C (I-1B) Reservoir Fundam Fluid Flow

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved
Basics of Reservoir Engineering Module I

I.1.B Reservoir Fundamentals of Fluid Flow
Porosity
Porosity of a measure of the
void space within a rock
Range or Typical Values:
30%, unconsolidated well-sorted
sandstone
20%, clean, well-sorted consolidated
sandstone
8%, low permeability reservoir rock
0.5%, natural fracture porosity
Reservoir Make-up
Rock matrix
Pore space
Fluids: Water,
Oil and gas
Rock Matrix and Pore Space
Rock matrix
Pore space
Rock Matrix and Pore Space
Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas
Porosity Definition
Porosity: The fractional void space within a rock that is
available for the storage of fluids
b
ma b
b
p
V
V V
V
V
Porosity

= = =
Effect Grain Size and Packing
Cubic Packing of Spheres
Porosity = 48%
Porosity Calculations Cubic/Uniform Spheres
Bulk volume = (2r)
3
= 8r
3
Matrix volume =
Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume
3
4
3
r
Calculations for Cubic Packing
Porosity Calculations Cubic/Uniform Spheres
( )
% 6 . 47
3 2
1
8
3 / 4 8
3
3 3
= =
=
=

r
r r
Volume Bulk
Volume Matrix Volume Bulk
Volume Bulk
Volume Pore
Porosity
Rhombic Packing of Spheres
Porosity = 27 %
Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres
Porosity = 14%
Pore-Space Classification
Total porosity,
t
=
Effective porosity,
e
=
Volume Bulk
Space Pore Total
Volume Bulk
Space Pore cted Interconne
Comparison of Total and Effective Porosities
Very clean sandstones :
t
=
e
Poorly to moderately well -cemented intergranular
materials:
t

e
Highly cemented materials and most carbonates:
e
<
t
Factors That Affect Porosity
Particle shape
Packing
Particle sizes
Cementing materials
Overburden stress
Vugs and fractures
Example Porosity/Overburden Pressure Relationship
50
Overburden pressure, psi
P
o
r
o
s
i
t
y
,

%
30
40
20
10
0
0 1,000 3,000 2,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Sandstones
Shales
Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the rocks ability to transmit fluids
p A
L q
k
=

A q
q
p
1
p
2
L
Permeability Values
The quality of the reservoir, as it relates to permeability, can be
classified as follows:
k < 1 md poor
1 < k < 10 md fair
10 < k < 50 md moderate
50 < k < 250 md good
250 md < k very good
Example
Permeability-Porosity Relationship
From Tiab and Donaldson
Factors affecting permeability
1.0
.8
.6
.4
.2
.0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
:

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

o
r
i
g
i
n
a
l
Net overburden pressure: psi
A
B
C
A
Well cemented
Friable
Unconsolidated
Scales of Geological Reservoir Heterogeneity
F
i
e
l
d

W
i
d
e
I
n
t
e
r
w
e
l
l
W
e
l
l
-
B
o
r
e
(modified fromWeber, 1986)
Hand Lens or
Binocular Microscope
Unaided Eye
Petrographic or
Scanning Electron
Microscope
Determined
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines,
Statistical
Modeling,
etc.
10-100's
m
10-100's
mm
1-10's
m
100's
m
10's
m
1-10 km
100's m
Well Well
Interwell
Area
Reservoir
Sandstone
Scales of Investigation Used in Reservoir
Characterization
Gigascopic
Megascopic
Macroscopic
Microscopic
Well Test
Reservoir Model
Grid Cell
Wireline Log
Interval
Core Plug
Geological
Thin Section
Relative Volume
1
10
14
2 x 10
12
3 x 10
7
5 x 10
2
300 m
50 m
300 m
5 m
150 m
2 m
1 m
cm
mm -

m
(modified from Hurst, 1993)
Permeability Exercise 1
What are the units of permeability?
Use Dimensional Analysis:
p A
L q
k
=

Permeability Exercise 2
Relate the permeability concept to other common fluid flow
situations: laminar fluid flow through a pipe and through parallel
plates (fractures).
What is the permeability of a circular opening (vug) of 0.005
inches?
What is the permeability of a fracture of 0.01 in thickness?
Saturations
H
2
O
Fluid Saturations
Grain Water Gas Oil
Definition of Fluid Saturation
p
w
w
V
V
S =
Water saturation:
Oil saturation:
Gas saturation:
p
o
o
V
V
S =
w o g
S S S = 0 . 1
Net Pay Thickness
Shale
Sand
h
3
h
2
h
1
h = h
1
+ h
2
+ h
3
Rock Wettability
Wettability: Tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere
to a solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids
Wettability refers to interaction between fluid and solid
phases
Solid
Water
Oil
os

ws
ow
Solid
Water
Oil
os
ws
ow
Solid surface is reservoir rock (i.e., sandstone, limestone,

dolomite or mixtures of each) -- Fluids are oil, water, and/or gas
Interfacial Tension and Adhesion Tension
Interfacial tension is the force per unit length required to create a new
surface
Interfacial tension is commonly expressed in Newtons/meter or
dynes/cm
Adhesion tension can be expressed as the difference between two
solid-fluid interfacial tensions
cos
ow ws os T
A = =
Contact Angle
Solid
Water
Oil
Oil Oil
os

ws
ow

Wetting Phase Fluid
A wetting phase preferentially wets the solid rock surface
Because of attractive forces between rock and fluid, the wetting phase
is drawn into smaller pore spaces of porous media
Wetting phase fluid often is not very mobile
Attractive forces prohibit reduction in wetting phase saturation below
some irreducible value (called irreducible wetting phase saturation)
Many hydrocarbon reservoirs tend to be either totally or partially
water wet
Nonwetting Phase Fluid
A nonwetting phase does not preferentially wet the solid rock
surface
Repulsive forces between rock and fluid cause nonwetting phase to
occupy largest pore spaces of porous media
Nonwetting phase fluid is often the most mobile fluid, especially at
large nonwetting phase saturations
Natural gas is never the wetting phase in hydrocarbon reservoirs
Water-Wet Reservoir Rock
Reservoir rock is considered to be water-wet if water
preferentially wets the rock surfaces
The rock is water-wet under the following conditions:
ws
>
os
A
T
< 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is negative)
0 < < 90
If is close to 0, the rock is considered to be strongly
water-wet
Force Balance - Water-Wet Rock
Solid
Water
Oil
os

ws
ow
Note: 0 < < 90

Oil-Wet Reservoir Rock
Reservoir rock is considered to be oil-wet if oil preferentially
wets the rock surfaces
The rock is oil-wet under the following conditions:
os
>
ws
A
T
> 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is positive)
90 < < 180
If is close to 180, the rock is considered to be
strongly oil-wet
Force Balance - Oil-Wet Rock
Solid
Water
Oil
os

ws
ow
Note: 90 < < 180

Implications of Wettability
Wettability affects the shape of the relative permeability curves.
Oil moves easier in water-wet rocks than oil-wet rocks.
Primary oil recovery is affected by the wettability.
A water-wet system will exhibit greater primary oil recovery.
Oil recovery under waterflooding is affected by wettability
A water-wet system will exhibit greater oil recovery under
waterflooding.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0
20
40
60
80
1
2
3
4
5
Core
no
Percent
silicone Wettability
0.00
0.0200
0.200
2.00
1.00
0.649
0.176
- 0.222
- 0.250
- 0.333
Curves cut off at F
wd
100
1
2
3
4
5
Water injected, pore volumes
R
e
c
o
v
e
r
y

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
,

S
o
i
0
20
40
60
80
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Squirrel oil - 0.10 N NaCl - Torpedo core ( 33 O W 663,
K 0945, S
wi
21.20%)
Squirrel oil - 0.10 N NaCl Torpedo Sandstone core,
after remaining in oil for 84 days ( 33.0 W 663, K
0.925, S
wi
23.28%)
R
e
c
o
v
e
r
y

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

p
e
r
c
e
n
t

S
p
i
Water injection, pore volumes
Capillary Pressure Definition
Capillary Pressure is the pressure difference existing
across the interface separating two immiscible fluids.
It is usually calculated as:
P
c
= p
nwt
- p
wt
ow
Pw, Water
Po, Oil
Pw, Water
Po, Oil
ow
os

ws
os
ws
Capillary Example 1
Define capillary pressure in the following systems:
Water-gas system
Water-wet water-oil system
Oil-gas system
Capillary Tube Model. Air-Water System
Water
Air
h
The height of water is a function of
The adhesion tension between the air and water
The radius of the tube
The density difference between fluids
aw
aw
g r
h
=
cos 2
Air
Water
p
a2
h
p
a1
p
w1
p
w2
Capillary Pressure. Air-Water System
Combining the two relations results in the following
expression :
r
P
aw
c
cos 2
=
Capillary Pressure. Oil-Water System
From a similar derivation, the equation for capillary
pressure for an oil/water system is
r
P
ow
c
cos 2
=
Imbibition and Drainage & Capillary Pressure
Imbibition: Fluid flow process in which the saturation of
the wetting phase increases and the nonwetting phase
saturation decreases
Mobility of wetting phase increases as wetting phase
saturation increases
Drainage: Fluid flow process in which the saturation of the
nonwetting phase increases
Mobility of nonwetting fluid phase increases as nonwetting
phase saturation increases
Typical Drainage and Imbibition Capillary Pressure
Curves
Drainage (1)
Imbibition (2)
S
i
S
m
S
w
P
d
P
c
0 0.5 1.0
The pc-drainage curve is
always higher than the pc-
imbibition curve.
Capillarity Exercise 2
50
0
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
(1)
(2)
S
w
P
c
, psi
0 0.5 1.0 0.25 0.75
Converting Laboratory Capillary Pressure Data to
Reservoir Conditions
Based on our previous derivation, we use the following basic
equations:
L
L L
cL
r
P
cos 2
=
R
R R
cR
r
P
cos 2
=
Setting r
L
= r
R
and combining equations yields
Capillary pressure at reservoir conditions
cR
R R
cL
L L
R L
P P
r r
cos 2 cos 2
= =
cL
L L
R R
cR
P P

cos
cos
=
Capillarity Example 3
Converting Laboratory Capillary Pressure Data to Reservoir Conditions
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
0 20 40 60 80
Mercury Saturation, percent pore space
I
n
j
e
c
t
i
o
n

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
a
Example 3
Solution
Mercury
Saturation
(S
Hg
)
%
P
cL
psia
P
cR
psia
70 1,320 80.5
60 820 50.0
50 560 34.2
40 410 25.0
30 310 18.9
20 240 14.6
10 200 12.2
Effects of Reservoir Properties on Capillary Pressure
Capillary pressure characteristics in reservoir are affected by
Variations in permeability
Grain size distribution
Saturation history
Contact angle
Interfacial tension
Density difference between fluids
Effect of Permeability
Decreasing
Permeability
A
B
C
20
16
12
8
4
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water Saturation
C
a
p
i
l
l
a
r
y

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Effect of Grain Size Distribution
Well-sorted
Poorly sorted
C
a
p
i
l
l
a
r
y

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
a
Water saturation, %
Effect of Saturation History
Water saturation, %
C
a
p
i
l
l
a
r
y

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
a
Imbibition
Drainage
Effect of Contact Angle
Decreasing
R
R = 30
R = 60
R = 0
C
a
p
i
l
l
a
r
y

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
R = 80
20
16
12
8
4
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water Saturation
Effect of Interfacial Tension
Water Saturation
H
e
i
g
h
t

A
b
o
v
e

F
r
e
e

W
a
t
e
r

L
e
v
e
l
High Tension
Low Tension
0 1.0
Effect of Density Difference
Water Saturation
Small Density Difference
Large
Density
Difference
H
e
i
g
h
t

A
b
o
v
e

F
r
e
e

W
a
t
e
r

L
e
v
e
l
0
1.0
Uses of Capillary Pressure Data
Determine initial water saturation in the reservoir
Determine fluid distribution in reservoir
Determine residual oil saturation for water flooding applications
Determine pore size distribution index
May help in identifying zones or rock types
Input for reservoir simulation calculations.
Capillary Pressure Data Using
the Leverett J-Function
A universal capillary pressure
curve is impossible to generate
because of the variation of
properties affecting capillary
pressures in reservoir
The Leverett J-function was
developed in an attempt to
convert all capillary pressure
data to a universal curve
( )

k P
S J
c
w
cos
22 . 0
=
Example J-Function for West Texas Carbonate
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Water saturation, fraction
J
-
f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
Jc
Jmatch
Jn1
Jn2
Jn3
Use of Leverett J-Function
J-function is useful for averaging capillary pressure data from a given rock
type from a given reservoir.
J-function can sometimes be extended to different reservoirs having same
lithologies.
J-function usually does not predict an accurate correlation for different
lithologies.
If J-functions are not successful in reducing the scatter in a given set of
data, then this suggests that we are dealing with different rock types.
Calculation of J-function
A ve ra ged A ir/B rine Capilla r y
Pr essure D ata
P
c
psia
S
w
%
1 98 .3
2 98 .3
4 96 .8
8 59 .0
15 36.3
35 25.4
500 15.3
Solution
Calculated
J-Functions
S
w
%
0.22*
J(S
w
)
98.3 0.22
98.3 0.43
96.8 0.86
59.0 1.73
36.3 3.24
25.4 7.57
15.3 108.1
Solution
120
100
80
60
40
0
20
0 20 40 60
80
100
0
.
2
2

*

J

(
S
w

)
S
w
, %
Estimating P
c
fromJ-function
Estimate capillary pressures from Leverett J-function
calculated in Example 4 for a different core sample.
Properties of core sample:
k = 100 md
= 10 %
Solution
Estimated Capillary
Pressures for the 100-md
Permeability Core Sample
S
w
,
%
P
c
,
psia
98.3 2.27
98.3 4.45
96.8 8.91
59.0 17.91
36.3 36.90
25.4 78.18
15.3 1118.63
Intro to the Relative Permeability Concept
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids
When the medium is completely saturated with one fluid, then
the permeability measurement is often referred to as
absolute permeability
Calculating Absolute Permeability
Absolute permeability is often calculated from the flow
equation:
L
p A k
q

=
Effective Permeability
When the rock pore spaces contain more than one fluid,
then the permeability to a particular fluid is called the
effective permeability
Effective permeability is a measure of the fluid
conductance capacity of a porous medium to a particular
fluid when the medium is saturated with more than one
fluid
Calculating Effective Permeability
L
p A k
q
o
o eo
o

=
Oil
Water
Gas
L
p A k
q
w
w ew
w

=
L
p A k
q
g
g eg
g

=
Relative Permeability
Relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the
effective permeability to a fluid at a given saturation to a
base permeability
The base permeability is commonly taken as the effective
permeability to the fluid at 100% saturation (absolute
permeability) or the effective non-wetting phase
permeability at irreducible wetting phase saturation
Calculating Relative Permeabilities
k
k
k
eo
ro
=
Oil
Water
Gas
k
k
k
ew
rw
=
k
k
k
eg
rg
=
Fundamental Concepts
Water phase
Water is located in smaller pore spaces and along sand
grains
Therefore, relative permeability to water is a function of water
saturation only (i.e., it does not matter what the relative
amounts of oil and gas are)
Thus, we can plot relative permeability to water against water
saturation on Cartesian coordinate paper
Oil phase
Oil is located between water and gas in the pore spaces, and to
a certain extent, in the smaller pores
Thus, relative permeability to oil is a function of oil, water, and
gas saturations
If the water saturation can be considered constant (i.e., the
minimum interstitial water saturation), then k
ro
can be plotted
against S
o
on Cartesian coordinate paper
Gas phase
Gas is located in the center of the larger pores
Therefore, the relative permeability to gas is a function of
gas saturation only (i.e., it does not matter what the
relative amounts of oil and water are)
Thus ,we can plot k
rg
against S
g
(or S
w
+ S
o
) on Cartesian
coordinate paper
Common Multi-Phase Flow Systems
Water-oil systems
Oil-gas systems
Water-gas systems
Three phase systems (water, oil, and gas)
Relative Permeability Exercise 1
What are the relative permeability data sets we need to
use for the following situations?
Water flooding an oil reservoir above the bubble point
Production from an oil reservoir with a gas-cap and
water aquifer
Solution
For water flooding an oil reservoir above the bubble
point :
Water-oil relative permeability
For three phase flow :
Water-oil relative permeability
Gas-oil (or gas-liquid) relative permeability
3 phase relative permeability
Oil-Water Relative Permeability
40
0
20
40 0 100 60 20 80
Water Saturation (%)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

(
%
)
100
60
80
Water
k
rw
@ S
or
Oil
Two-Phase Flow
Region
Irreducible
Water
Saturation
k
ro
@ S
wi
Residual Oil
Saturation
Oil-Gas Relative Permeability
40
0
20
40 0 100 60 20 80
Total Liquid Saturation - % of Pore Volume
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

(
%
)
100
60
80
Gas
k
ro
Oil
k
rg
S
L
= S
o
+ S
wi
0.4
0
0.2
40 0 100 60 20 80
Water Saturation (% PV)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
1.0
0.6
0.8
(1)
(2)
Importance of Relative Permeability Data
Relative permeability data affect the flow characteristics of
reservoir fluids.
Relative permeability data affect the recovery of oil and/or
gas.
Relative Permeability Example 3
Effect of Relative Permeability
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation (%)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

(
%
)
Rock Type 2
Rock Type 1
Relative Permeability Example 3
Effect of Relative Permeability
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 2 4 6 8 10
Pore Volumes Injected
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

o
f

R
e
c
o
v
e
r
a
b
l
e

O
i
l
Rock Type 1
Rock Type 2
Factors Affecting Effective and Relative
Permeabilities
Fluid saturations
Geometry of the rock pore spaces and grain size distribution
Rock wettability
Fluid saturation history (i.e., imbibition or drainage)
Effect of Wettability
0.4
0
0.2
40 0 100 60 20 80
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
1.0
0.6
0.8
Water
Oil
Strongly Water-Wet Rock
0.4
0
0.2
40 0 100 60 20 80
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
1.0
0.6
0.8
Water Oil
Strongly Oil-Wet Rock
Types of relative permeability curves
Drainage curve
Wetting phase is displaced by the nonwetting phase, i.e., the
wetting phase saturation is decreasing
Imbibition Curve
Non-wetting phase is displaced by wetting phase, i.e., the
wetting phase saturation is increasing
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Drainage
Imbibition
Wetting Phase Saturation, % PV
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

%
Residual non-wetting
phase saturation
Interstitial wetting
phase saturation
Choosing the Right Curve
When simulating the waterflood of a water-wet reservoir
rock, imbibition relative permeability curves should be
used.
When modeling gas injection into an oil reservoir, drainage
relative permeability curves should be used.
Three-Phase Relative Permeabilities
100% Gas
100% Oil 100% Water
Relative Permeability to Water in a Three-Phase
System
100% Gas
100% Water 100% Oil
0%
10%
20%
40%
60%
k
rw
= 80%
Relative Permeability to Oil in a Three-Phase System
100% Gas
100% Water
100% Oil
5%
10%
20%
30%
40%
k
ro
= 50%
Uses of Effective and Relative Permeability
Reservoir simulation
Flow calculations that involve multi-phase flow in
reservoirs
Estimation of residual oil (and/or gas) saturation
References
1. Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M., and Whiting, R.L.: Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering, McGrow-Hill Book Company New York, 1960.
2. Tiab, D. and Donaldson, E.C.: Petrophysics, Gulf Publishing
Company, Houston, TX. 1996.
3. Dandekar, A. Petroleum Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties,
Taylor and Francis, 2006.

C (I-1B) Reservoir Fundam Fluid Flow

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C (I-1B) Reservoir Fundam Fluid Flow

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Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Basics of Reservoir Engineering Module I

Solid surface is reservoir rock (i.e., sandstone, limestone,

Copyright 2008, NExT, All rights reserved

Note: 0 < < 90

Note: 90 < < 180

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