0hole, an& not sim<l)
attache& to a single %orm o% e$<ression)@ c%. (aria.ilit) .elo0.
(&) -on(ersational im<licata are not <art o% the meaning o% the
uttere& %orms. The) are ,-,C-,0+,.1-,(L.
(%) -on(ersational im<licata ma) .e 1,"+.+&M1,(.+ (i.e. although
calcula.le, the) are not %ull) &etermina.le; the meaning o% a gi(en
utterance 0ill .e different in a different conte=t G0(&1(*L+L or nee&
not .e the same %or &i%%erent users on a gi(en occasion).
(e) -on(ersational im<licata are not carrie& .) 0hat is sai&, .ut .)
the sa)ing o% it.
Jenn% Thomas> 8+<<3? condensation of #rice>s si= &ro&erties of con,ersational im&licature into four:
8a? non-detacha(ilit% and non-con,entionalit% M some as<ects
o% meaning are semantic an& can .e change& or remo(e& .)
relexicaliDation or reformulation (re<lacing one 0or& or <hrase
0ith another closel) relate& one, .ut lac:ing the su<<ose&l)
un<leasant connotation). 4$am<les* +* I 0ish )ou 0oul&nDt
cree< on me, Mother. /* I &onDt cree<, &ear. I merel) re%rain
%rom ma:ing gratuitous noise. A M.". &e%en&ing the
o(ernmentDs ne0 <olic)* F HMetho&s o% interrogationK 0as the
<hrase )ou use&. I thin: 0e 0oul& call it HCuestioningK D. In the
case o% Fcree<D, Fmetho&s o% interrogationD ... the un<leasant
associations are <art o% the meaning o% the le$ical item.
7e<lacing the o%%en&ing le$ical item 0ith a s)non)m 0hich
&oes not ha(e such negati(e connotations remo(es the
un<leasantness.
This is not <ossi.le 0ith im<licature. 5o matter ho0 much
)ou re0or& an utterance, the im<licature remains. >or e$am<le,
m) cats are on the large siYe. + (isitor loo:e& at one o% them
an& sai&, F'n&er%e&, isnDt heBD im<l)ing, there.), that the
animal 0as %at (0hen, in %act, he is merel) .ig-.one&). The
same im<licature 0oul& .e maintaine& ho0e(er the utterance
ha& .een rele$icaliYe& an& regar&less o% 0hether or not the
chosen a&Pecti(e ha& <ositi(e or negati(e connotations*
>railA<un)A s:inn)A&elicateAlight-on-his-%eetAslimline, isnDt heB M
all carr) the im<licature that the cat is %at.
8(? ,aria(ilit% 8im&licature changes? M im<licatures are the
<ro<ert) o% utterances, not o% sentences an& there%ore the same
0or&s carr) &i%%erent im<licatures on &i%%erent occasions.
-onsi&er the sentence* !ow old are you an& ho0 it is use& in
the three %ollo0ing e$am<les* +* ItDs m) .irth&a) to&a). /*
Man) ha<<) returns. 6o0 ol& are )ouB +. IDm %i(e. A +* 6o0
ol& are )ou, eorgeB /* IDm eighteen, >ather. +* I :no0 ho0 ol&
)ou are, )ou %ool. A + <s)chiatrist tal:ing to a 0oman <atient* +*
8hat &o )ou &oB /* IDm a nurse, .ut m) hus.an& 0onDt let me
0or:. +* 6o0 ol& are )ouB /* IDm thirt)-nine. M In each case the
semantic meaning o% !ow old are you is the same, .ut the
im<licature is &i%%erent. In the %irst it is a straight%or0ar& reCuest %or
in%ormation@ in the secon& the %ather im<lies that the sonDs
.eha(iour is ina<<ro<riate %or a <erson o% his age (more <recisel),
he is im<l)ing that it is time his son got a Po.), an& the <s)chiatrist
in the last e$am<le is <ro.a.l) tr)ing to <rom<t the <atient to
consi&er 0hether, at thirt)-nine, she isnDt ol& enough to ma:e u<
her o0n min& a.out 0hether or not to 0or:.
8c? calcula(ilit% M the same 0or&s ma) con(e), in &i%%erent
circumstances, (er) &i%%erent im<licatures. The im<licature
con(e)e& in one <articular conte$t is not ran&om, ho0e(er. It is
<ossi.le to s<ell out the ste<s a hearer goes through in or&er to
calculate the inten&e& im<licature.
8d? defeasi(ilit% (cancella.ilit)) M this is the most im<ortant
&i%%erence .et0een semantic meaning an& im<lie& meaning.
The notion o% F&e%easi.ilit)D means that an im<licature can .e
cancelle&. This allo0s the s<ea:er to im<l) something an& then
&en) the im<licature. 4$am<les in 0hich, %or a (ariet) o%
reasons, an im<licature is cancelle&* +* ,i& )ou get )our (el(et
Pac:et .ac: %rom the cleaners /* YouDre not .orro0ing it, sister.
+* I &onDt 0ant to .orro0 it. I Pust 0on&ere& i% )ouD& got it
.ac:. /* You Pust 0on&ere&` +* 8ell, I ha(enDt got an)thing
&ecent to 0ear` (+ &oes &en) the im<licature o% her %irst
Cuestion, .ut not (er) <lausi.l). 8hen challenge& she .ac:s
&o0n an& instea& o%%ers a Pusti%ication %or her im<lie& reCuest) A
+ ne0s<a<er re<ort o% a court case* +t this interru<tion Mr
>in&la) %or the <rosecution as:e& -hurchill i% he 0as &en)ing
that he ha& &eli.eratel) set his &og on "olice -onsta.le Llo)&.
FYes, 1irD, re<lie& the &e%en&ant, FI &o &en) it. 8hen "- Llo)&
0al:e& into the clu., I Pust sai&, H#h loo:, 7am.o, a co<<erK
an& the &og sort o% ma&e u< his o0n min&.D
+Kon7con&entional implicit meaning
-on(ersational im<licatures come a.out .) the e=&loitation E
(a<<arent %louting) or o(ser,ation O o% the coo<erati(e <rinci<le (-")
an& the set o% ma$ims (KLMI means Kim+licates
con/ersationall"I)#
(8) E @ar is %ar. LM KThere is nothin( one can do
about it.I
(2) ! Some men %ere drunk. LM KNot all o them %ere
drunk.I
(3a) E He is a .ne riend. LM KHe is not a .ne riend.I
(3b) E 'ou are the cream in m" cofee. LM K'ou are m"
best riend.I
2;
02-2012
(C) ! There is lie on :ars. LM KS+eaker belie/es that
there is lie on :ars.I
(D) E S+eaker !# IIm out o +etrol. S+eaker $# There is
a (ara(e round the corner. LM KThe (ara(e is o+en.I
(>) ! S+eaker !# Oook, that old s+inster o/er thereP
S+eaker $# Nice %eather toda", isnIt it4 LM KNo
comment.I
(?) E She +roduced a series o noises that resembled
KKSk, mi chiamano :imiII. LM KHer sin(in( %as a
com+lete disaster.I
(3) ! +nna 0ent to the sho< an& .ought Peans. LM F1he .ought the
Peans in the sho<.D (the a&&itional meaning Fan& thenD)
+$ The follo'ing 'a%s of using language ha,e (een considered e=&loitations 8flouts? of #ricean ma=ims$ Came the
strateg% 8e$g$ iron%? and the ma=im %ou thin) each flouts9
.oney doesnt grow on trees but it blossoms at our branches (Llo)&Ds /an: a&(ertisement)
/t the end of the day the *hurch can only afford to pay the number of people it can afford to pay (a .isho< s<ea:ing on the ?unday
<rogramme on 7a&io 9 0hen as:e& 0hether there 0oul& .e Po. cuts in the -hurch)
Kow we&e /@@ been screwed by the *abinet (?un hea&line)
0t was more a case of being economical with the truth
!ow many di&isions has the Pope (a Cuote attri.ute& to 1talin)
/$ Decide 'hether the follo'ing utterances are flouts: and: if so: of 'hich ma=ims:
To a com<laining stu&ent* Well, it is a uni&ersity"
2asy read, Linnegans Wake
Lather6 !a&e you done your homework
-aughter6 -addy you know you said we could ha&e a dog
/head of current thinking (5ational "o0er a&(ertisements)
0n cordless technology we ha&e the lead (/lac: an& ,ec:er a&(ertisement)
The best : x : x far F Lirst and fourmost (Lan& 7o(er a&(ertisement)
0$ "edging (or attenuation)
'n&er circumstances 0here s<ea:ers ma) not %ollo0 the e$<ectations o% the coo<erati(e <rinci<le, the) ma) use certain e$<ressions to
in&icate that the) are at ris: o% not o.ser(ing the %our ma$ims to the %ull. These are cautious notes calle& he&ges 0hich a&(ise the
a&&ressee o% the e$tent to 0hich the assertions o.ser(e the ma$ims, i.e. ho0 an utterance is to .e ta:en. Thus the ma$im in(ol(e& is
Fhe&ge&D - in the same sense that 0e can tal: a.out Fhe&gingD a .et (c%. -#,9* hedge, tr" re&uce oneOs ris: o% loss on (a .et or
s<eculation) .) com<ensating transactions on the other si&e, c%. to in(est a little each 0a), an each 0a) .et). >or instance, the ma$im o%
Cualit) ma) .e he&ge& .) Fas far as 0 know, the ma$im o% Cuantit) .) Fto cut a long story short, the ma$im o% relation F0 dont know if
this is important, ...D an& the ma$im o% manner .) Fthis may be a bit confused, but ...D. 6e&ging or attenuation His a <roce&ure 0hich
results in the 0ea:ening o% the illocutionar) %orce in situations 0hich 0oul& other0ise lea& to a loss o% %ace (either %or the s<ea:er or %or
the listener) an& 0hich 0oul& thus ma:e communication untena.le mainl) &ue to the in%ringing o% the "oliteness "rinci<leK ('r.ano(I,
#n 4$<ressing Meaning, 200;, 53).
Comment on the function of the added metalingual
glosses: the% are either hedging ma=ims or stressing the
o(ser,ance of ma=ims$ 7hich ones9

/ll 0 know is smoking damages your health
?moking damages your health and thats all there is to it
?moking damages your health for sure
They say smoking damages your health
"he point is smoking damages your health
Put plainly, smoking damages your health
1$ Entailment ,ersus Indirect Information
a$ + is a 0aiter in a <retentious, .ut secon&-rate restaurant. / is a gourmet, 0ho runs his o0n restaurant*
+* -id you en3oy the lamb, ?ir
/* 0t was &ery interesting"
($ H/nd thisK, sa)s Mr. M. <rou&l), <ointing out a rather &ila<i&ate& ol& house to his %oreign guest, His my daughter and
son7in7law+s house1K - The guest, <ausing .rie%l)* H'h, a beautiful site"K
3$ 7hat )ind of im&licature 8in,ol,ing 'hich ma=ims and e=&loitation? is e=em&lified (% the follo'ing sentence9
/) th) 0or&s thou shalt .e Pusti%ie&, an& .) th) 0or&s thou shalt .e con&emne&. Matthe0 12*;2
5e.oh <o&le s(ich slo( .u&eg os<ra(e&lnen a <o&le s(ich slo( o&souYen. Matoug 12*;2
4$ E=&lain the ina&&ro&riateness:
29
?moking damages your health
02-2012
#utsi&e a secon&-han& sho<* 8e e$change an)thing M .ic)cles, 0ashing machines, etc. 8h) not .ring )our 0i%e along an&
get a 0on&er%ul .argain.
5$ Contrast the form F 'hat effect it ma% ha,e on the tenor of the sentence:
I loo: %or0ar& to hearing %rom )ou soon. $ I am loo:ing %or0ar& to hearing %rom )ou soon.
6$ Consider the e=change 8from the T series Driends?:
6e), "hee.s, &D)ou 0anna hel<B M #h, I 0ish I coul&, .ut I &onDt 0ant to.
<$ Iuotes a&&earing in the .assachusetts Jar Association -a'%ers Journal (the Cuestions re<ute&l) as:e& o% 0itnesses
&uring trials). E=&lain in terms of non*con,entional im&licit meaning 'hat ma)es these questions ina&&ro&riate*
25
09-2012
c* ?he had three children, right
+* Bes"
c* !ow many were boys
+* Kone"
c* Were there any girls
c* !ow was your first marriage terminated
+* )y death"
c* /nd by whose death was it terminated
c* -o you recall the time that you examined the body
+* The autopsy started around E65H p"m"
c* /nd .r -ennington was dead at the time
+. Ko, you dummy, he was sitting on the table wondering why 0 was doing an autopsy"
c* /ll your responses must be oral, 'R What school did you go to
/6 'ral"
S6 /re you 8ualified to gi&e a urine sample
/6 0 ha&e been since early childhood"
Con-o(ser,ance of the .a=ims
P$ #rund% (,oing "ragmatics, +rnol&, 1995, <<. ;3-91)*
There are gui&ing <rinci<les 0hich go(ern coo<erati(e tal:. Nno0ing these <rinci<les (ma$ims) ena.les an a&&ressee to &ra0
in%erences as to the im<lie& meanings (im<licatures) o% utterances. 4(er) utterance, 0hether it a.i&es .) or %louts the ma$ims, has
.oth FnaturalD meaning (entailment Gcon(entional im<licatureL) an& Fnon-naturalD meaning (im<licature). >louting a ma$im is a
<articularl) salient 0a) o% getting an a&&ressee to &ra0 an in%erence. Thus there is a tra&e-o%% .et0een a.i&ing .) ma$ims (the
<rotot)<ical 0a) o% con&ucting a con(ersation) an& %louting ma$ims (the <rotot)<ical 0a) o% con(e)ing im<licit meanings).
(tra&e-o%% n. a .alance achie(e& .et0een t0o &esira.le .ut incom<ati.le %eatures@ a com<romise, a .argain.)
E=am&les of a(iding (% the ma=ims*
Iuantit%
(Ma:e )our contri.ution as in%ormati(e as reCuire& (%or the current <ur<oses o% the e$change). ,o not ma:e )our contri.ution
more in%ormati(e than is reCuire&)
*helsea are ha&ing a good season Im<licature* The) are lea&ing the cham<ionshi<
Iualit%
(,o not sa) 0hat )ou .elie(e is %alse. ,o not sa) that %or 0hich )ou lac: a&eCuate e(i&ence)
?moking damages your health Im<licature* The s<ea:er .elie(esAhas e(i&ence that it &oes
Relation (/e rele(ant)
Bou&e got up to here in this book Im<licature* You are on <age ;3
.anner
(/e <ers<icuous* +(oi& o.scurit) o% e$<ression. +(oi& am.iguit). /e .rie% (a(oi& unnecessar) <roli$it)). /e or&erl))
They washed and went to bed Im<licature* The) &i& it in that or&er
E=am&le of not a(iding (% the &rinci&les* +* +0m afraid 0 dont know where -urham is" 0s it in Korthumberland
/* +-urhams in -urham"
The ans0er is not as in%ormati(e as reCuire&. +lthough it %louts a ma$im, there is still an im<licature. 1<ea:er + 0ill assume that, &es<ite
not a.i&ing .) ma$im, 1<ea:er / is essentiall) coo<erati(e an& must there%ore .e inten&ing to con(e) a meaning. In %act, 0hene(er a
ma$im is %loute& there must .e an im<licature to sa(e the utterance %rom sim<l) a<<earing to .e a %ault) contri.ution to a con(ersation.
That is, interlocutors o<erate on the assum<tion that, as a rule, the ma$im 0ill .e o.ser(e&. 8hen this e$<ectation is con%oun&e& an& the
listener is con%ronte& 0ith the non-o.ser(ance o% a ma$im, heAshe is <rom<te& to loo: %or an Gcon(ersationalL im<licature.
Categories of non-o(ser,ance of con,ersational ma=ims (J. Thomas, Meaning in Interaction, 1995, ;.!-;.2)
rice (1925) liste& three 0a)s in 0hich a <artici<ant ma) %ail to %ul%il a ma$im (later a&&ing a %ourth categor))*
1 Dlouting a ma$im@ 2 iolating a ma$im@ ; O&ting out o% a ma$im@ 9 Infringing a ma$im.
1u.seCuentl), other 0riters argue& %or* 5 Sus&ending a ma$im
+ Dlouting a ma=im
- .latant (%lagrant, cons<icuous) %ailure to o.ser(e a ma$im, not 0ith an) intention o%
&ecei(ing or mislea&ing (the non-o.ser(ance is sometimes to a clash o% ma$ims, e.g.
cualit) an& cuantit))
>louts e$<loiting ma$im o% cualit)* +n am.ulanceman that 0as (omite& all o(er .)
a &run:*
+Jreat, thats really great1 Thats made my
*hristmas1
>louts e$<loiting ma$im o% cuantit)* +* !ow are we getting there
/* Well were getting there in -a&es car"
>louts e$<loiting ma$im o% 7elation* + (at a <art))* ?usans all in fa&our of it, arent
you darling
1usan* .ore sprouts anybody
>louts e$<loiting ma$im o% Manner* Inter(ie0er* -id the M? Jo&ernment play any
part in -u&aliers departure -id they Lor
example, acti&ely encourage him to lea&e
2!
09-2012
#%%icial* 0 would not try to steer you away from that conclusion"
/ iolating a ma=im
- unostentatious (unnoticea.le) non-o.ser(ance o% a ma$im lia.le to mislea& (or inten&e& to &ecei(e)
6us.an&* F0s there another manD 8i%e* FKo" There isnt another man.D (she is, in %act, ha(ing an a%%air 0ith a 0oman)
0 Infringing a ma=im
- %ailure to o.ser(e a ma$im, 0ith no intention o% generating an im<licature or &ecei(ing@ the %ailure is &ue to an im<er%ect
language com<etence (a chil&, a %oreign learner) or to other %actors (ner(ousness, &run:enness, e$citement, cogniti(e im<airment)
1 O&ting out of a ma=im
- in&ication o% un0illingness to coo<erate in the 0a) the ma$im reCuires (%or ethical, legal reasons, etc.)
+n M" as:e& a.out his tal:s 0ith a %oreign statesman*
FWell, honestly, 0 cant tell you a thing, because what was said to me was told me in confidence"
3 Sus&ending a ma=im
- o<ting out o% o.ser(ing the ma$ims .ecause there are certain e(ents in 0hich there is no e$<ectation on the <art o% an) <artici<ant
that the) 0ill .e %ul%ille& (hence the on-%ul%ilment &oes not generate an) im<licature)@ reasons* customar) mo&e o% s<eech on
certain occasions (de mortuis nil nisi bonum@ o.ituaries), reticence t)<ical o% a gi(en culture (in contrast to more Ftal:ati(eD
cultures), etc.
Some e=am&les of flouting: ,iolation and infringement of ma=ims (J. -utting, "ragmatics an& ,iscourse, 7outle&ge, 2002)*


+ ne0s<a<er Cuote*
6us.an& / = 0i%e + s<ea:ing in %ront o% their little &aughter*
6ol:) Y <orcelInu*
+ (<In se <sem )* 1leJno, to mIte <saB
/ (?eg:rno(I)* 5e, (el.lou&a.
+ (<In se <sem )* 5o &o(olte, PI se (Is slugne <tIm, Pestli Pe to <es ne.o %ena.
1ummar) o% In&irectness (after Jenn% Thomas?
.echanisms allo'ing the hearer to generate 8and inter&ret? indirectness*
1earle M indirect s&eech acts
22
+
/
1
0
3
4
5 6
<
+/

+0
++ ++
+E
09-2012
rice M im&licit meaning - con,ersational im&licature - is generate& (an& inter<rete&) on the .asis o% certain regularities o<erating
in s<eech (con(ersation) a coo<erati(e <rinci<le an& the %our ma$ims o% con(ersation (Cuantit), Cualit), rele(ance, manner)
or rather .) %louting these regularities
Dactors go,erning indirectness*
1 7elati(e <o0er o% 1 o(er 6 (the greater the
<o0er, the greater the &irectness, = (ice (ersa)
2 1ocial &istance .et0een 1 an& 6
; ,egree o% im<osition
9 7elati(e rights an& o.ligations .t0n 1 an& 6
Reasons for indirectness in s&eech*
(a) to generate interest (&esire to ma:e oneDs
language more interesting)
(.) to increase the %orce o% the message
(c) to &eal 0ith com<eting goals
8d? to &reser,e &oliteness*regard for Aface>
Ko one means all he says, and yet &ery few say all they mean, for words are slippery and thought is &iscous"
(The 4&ucation o% 6enr) +&ams, cha<. ;1, 1902)
Politeness: Jro'n and -e,inson>s Dace-management A&&roach
/ro0n, ". an& Le(inson, 1. (1932) Politeness6 ?ome uni&ersals in language usage" -am.ri&ge* -'".
CO.POCECTS OD DACE-.ACA#E.ECT OR DACE-SAIC#
+$ Pro&erties of interactants* %ace (negati(e, <ositi(e), rational ca<acities
(rationalit))
face M the <u.lic sel%-image that e(er) mem.er 0ants to claim %or himsel%@ the
conce<t &eri(e& %rom o%%man (19!2) an& %rom the 4nglish Hto lose %aceK (transl.
-hinese Ftiu lienD@ 1st atteste& in #4, 132!)@ %ace is emotionall) in(este&, it can
.e lost, maintaine&, or enhance&, it must .e constantl) atten&e& to in interaction@
%aces are mutuall) (ulnera.le (e(er)oneDs %ace &e<en&s on e(er)one elseDs .eing
maintaine&, +Ds %ace .eing threatene& threatens /Ds %ace, so it is in +Ds an& /Ds
interest to maintain each otherDs %aces@ t0o relate& as<ects o% %ace*
negati,e face M the .asic claim to territories, <ersonal <reser(es (hIPemst(\), rights
to non-&istraction (i.e. %ree&om o% action an& %ree&om %rom im<osition) M H0hat
0e &o not 0antK
&ositi,e face M the <ositi(e consistent sel%-image (<ersonalit)) that 0e &esire to .e
a<<reciate& an& a<<ro(e& o% .) interactants M H0hat 0e 0antK
face as 'ants - negati(e %ace* the 0ant that our actions .e unim<e&e& .) others@
<ositi(e %ace* the 0ant that our 0ants .e &esira.le to (at least some) others
rationalit% M the a<<lication o% F<ractical reasoningD 0hich hel<s us in%er ho0 to
achie(e 0hat 0e 0ant
/$ Intrinsic face-threatening acts (>T+s) M (non-)(er.al acts that .) their nature run
contrar) to the %ace 0ants o% the a&&ressee an&Aor o% the s<ea:er@ t)<olog) o% >T+s
accor&ing to* 8a? )inds of face threatened* (i) 6Ds negati,e face (his negati(e %ace-
0ant) .) ma:ing him &oAre%raining him %rom &oing st (or&ers, reCuests, etc.),
ma:ing him acce<tArePect (st) (o%%er, <romise), etc.@ (ii) 6Ds &ositi,e face (1Ds
e$<ression o% negati(eAin&i%%erent attitu&e to 6Ds <ositi(e-%ace 0ant* &isa<<ro(al,
&isagreement, etc.)@ 8(? threats to ">s face ,ersus threats to S>s face (as 1 an& 6
coo<erate to maintain %ace the latter also <otentiall) threatens 1Ds %ace)* (i) o%%ences
to 1Ds negati(e %ace (e$<ressing than:s, acce<ting o%%ers ^ acce<ting a &e.t on 1Ds
<art, etc.)@ (ii) threats &amaging 1Ds <ositi(e %ace (a<ologies, (non-)acce<tance o% a
com<liment .) 6, sel%-humiliation, emotion lea:age, e.g. tears, etc.)
0$ Strategies for doing DTAs (see ,iagram .elo0)*
to go on record in &oing an act - 1 ma:es it clear to 6 0hat communicati(e
intention le& him to &o the act (0e s<ea: <lainl))@ (a) (aldl%: 'ithout redress
M to &o an act in the most &irect, clear, unam.iguous an& concise 0a) <ossi.le
(,o E`)@ it lea(es 1 res<onsi.le 0ithout an) means to minimiYe the >T+@ (.)
'ith redressi,e action M to &o action that Fgi(es %aceD to the a&&ressee, that is
that attem<ts to counteract the <otential %ace &amage o% the >T+ .) &oing it in
such a 0a) (0ith such mo&i%ications) that in&icate clearl) that no >T+ is
inten&e&@ it a%%or&s 1 the o<<ortunit) to <lacate 6@ going on recor& 0ith
re&ressi(e action in(ol(es t0o :in&s o% <oliteness*
&ositi,e &oliteness M is a<<roach-.ase&, oriente& to0ar& the <ositi(e %ace o% 6,
the <ositi(e sel%-image that he claims %or himsel%@ 1 sho0s he cares %orA0ants
6Ds 0ants@ 1 sho0s he li:es 6, he thin:s 6 is li:e 1, etc., so that the >T+
&oesnDt mean a negati(e e(aluation o% 6Ds %ace
negati,e &oliteness M is oriente& to0ar& satis%)ing (re&ressing) the negati(e %ace
o% 6, his .asic 0ant to maintain claims o% territor) an& sel%-&etermination, it is
a(oi&ance-.ase&@ consists in assurance 1 recogniYes an& res<ects 6Ds
negati(e-%ace 0ants (t)<ical e$am<les* sel%-e%%acement, %ormalit), restraint,
a<ologies so%tening mechanisms, %ace-sa(ing lines o% esca<e)@ tension
.et0een the &esire to go on recor& (to <a) %ace) an& the &esire to go o%% recor&
(to a(oi& im<osition) resol(e& .) a com<romise* con(entionaliYe&
in&irectness (once %ull) con(entionaliYe& it is no longer o%% recor&)
to go off record in &oing an act M there is more than one unam.iguousl)
attri.uta.le intention so that the actor cannot .e hel& to ha(e committe&
himsel% to one <articular intent (-amn, 0m out of cash)@ the strateg) allo0s 1
to a(oi& res<onsi.ilit) altogether (.) &en)ing inter<retation o% + as an >T+)
not doing the DTA
1$ Dactors influencing the choice of strategies* (1) <a)o%%s (^ a&(antages@ a <riori
consi&erations), (2) circumstances. PA!ODDS:
on record &a%offs* (a) clarit), <ers<icuousness (non-e%%ort)@ (.) &emonstra.le non-
mani<ulati(eness
minus-redress &a%off (non-re&resse&, .al&-on recor&)* e%%icienc) (other things are
more im<ortant than %ace, the act is not an >T+ at all@ 1 ignores >T+ as<ect o% $)
&lus-redress &a%off* (1 has the o<<ortunit) to gi(e %ace) (a) positi&e politeness M
ser(es to <a) (^ satis%)) 6Ds <ositi(e %ace@ (.) negati&e politeness - ser(es to
satis%) 6Ds negati(e %ace
off-record &a%offs*
(a) 1 can satis%) negati(e %ace more than the negati(e-<oliteness strateg) can
(.) 1 can a(oi& the res<onsi.ilit) %or his action entaile& .) on-recor& strategies
CIRC;.STACCES: social ,aria(les
the social distance (,) o% 1 an& 6 (a s)mmetric relation) (similarit)A&i%%erence
.et0een 1 an& 6)
the relati(e &o'er (") o% 1 an& 6 (an as)mmetric relation)
the a.solute ran)ing o% im<osition (7) in the <articular culture
com&uting the 'eightiness of an DTA* >or each >T+, the 0eightiness or seriousness
o% an >T+ act is com.ine& o% .oth ris: to 1Ds %ace an& ris: to 6Ds %ace, in a
<ro<ortion relati(e to the nature o% the >T+. +<ologies, con%essions are essentiall)
threats to 1Ds %ace, a&(ice, or&ers are .asicall) threats to 6Ds %ace, reCuests, o%%ers
are li:el) to threaten the %ace o% .oth 1 an& 6. ,"7 (alues* <oints on a 1-n scale
8$ ^ , (1,6) S " (6,1) S 7$
integration of assessment of &a%offs and 'eighting of ris) in the choice of
strategies* 1 0ill em<lo) the strategies in the circumstances in 0hich the <a)o%%s
o% each strateg) 0ere most a<<ro<riate (i.e. 0oul& most satis%) 1Ds 0ants)@ as 8$
(^ an estimate o% ris:) increases a rational <erson 0oul& ten& to choose the higher-
num.ere& strategies (1. on recor& minus re&ress@ 2. on recor& <lus re&ress
<ositi(e@ ;. on recor& <lus re&ress negati(e@ 9. o%% recor&@ 5. no >T+)@ M" 0oul&
ta:e least <ossi.le ris: 0ith FstrangersD (6igh ,) an& F&ominant mem.ersD (high "
(6,1)) 0hen ma:ing serious im<ositions (high 7)@ M" 0oul& not &o all >T+s 0ith
the least-ris: strateg) .ecause it costs more in e%%ort an& loss o% clarit) inasmuch
as he ma) 0ish to satis%) 6Ds <ositi(e %ace an& the use o% such strateg) ma)
in&icate to 6 the >T+ is more threatening than it actuall) is (suggesting increase&
8$)

23
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The &rinci&al a&&roaches to &oliteness (see "iYYiconi)*
(1) The "re-<ragmatic H1ocial 5orm ?ie0K (Le0in, -oulmas)
(2) "ragmatic a<<roaches
(a) The con(ersational ma$im (ie0 (La:o%%, rice, Leech)
(.) The %ace-sa(ing (ie0 (o%%man, /ro0n = Le(inson)
(c) The con(ersational contract (ie0 (>raser an& 5olen, >raser)
(;) 1ocial -onstructi(ist +<<roaches (4elen, 8atts, I&e, 4hlich)
< distin(uish bet%een t%o diferent constructs o +oliteness# politeness
,
, a .rst<order +oliteness constructed in social
+ractice, i.e. rooted in e/er"da" interaction and socialiQation +rocesses and deri/ed rom olk and commonsense notions
(e1+ressi/e +oliteness e1+ressed in s+eechE classi.cator" +oliteness, 2ud(ments o interactional beha/ior as +olite or
im+oliteE meta+ra(matic +oliteness, i.e. +oliteness talked about)E politeness
-
, a second<order +oliteness, a technical notion or
use in scienti.c discourse constructed an initial /erbal de.nition.
Linguistic sources o% <oliteness A 5on-linguistic sources o% <oliteness* the role o% silence, <aralinguistic %eatures (e)e mo(ement, e)e contact,
gestures)
Jro'n--e,inson>s Dace .anagement a&&roach sources* it &eri(es %rom ricean "ragmatics (a rational an& rule-go(erne& as<ect o% communication), o0es much to
s<eech act theor) (1earle), is concerne& 0ith linguistic realisation
Criticism*
- the term F<olitenessD (a H%ol: termK) is use& in t0o &istinct senses, (a) tra&itional, i.e. con(entional courtes), etiCuette or goo& manners, or the Fcommon-senseD %orm o%
<oliteness (F%irst-or&er <olitenessD)@ (.) technical, i.e. the interactionall) <ragmatic or %ace-sa(ing mo&el (Fsecon&-or&er <olitenessD) not necessaril) (ie0ing language in
terms o% a <olite-im<olite cline .ut in terms o% strategic &e(iation %rom ricean ma$ims in or&er to sa(e 1DsA6Ds %ace
- ethnocentrism* /=L ho<e that their Fmo&el o% the uni(ersals in linguistic <olitenessD can .e use& Fto characterise the cross-cultural &i%%erences in ethos, the general tone
%or social interaction in &i%%erent societiesD (e.g. &istinguishing .et0een negati(e <oliteness cultures an& <ositi(e <oliteness cultures) M &i%%icult to <ut into <ractice
- it <ro(i&es little gui&ance on the &e%inition o% the three sociological (aria.les (<o0er, &istance an& the 0eight o% im<osition) 0hich it relies on
- 4elenDs (2001* 119) general criticism* Hcurrent theories o% <oliteness mani%est a tri<le conce<tual .ias* to0ar&s the <olite si&e o% the <olite-im<olite &istinction, to0ar&s
the s<ea:er in the interaction &)a& an& to0ar&s the <ro&uction o% .eha(iour rather than its e(aluation
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10-2012
Jro'n K -e,inson: Cegati,e &oliteness
H5egati(e <oliteness is re&ressi(e action a&&resse& to the a&&resseeDs negati(e %ace* his 0ant to ha(e %ree&om o% action unhin&ere& an& his
attention unim<e&e&. It is the heart o% res<ect .eha(iour, Pust as <ositi(e <oliteness is the :ernel o% F%amiliarD an& FPo:ingD .eha(iour. ...
8here <ositi(e <oliteness is %ree-ranging, negati(e <oliteness is s<eci%ic an& %ocuse&@ it <er%orms the %unction o% minimiYing the <articular
im<osition that the >T+ una(oi&a.l) e%%ects. 8hen 0e thin: o% <oliteness in 8estern cultures, it is negati(e-<oliteness .eha(iour that s<rings
to min&. In our culture, negati(e <oliteness is the most ela.orate an& the most con(entionaliYe& set o% linguistic strategies %or >T+ re&ress@ it
is the stu%% that %ills the etiCuette .oo:s (.ut not e$clusi(el) M <ositi(e <oliteness gets some attention). Its linguistic realiYations M
con(entional in&irectness, he&ges on illocutionar) %orce, <olite <essimism (a.out the success o% reCuest, etc.), em<hasis on 6Ds relati(e
<o0er M are (er) %amiliar an& nee& no intro&uction.K (<<. 129-1;0)
Cegati,e &oliteness is the heart o% res<ect .eha(iour Positi,e &oliteness is the :ernel o% F%amiliarD an& FPo:ingD .eha(iour
Strateg% +* Je con,entionall% indirect (results %rom the clash o% t0o 0ants* (a) F.e &irectD stemming %rom F,o >T+ on recor&K, ensuring
clarit) an& re&ucing <roli$it), an& (.) F.e in&irectD &eri(ing %rom F,onDt coerce 6D, gi(ing 6 an FoutD@ the clash is enco&e& in
con(entionaliYe& means) - indirect speech acts (e.g. .) stating or Cuestioning a %elicit) con&ition, i.e. one o% the real-0orl& con&itions
that must .e met in or&er %or a s<eech act to come o%%* *an you shut the door)@ con(entionaliYe& or i&iomatic in&irect s<eech acts* *an
you please pass the salt (literal meaning an& &irect illocutionar) %orce are e$clu&e&@ insertion o% sentence-internal <lease)@ Why paint
your house purple (in&irect critical challenge@ c%. 8h) are )ou <ainting ... 0ith .oth literal an& in&irect rea&ings)@ degrees*ordering of
&oliteness in the e$<ression o% in&irect s<eech acts (%rom ma$imum negati(e <oliteness)* i. There wouldnt 0 suppose be any chance of
your being able to lend me your car for 3ust a few minutes, would there ii. *ould you possible by any chance lend me your car for 3ust
a few minutes iii. Would you ha&e any ob3ections to my borrowing your car for a while i(. 0d like to borrow your car, if you wouldnt
mind" (. .ay 0 borrow your car please (i. @end me your car" (the more e%%ort a s<ea:er e$<en&s in %ace-<reser(ing 0or:, the more he
0ill .e seen as tr)ing to satis%) 6Ds %ace 0ants)
Strateg% /: "edge 8and question@ see a.o(e* Wont you open the door ^ FI he&ge&l) reCuest that )ou o<en the &oor`) (&eri(es %rom the
0ant not to <resumeAassume that an)thing in(ol(e& in the >T+ is &esire& or .elie(e& .) 6, an& %rom the 0ant not to coerce 6)@ hedge (a
<article, 0or& or <hrase that mo&i%ies the &egree o% mem.ershi< o% a <re&icate or noun <hrase in a set@ it sa)s o% that mem.ershi< that is
<artial, or true onl) in certain res<ects, or that it is more true an& com<lete than <erha<s might .e e$<ecte&* + s0ing is sort of a to),
John is a true %rien&. I rather thin: itDs ho<eless. YouDre 8uite right. The <a<er is not technically anthro<olog))@ hedges on illocutionar%
force (&onDt assume 6 is a.leA0illing to &o +, ma:e minimal assum<tions a.out 6Ds 0ants* a&(er.s, strengtheners (precisely,
exactly)A0ea:eners (probably, perhaps), on (o%ten &elete&) <er%ormati(e (er.s)@ ad,er(ial-clause hedges (ThatDs Pust ho0 it is, in
factFin a wayFas it wereFin all probabilityF0 shouldnt be surprisedFdont you agree@ -lose the 0in&o0, if )ou canA0ant, if it closesAisnDt
alrea&) close&)@ hedges addressed to #rice>s .a=ims (qualit%6 0 thinkFbelie&eFassume """; with complete honesty 0 can say, 0
absolutely denyFpromise that@ manner* .. what 0 am getting atF0 mean; to be succinct, not to beat about the bush, you see, What 0 mean
was """, .ore clearly, To put it more simply ...)@ hedges addressed to &oliteness strategies (&eri(e& %rom Ma$im he&ges, %unctioning
&irectl) as notices o% (iolations o% %ace 0ants* frankly, to be honest, 0 hate to ha&e to say, 0 must say)@ &rosodic and )inesic hedges
(raise& e)e.ro0, the earnest %ro0n, umms, ahhs, hesitations in&icating 1Ds attitu&e to0ar& 0hat he is sa)ing)
Strateg% 0* Je &essimistic (&eri(es %rom F&onDt coerce 6D, e$<ressing &ou.t that the con&itions %or the a<<ro<riateness o% 1Ds s<eech act
o.tain@ &onDt assume 6 is a.leA0illingAli:el) to &o +@ together 0ith cuestion, 6e&ge un&erlies <olite in&irect s<eech acts@ three
features* use o% the negati(e, use o% the con&itional, use o% remote-<ossi.ilit) mar:ers)* Bou couldnt possiblyFby any chance lend me
your lawnmower
Strateg% 1* .inimi2e the im&osition: R= (ran:ing o% im<osition) M the >T+ is &e%use& .) in&icating that 7$ (seriousness o% im<osition) is
not in itsel% great* 0 3ust want to ask you if 0 can borrowFyou could lend me a tiny bit ofFlittleFsingle sheet of paper (.orro0, a eu<hemism
%or Fta:e an& consumeD)@ *ould 0 ha&e a taste of that cakeB
Strateg% 3* #i,e deference (^ Zcta) (t0o :in&s o% &e%erence* raising o% the other, lo0ering o% onesel%@ .oth in&icate that 6 is o% higher social status
than 1)@ the use o% honori%ics (TA? s)stem)@ generaliYe& %orms o% a&&ress@ re%erent honori%ics ("ittA,r "itt, manAgentleman, eatA&ine, gi(eA.esto0,
.oo:A(olumes* we look forward &ery much to eatingFdining with you@ booksF&olumes from PittsF-r Pitts be8uest)
Strateg% 4* A&ologi2e (%or &oing an >T+@ in&icates 1 reluctance to im<inge on 6Ds negati(e %ace an& so re&resses that im<ingement) M %our
0a)s o% communicating regret or reluctance to &o an >T+* admit the im&ingement (0m sure you must be &ery busy, but """@ 0 know this
is a bore ...)@ indicate reluctance (0 normally wouldnt ask you this, but "..@ 0 dont want to bother you, but """; 0 hesitate to trouble you,
but)@ gi,e o,er'helming reasons (0 can think of nobody else who could "".@ 0 simply cant manage to ...)@ (eg forgi,eness (2xcuse me,
but """@ 0m sorry to bother you "..@ Please forgi&e me if ...)
Strateg% 5* Im&ersonali2e S and " (non-im<ingement on 6 is in&icate& .) <resenting the >T+ as i% the agent 0ere not 1, or not 1 alone,
an& the a&&ressee 0ere other than 6). This results in &i%%erent 0a)s o% a(oi&ing FID an& F)ouD* loss o% o(ert re%erence to su.Pect an& # o%
the highest &erformati,e ,er( (0 ask you to do this for me T -o this for me)@ im&ersonal ,er( (0t appears that """; 0t looks (to me)
like ...@ 0t would be desirable ...)@ &assi,e and circumstantial ,oice (0t is regretted that; The letter must be typed immediately; 0 got
delayed)@ indefinites instead of AI> and A%ou> ('ne shouldnt do things like that@ ?omeone finished the cookies; 'R, guys, lets get on
with it)@ &lurali2ation of the A%ou> and AI> &ronouns (F():In\D in -Yech)@ address terms as A%ou> a,oidance (2xcuse me, sirFmiss)@
reference terms as AI> a,oidance (the 4nglish o% :ingsA<resi&ents, etc.* !is .a3esty is not amused; The President shouldnt become
in&ol&ed in any part of this case)@ &oint-of-,ie' distancing (in time* 0 ha&e beenFwas wondering whether """; 0 hopedFthought 0 might
ask you ...@ in &lace* *ould 0 borrow a tiny bit of thatFthis paper; There, there, itll be all right)
Strateg% 6* State the DTA as a general rule (to in&icate that 1 &oesnDt 0ant to im<inge .ut is %orce&
.) circumstances@ the >T+ is a general social rule, regulation or o.ligation)* We dont sit on
tables, we sit on chairs, Johnny" 0m sorry but late7comers cannot be seated till the next inter&al.
Strateg% <* Cominali2e (&egrees o% negati(e <olitenessA%ormalit) run han& in ha& 0ith &egrees o%
nouniness, the noun en& o% the (er.-gerun&A<artici<le-a&Pecti(e-noun continuum is associate& 0ith
%ormalit))* Bou performed well on the examinations and we were fa&ourably impressed T Bour
performing well impressed us fa&ourably T Bour good performance """; 0 am surprised that you
failed to reply, 0 am surprised at youFyour failing to """, 0 am surprised at your failure to; 0t is
pleasingFpleasantFmy pleasure to """ "
Strateg% +E* #o on record as incurring a de(t: or as not inde(ting " M 0d be eternally grateful if you
would """, 0ll ne&er be able to repay you if you "..@ (&isclaiming an) &e.t) 0 could easily do it for you@
0t wouldnt be any trouble"
E=ercises: A. Identif% the t%&e of negati,e &oliteness strateg% used in the follo'ing utterances*
1. 5o <ro.lem, I ha(e to go there an)0a).
2. ID& li:e to as: )ou a .ig %a(our.
;. 8h) &onDt )ou tell me more a.out it.
9. Let me then ma:e one thing clear* I am not <art o% the .iY.
5. 1orr), .ut such things are not &one in the ci(iliYe& 0orl&.
!. 6a(e )ou .) chance a matchB
2. osh, I 0as sure I %lun:e& that e$am` (in acce<ting
congratulations).
3. The l)rics &onDt o%%en& me, not in the slightest.
9. Ma).e )ou coul& hel< us.
10. Than:s %or stic:ing u< %or me M I o0e )ou one.
11. It a<<ears that the matter is not close&.
12. IDm terri.l) em.arrasse& to ha(e to a&mit m) ignorance.
1;. This 0ill onl) ta:e a %e0 minutes.
19. 8e are &elighte& at )our acce<tance o% our o%%er.
15. To the .est o% m) :no0le&ge, the in%ormation is still
una(aila.le.
1!. It 0oul& .e <re%era.le to em<lo) t0o <eo<le, not one.
12. I thin: I must .e a.solutel) stu<i& .ut I sim<l) canDt
un&erstan& the instruction.
13. -an )ou <ossi.l) hel< me 0ith this, .ecause thereDs no one
else I coul& as:.
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10-2012
J$ Decide 'hether the follo'ing utterances are oriented to the &ositi,e or the negati,e face of the addressee and 'h%*
1. ot the time mateB
G" %esidents wishing to drink after 4H"5H p"m" must produce
their room key or residents card" (?ign displayed in the
bar at the %oyal ?tation !otel, Kewcastle)
5" *ould 0 3ust borrow a tiny bit of paper
9. 8ait a sec, IDll .e right 0ith )ou
5. >rien&s al0a)s share` (,a%%) ,uc: to get 1)l(ester the
-at to <art 0ith some o% his %oo&)
!. You reall) shoul& sort o% tr) har&er.
C$ Consider the follo'ing &ossi(le reactions 8face-threatening acts? of the s&ea)er S to the situation 'hen a neigh(our C )ee&s &ar)ing his
old car in front of S>s house and S 'ould li)e him to &ar) else'hereL identif% the &oliteness strategies re&resented (% each of these
utterances*
1* IDm sorr) to as:, .ut coul& )ou <ossi.l) <ar: )our car in
%ront o% )our o0n house in %uture.
1* ,onDt <ar: )our lea:) ol& .anger outsi&e our house an)
more.
1* Is )our car all right outsi&e our house.
1* /ill m) ol& mate, I :no0 )ou 0ant me to ha(e the .ene%it
o% a&miring )our ne0 car %rom m) %ront room, .ut ho0
a.out mo(ing it across the roa& an& gi(ing )oursel% the
<leasure.
1* 4hm.
1* IDm sorr) to as: )ou /ill, .ut I &onDt su<<ose )ou 0ant us
to ha(e the <leasure o% a&miring )our ne0 car %rom our
%ront room %or e(er, ItDs Pust that 0eD(e no0here to <ar:
0hen itDs outsi&e our house.
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Jro'n K -e,inson: Off-Record Politeness Strategies (<<. 211-222)
H+ communicati(e act is &one o%% recor& it i% is &one in such a 0a) that it is not <ossi.le to attri.ute onl) one clear communicati(e intention to the
act. In other 0or&s, the actor lea(es himsel% an FoutD .) <ro(i&ing himsel% 0ith a num.er o% &e%ensi.le inter<retations@ he cannot .e hel& to ha(e
committe& himsel% to Pust one <articular inter<retation o% his act. Thus i% a s<ea:er 0ants to &o an >T+, .ut 0ants to a(oi& the res<onsi.ilit) %or &oing
it, he can &o it o%% recor& an& lea(e it u< to the a&&ress to &eci&e ho0 to inter<ret it. M 1uch o%%-recor& utterances are essentiall) in&irect uses o%
language* to construct an o%%-recor& utterance one sa)s something that is either more general (contains less in%ormation in the sense that it rules out
%e0er <ossi.le states o% a%%airs) or actuall) &i%%erent %rom 0hat one means (inten&s to .e un&erstoo&). In either case, 6 must ma:e some in%erence to
reco(er 0hat 0as in %act inten&e&. ... 4ssentiall), though 0hat is in(ol(e& is a t0o-stage <rocess* (i) a trigger ser(es notice to the a&&ressee that some
in%erence must .e ma&e. (ii) 1ome mo&e o% inference &eri(es 0hat is meant (inten&e&) %orm that is actuall) sai&, this last <ro(i&ing a su%%icient clue
%or the in%erence. + (er) <lausi.le can&i&ate %or the trigger is some (iolation o% a ricean ma$im. /ut 0hat :in& o% in%erence is in(ol(e& is a matter
o% contention.K
Strateg% +: #i,e hints ((iolationA%louting o% the 7ele(ance Ma$im)
1 sa)s something that is not e$<licitl) rele(ant@ he in(ites 6 to search %or an inter<retation o% the <ossi.le rele(ance. T0o t)<es o% hints*
(a) stating moti(es or reasons %or &oing +*
0ts cold in here (con(ersationall) im<licates* 1hut the 0in&o0)
0 need some more nails to finish up this rabbit hutch (con(ersational im<licature (c.i.)* /u) me some 0hen )ou go to to0n)
This soup is a bit bland A What a boring mo&ie F What a hot day (c.i.* B)
(.) asserting or Cuestioning the con&itions %or + (as an in&irect reCuest)* That window isnt open Bou didnt open the window when you
came
Strateg% /: #i,e association clues ((iolationA%louting o% the 7ele(ance Ma$im)
.y house isnt &ery far away ... Ginter(ening materialL ... Theres the path that leads to my house (c.i.* "lease come (isit me)
/re you going to market tomorrow """ Theres a market tomorrow, 0 suppose (c.i. i(e me a ri&e there)
Strateg% 0: Presu&&ose ((iolationA%louting o% the 7ele(ance Ma$im)
0 washed the car again today Johns in the bathtub yet again 0 dont go around boasting about my achie&ements 0t wasnt me that did it
Strateg% 1: ;nderstate ((iolationA%louting o% the cuantit) Ma$im)
What do you think of !arry7Kothing wrong with him (c.i. I &onDt thin: heDs (er) goo&)
!ow do you like her new haircut70ts all rightFpretty nice (c.i. I &onDt <articularl) li:e it)
That house needs a touch of paint (a.out a <eeling slum, c.i. Fa lot o% 0or:D)
That car looks as if it might go1 (a.out a %lash) s<orts car, c.i. com<liment)
0ts not half bad (c.i. ItDs sur<risingl) goo&) Johns hardly a genius (c.i. not at all)
Strateg% 3: O,erstate ((iolationA%louting o% the cuantit) Ma$im)
0 tried to call a hundred times, but there was ne&er any answer (c.i. a<olog))
Bou ne&er do the washing up" Why are you always smoking (c.i. criticism)
Strateg% 4: ;se tautologies ((iolationA%louting o% the cuantit) Ma$im)
War is war" )oys will be boys (c.i. e$cuse) A Bour clothes belong where your clothes
belong, my clothes belong where my clothes belong" @ook upstairs1 (c.i. criticism)
Strateg% 5: ;se contradictions ((iolationA%louting o% the cualit) Ma$im)
/re you upset about that7Well, yes and noF0 am and 0m not (c.i. com<laint or criticism)
Well, John is here and he isnt here (a.out a &run:en %rien& to a tele<hone caller)
Strateg% 6: Je ironic ((iolationA%louting o% the cualit) Ma$im)
Johns a real genius (+%ter heDs &one a stu<i& thing) This isnt exactly my idea of bliss
Strateg% <: ;se meta&hors ((iolationA%louting o% the cualit) Ma$im)
!arrys a real fish (c.i. 6e &rin:sAs0imsAis slim)Ais col&-.loo&e& li:e a %ish)
Strateg% +E: ;se rhetorical questions ((iolationA%louting o% the cualit) Ma$im)
!ow was 0 to know """ (c.i. I 0asnDt@ to as: a Cuestion 0ith no intention o% o.taining
an ans0er is to .rea: a sincerit) con&ition on Cuestions) What can 0 say (c.i. nothing, itDs too .a&)
Strateg% ++: Je am(iguous ((iolationA%louting o% the Manner Ma$im)* Johns a pretty sharpFsmooth cookie (c.i. a com<liment or an insult,
&e<en&ing on the inter<retation o% the connotions o% shar< or smooth)
Strateg% +/: Je ,ague ((iolationA%louting o% the Manner Ma$im)
@ooks like someone may ha&e had too much to drink ((ague un&erstatement)
Perhaps someone did something naughty" 0m going you7know7where (the local <u.)
Strateg% +0: O,ergenerali2e ((iolationA%louting o% the Manner Ma$im)
The lawn has got to be mown" 0f the door is shut completely, it sticks" .ature people
sometimes help do the dishes"
Strateg% +1: Dis&lace " ((iolationA%louting o% the Manner Ma$im)
1 ma) go o%% recor& as to 0ho the target %or his >T+ is, or he ma) <reten& to a&&ress the >T+
to someone 0hom it 0oul&nDt threaten, an& ho<e that the real target 0ill see that the >T+ is
aime& at him* #ne secretar) in an o%%ice as:s another M .ut 0ith negati(e <oliteness M to <ass
the sta<les, in circumstances 0here a <ro%essor is much nearer to the sta<ler than the other
secretar). 6is %ace is not threatene&, an& he can choose to &o it himsel% as a .onus F%ree gi%tD.
Strateg% +3: Je incom&lete: use elli&sis ((iolationA%louting o% the Manner Ma$im)* Well, if one lea&es ones tea on the wobbly table """" Well, 0 didnt see
you ...
-eech>s Conce&t of Politeness F The Politeness Princi&le (. Leech, "rinci<les o% "ragmatics, Longman, 193;)

11-2012
The "oliteness "rinci<le ("") is a necessar) com<lement to the
-oo<erati(e "rinci<le (-"), 0hich rescues the -" %rom a<<arent
e$ce<tions 0hich cannot .e e$<laine& .) re%erring to the -" onl)@
e$am<le*
+* Well all miss )ill and /gatha, wont we
/* Well, well all miss )0@@"
The im<licature (0e 0ill not all miss +gatha) 0as not
arri(e& at solel) on the .asis o% the -", %or / coul& ha(e
a&&e& F... .ut not +gathaD 0ithout .eing untruth%ul,
irrele(ant, or unclear. / could ha(e .een more in%ormati(e,
.ut onl) at the cost o% .eing more im<olite to a thir& <art)*
/ there%ore su<<resse& the &esire& in%ormation in or&er to
u<hol& the "".
The Politeness Princi&le M general %ormulation*
In the negati(e %orm, the "" might .e %ormulate& in a general 0a)*
FMinimiYe (other things .eing eCual) the e$<ression o% im<olite
.elie%sD an& there is a corres<on&ing <ositi(e (ersion (FMa$imiYe
(other things .eing eCual) the e$<ression o% <olite .elie%sD) 0hich is
some0hat less im<ortant.
- the "" is concei(e& as analogous to the -" in terms o% ma$ims
- <oliteness concerns a relationshi< .et0een t0o <artici<ants M self
(1<ea:er) an& other (6earer)@ other ma) in(ol(e a thir& <art) (0ho
ma) or ma) not .e <resent)
- in&i(i&ual ma$ims are relate& to 1earlDs s<eech acts
The ma=ims of the PP (usuall) in <airs)*
(1) Tact Ma$im (in im<ositi(esA&irecti(es an& commissi(es)
(2) enerosit) Ma$im (in im<ositi(es an& commissi(es)
(;) +<<ro.ation Ma$im (in e$<ressi(es an& asserti(es)
(9) Mo&est) Ma$im (in e$<ressi(es an& asserti(es)
(5) +greement Ma$im (in asserti(esAre<resentati(es)
(!) 1)m<ath) Ma$im (in asserti(esAre<resentati(es)
(1) Tact .a=im (in &irecti(es an& commissi(es) M other-centre&
(a) MinimiYe cost to other G(.) Ma$imiYe .ene%it to otherL
Scales of Politeness
Cost-(enefit scale cost to 6 less <olite
"eel these <otatoes
6an& me the ne0s<a<er
1it &o0n
Loo: at that
4nPo) )our holi&a)
6a(e another san&0ich
.ene%it to 6 more <olite
Indirectness scale &irectness less <olite
+ns0er the <hone
I 0ant )ou to ans0er the <hone
8ill )ou ans0er the <honeB
8oul& )ou min& ans0ering the <honeB
-oul& )ou <ossi.l) ans0er the <honeB
etc. in&irectness more <olite

(2) #enerosit% .a=im (in im<ositi(es an& commissi(es) M self-
centre&
(a) MinimiYe .ene%it to self G(.) Ma$imiYe cost to selfL
Inter<ret in terms o% cost-.ene%it an& (the measure o%) <oliteness*
0 can lend you my car. $ Bou can lend me your car"
Bou must come and ha&e dinner with us" $ We must come and ha&e
dinner with you"
*ould 0 borrow this electric drill $ *ould you lend me this electric
drill
Bou could borrow my bicycle, if you like" $ 0 could lend you my
bicycle, if you like"
(;) A&&ro(ation .a=im (in e$<ressi(es an& asserti(es@ H>latter) Ma$imK)
(a) MinimiYe &is<raise o% other G(.) Ma$imiYe <raise o% otherL
Inter<ret in terms o% the +<<ro.ation Ma$im*
+. !er performance was outstanding` /* Bes, wasnt it`
!er performance was not so good as it might ha&e been"
+* -o you like these apricots /* 0&e tasted better"
+ teacher 0riting a re%erence %or a stu&ent a<<l)ing %or a
<hiloso<h) Po.*
+-ear ?ir, .r Us command of 2nglish is excellent, and his attendance
at tutorials has been regular" Bours, etc"

(9) .odest% .a=im (in e$<ressi(es an& asserti(es)
(a) MinimiYe <raise o% self G(.) Ma$imiYe &is<raise o% selfL
Inter<ret in terms o% the Mo&est) Ma$im*
+* They were so kind to us" /* Bes, they were, werent they"
+* Bou were so kind to us" /* Bes, 0 was, wasnt 0"
!ow stupid of me1 !ow cle&er of me1
!ow stupid of you1 !ow cle&er of you1
Please accept this small gift as a token of our esteem"
Please accept this large gift as a token of our esteem"
(5) Agreement .a=im (in asserti(es)
(a) MinimiYe &isagreement .et0een self an& other G(.) Ma$imiYe
agreement .et0een self an& otherL
Inter<ret in terms o% the +greement Ma$im*
+* / referendum will satisfy e&erybody"
/* Bes, definitely"
+* 2nglish is a difficult language to learn"
/* True, but the grammar is 8uite easy"
+* The book is tremendously well written"
/* Bes, well written as a whole, but there are some rather boring
patches, dont you think"
+. 0t was an interesting exhibition, wasnt it
/* Ko, it was &ery uninteresting"
(!) S%m&ath% .a=im (in asserti(es)
(a) MinimiYe anti<ath) .et0een self an& other G(.) Ma$imiYe
s)m<ath) .et0een self an& otherL
0m terribly sorry to hear that your cat died"
0m terribly sorry to hear about your cat"
0m delighted to hear about your cat"
+nother con(ersational <rinci<le su<<lementing the -"*
The Poll%anna Princi&le (Leech, <<. 192-9)
G%rom the name o% the o<timistic chil& heroine o% the no(el
"oll)anna (191;) .) the +merican 0riter 4leanor 6. "orterL
It <ostulates that <artici<ants in a con(ersation 0ill <re%er <leasant
to<ics to un<leasant ones@ it is achie(e& .) means o% eu<hemism,
litotes, un&erstatement, o<timistic o(erstatement, a&(er.ials,
negation, etc.*
The paint was a bit dirty"
?hes not a bad7looking girl"
?hes a little too young for the 3ob"
There are some rather s<len&i& murals on the Korth Wall"
The employees were rather unenthusiastic about the mo&e"
The employees were rather enthusiastic about the mo&e"
The meeting was not particularly well attended"