1

PREFACE



Training is important phase of student life. During this period student gets both
theoretical as well as practical knowledge of the subject. Training also
impresses a student overall approaches to life and impress his personality and
confidence.

Our training was in Doordarshan Kendra lucknow . This report contains a
detailed study of Doordarshan Kendra lucknow . There are 3 division here :-

Studio
Transmitter
Earth Station

1) Studio :-
Doordarshan is a leading broadcasting service provider in india. DD Lucknow is
full-flathead broadcast set up. Many serials &program are being made here like
"HATIM TAI" etc. recorded in studio.

2) Transmitter:-
Here the transmission of both audio and video has been made. The transmission
section does the function of modulation of signal. Power amplification of the
signal & mixing of audio and video signal is done here.

3) Earth Station :-
The main function of earth station is to make contact with satellite or
communicate with it. The signals from other transmitter are down linked here.
Also the signals here are uplinked to send it to larger distance.






2

Introduction of Doordarshan lucknow


Lucknow Doordarshan started functioning on 27th Nov. 1975 with an interim
setup at 22, Ashok Marg, Lucknow. The colour transmission service of National
Channel (only with Transmitter) started from 15-8-82. While the regular colour
transmission service from studio was started in 1984 with ENG gadgets.

During Reliance Cup, OB Van came to Kendra for outdoor telecast having 4
colour camera chain, recording equipments, portable microwave link. In March
1989 new studio complex started functioning. EFP Van came to DDK Lucknow in
1989 with compliment of 3 colour camera chain and recording setup for outdoor
telecast. The entire recording of studio/van have been replaced to Beta format
High Band edit VCR and still in use as the old recording are on H.B.

UP Regional Service telecast with up linking facility from studio (DDK,
Lucknow) started in January 1998 on INSAT-2B. This service was changed to
INSAT-2D (T) ARAB SAT. on 14-7-98. The news feeds are up-linked to Delhi
occasionally from Lucknow Earth Station.

Studio program is transmitted from 10 KW-TV transmitter installed at Hardoi
Road through Studio Transmitter Microwave Link. Besides this, one 16 feet PDA
is being installed at TV Transmitter site to receive the down link signal of
Regional Service telecast from studio via ARAB SAT. on INSAT-2D (T).

Site of 22 Ashok Marg, Lucknow is being utilized by Doordarshan Training
Institute (for staff training) having one studio (12m x 6m) and colour camera
chain. The DTI Lucknow was inaugurated in September 1995.

In the beginning, only the development programmes were telecast but later on to
enlighten the viewers as per their needs, expectations, many more informative,
educative and entertaining programmes have been introduced from time to time.

Lucknow Doordarshan produced some of the best programmes in the country. To
entertain cross section of the society.


3

TV STUDIO

Doordarshan has two studio halls. One is used as News Room and the other one
is used for shooting various programs. Artificial sets are created in the studio
hall according to requirements of the program to be shooted.

PROCEDURE IN RECORDING:-

Set is designed in studio as per conceptual thought of program producer.

Lighting, Audio and placement of the cameras is arranged as per floor plan.


Pre testing of cameras, microphones, VCRs etc. is done before recording.

Recording begins and desired camera / mike are selected through VM/
Audio console as per command of producer. Program is recorded on VCR.

Normal transmission hours are 1600-2000 Hrs.

Cue sheet is discussed daily by program and technical staff for details in it
and for any last moment changes if any.

After getting D-link caption from Delhi end program is played from
VCR /Server. The program is uplinked by Earth Station.

The program is also transmitted to transmitter at HPT Nahargarh via MW
link.
During our slot, both live as well as recorded programs are transmitted.
Around 2000 Hrs after getting linking caption from DD# 1, the signal
from DD#1 is selected and accordingly transmitted by HPT/ ES.




4

Video signal generation:-

Video is nothing but a sequence of pictures. The image we see is maintained in
our eye for 1/16sec. So if we see images at the rate more than 16 pictures/sec,
our eyes cannot recognize the difference and we see the continuous motion. In
movies camera and movie projector it is found that 24 fps is better for human
eyes. TV system could also use this rate but in PAL system 25fpm is selected.
In TV cameras image is converted in electrical signal using photosensitive
material. Whole image is divided into many micro particles known as pixels.
These pixels are small enough so that our eyes cannot recognize pixels and we
see continuous image. Thus, at any particular instance there are almost infinite
numbers of pixels that need to be converted in electrical signal simultaneously
for transmitting picture details. However this is not possible practical because it
is no feasible to provide a separate path for each pixel. In practice this problem
is solved by method known as Scanning in which information is converted
one by one pixel, line by line and frame by frame.

COLOUR COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL:-

A signal that contain all three component i.e intensity information, horizontal-
retrace signal and vertical-retrace signals these type of signal is known as
composite video signal or we can say that colour composite video signal. The
video carrier is demodulated to give a composite video signal; this contains
luminance, chrominance and synchronization signals; this is identical to the
video signal format used by analog video devices such as VCRs or CCTV
cameras.Colour Composite Video Signal is formed with Video, sync and
blanking signals. Note that the RF signal modulation is inverted compared to
the conventional AM: the minimum video signal level corresponds to maximum
carrier amplitude, and vice versa. The carrier is never shut off all together ; this
is to ensure that inter carrier sound demodulation can still occur.



5

Active waveform comprises of 2 signals:

Luminance(Y)-black and white

Chrominance(C)- colour signal

COMPONENTS OF TV STUDIO:-

Camera

Lighting

Microphones

Vision mixer and Audio consoles

MSR

VCR /Servers

Acoustics

Post production and video effects

supporting services like AC, UPS








6

TV CAMERA




INTRODUCTION:

A TV Camera consists of three sections:

a) A Camera lens & Optics: To form optical image on the face plate of a pick up
device.
b) A transducer or pick up device: To convert optical image into a electrical
signal.
c) Electronics: To process output of a transducer to get a CCVS signal.

TYPES OF PICK - UP DEVICES:-

There are three types of pick up devices based on :

a) Photoemissive material: These material emits electrons when the light falls on
them. Amount of emitted electrons depends on the light . Monochrome cameras
used in Doordarshan were based on this material. These cameras were called
Image Orticon Cameras. These cameras were bulky and needed lot of light. These
are no longer in use at present.




7

b) Photo conductive material: The conductivity of these material changes with
amount of light falling on them. Such material with variable conductivity is made
part of a electrical circuit. Voltage developed across this material is thus recovered
as electrical signal.

c) Charge coupled devices: These are semiconductor devices which convert light
into a charge image which is then collected at a high speed to form a signal. Most
of the TV Studios are now using CCD cameras instead of Tube cameras. Tube
cameras have become obsolete & are not in use .The CCD is a solid-state device
using special integrated circuitry technology, hence it is often referred to as a chip
camera. The complete CCD sensor or chip has at least 450000 picture elements or
pixels, each pixel being basically an isolated (insulated) photodiode. The action of
the light on each pixel is to cause electrons to be released which are held by the
action of a positive voltage.

The Charge held under electrode can be moved to electrode by changing the
potential on the second electrodes. The electrons (negative charges) follow the
most positive attraction. A repeat of this process would move the charges to
next electrode, hence charge-coupled device. A system of transfer clock pulses
is used to move the charges in CCDs to achieve scanning.

There are three types of CCD device:

frame transfer (FT).

interline transfer (IT).

frame interline transfer (FIT).

Size of the chip used for broadcast cameras varies from inch to 2/3inch.

Development in CCD technology has seen the introduction of :

The hole accumulated Diode (HAD) sensor which enabled upto 750
pixels/line, with increased sensitivity and a reduction in vertical smear.

8

The hyper HAD sensor, which included a microlens on each pixel to
collect the light more efficiently (this gave a one stop increase in
sensitivity over the HAD sensor).

The power HAD sensor with improved signal-to- noise ratio which has
resulted in at least half an -stop gain in sensitivity; in some cases a full
-stop of extra sensitivity has been realized.

The built in sync pulse generator provides all the pulses required for the encoder
and colour bar generator of the camera. The signal system is described below:
The signal system in most of the cameras consists of processing of the signal
from red, blue and green CCD respectively. The processing of red and blue
channel is exactly similar. Green channel which also called a reference channel
has slightly different electronic concerning aperture correction. The signal
picked up from the respective CCD is amplified in a stage called pre-pre
amplifier. Most of the cameras also provide gain setting of 6 dB, 9dB and 18dB
at the pre amplifier. Shading compensator provides H and V shading
adjustments in static mode and dynamic mode by readjusting the gain. All the
three signals namely R, G and B are then fed to the encoder section of the
camera via a colour bar/camera switch. This switch can select R, G and B from
the camera or from the R, G, B Signal from colour bar generator. In the encoder
section these R, G, B signals are modulated with SC to get V and U signals.
These signals are then mixed with luminance, sync, burst, & blanking etc. to
provide colour composite video signal (CCVS Signal). Power supply board
provides regulated voltages to various sections.





9

TV LIGHTING

GENERAL PRINCIPLES:-
Lighting for television is very exciting and needs creative talent. There is
always a tremendous scope for doing experiments to achieve the required effect.
Light is a kind of electromagnetic radiation with a visible spectrum from red to
violet i.e, wave length from 700 nm to 380 nm respectively. However to
effectively use the hardware and software connected with lighting it is important
to know more about this energy.

Light Source: Any light source has a Luminance intensity (I) which is
measured in Candelas. One Candela is equivalent to an intensity released by
standard one candle source of light.

Luminance flux (F): It is a radiant energy weighted by the photonic curve and
is measured in Lumens. One Lumen is the luminous flux emitted by a point
source of 1 Candela.

Illumination (E): It is a Luminous Flux incident onto a surface. It is measured
in LUMENS/m2, which is also called as LUX. A point source of 1 candela at a
uniform distance of 1 meter from a surface of 1 square meter gives illumination
of 1 LUX.

Luminance (L): It is a measure of the reflected light from a surface. Measured
in Apostilbs . A surface which reflects a total flux of 1 lumen/m2 has a
luminance of 1 Aposilbs .




10

DIFFERENT LIGHTING TECHNIQUES: -

Eye light, Low intensity light on camera itself to get extra sparkle to an actor's
eye.

Rim light, to highlight actor's outline, it is an extra back on entire body at
camera level.

Kickkar light, Extra light on shadow side of the face at an angle behind and to
the side of the actor.
Limbo Lighting, Only subject is visible, no back ground light.
Sillhoutt lighting, No light on subject, BG is highly lit.

LIGHTING CONSOLE:-
In a television production, each scene will require its own lighting plan to give
the desired effect. In order to assist in setting up a particular lighting plon, a
console should provide :-
a) One man operation and a centralised control desk with ability to switch any
circuit.
b) Facilities to obtain good balance with flexibility to have dimming on any
circuit.
c) With all controls for power at low voltage and current.
Modern lighting consoles also provide file & memory to enable the console
operator to store and recall the appropriate luminaries used for a particular
lighting plot. These console also provide Mimic panels to show which channels
are in use and which memories or files have been recalled.
11

DIMMERS:-
Dimmers are devices used to vary the brightness of a light. By decreasing or
increasing the RMS voltage and hence the mean power to the lamp, it is
possible to vary the intensity of the light output.
In the professional lighting industry, changes in intensity are called fades.
Modern dimmers are built from silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) instead of
variable resistors, because they have higher efficiency. A variable resistor
would dissipate power as heat and acts as a voltage divider. Since a silicon
controlled rectifier switches between a low resistance "on" state and a high
resistance "off" state, it dissipates very little power compared with the
controlled load.
Three basic methods for dimming are :-
Resistance :- This is the simplest and cheapest form of dimmer. It consists of a
wire wound resistor with a wiper .It is used in series with the load.
The basic principle of the saturable reactor is to connect an iron cored choke in
series with the lamp.
Capacitor :- The capacitor are used to stored energy or power.In the case of
dimmers the capacitor can store an aequate amount of power to redused the
intensity of light.

LIGHTING THE SET FOR DRAMA:-

The top of the set should be darkened off by using the barndoors, this puts a
"ceiling" on the set by giving the feeling of a roof. If more than the top of the set
is darkened, that gives enclosed feeling.


12


Indoor day time:
- If there is a choice in the direction of the 'sun'(Key) take the shortest route
inside the set to a wall, and if possible throw the shadow of window bars onto a
door - it usually is in shot.
-A patch of light on the floor inside the set, backlight from outside using a soft
source at steep elevation adds realism.
- When a set does not have a window, a window pattern can be projected onto a
wall to produce a suitable window effect.
-Roof and Ceiling Pieces - if they make lighting impossible, check if they can
be removed at the planning state. Light any ceiling pieces from outside, use a
soft source at ground level. If the ceiling has plaster a hard source may be used.
Indoor night time:
- The outside of the window should be dark, except for a possible dim skyline if
the room is well above adjacent streets, or lit by an outside practical lamp i.e.
street lighting.
- The wall with the window in it should be lit at night to be brighter than for the
day condition. Subjectively the walls appear brighter at night than at daytime. .
- General for night effects it is not a good plan to just simply dim the set
lighting when changing from day to night.

Outdoor daylight and Moonlight:
The direction of the light is dictated by the position of the 'sun' or 'moon'. As a
general principle one should remember that sunlight (hard source) is
accompanied by the reflected "skylight" (soft source) whereas moonlight is a
single hard source. One of the biggest problems when lighting exteriors is the
maintenance of single shadow" philosophy - double shadows on a long shot
will quickly destroy the apparent realism created in the set. Very large area filler
light is ideal for exterior daylight scenes. This can be achieved by using a
suspended white screen 12' x 8' where the filler would be positioned then
lighting it with hard light.

13

MICROPHONES


A microphone is a device which converts acoustical energy into electrical
energy.


TYPES OF MICROPHONES:-

There are many types of microphones. But only the most common types used in
broadcasting have been described here.


Dynamic or Moving Coil Microphone:-
This is common broadcast quality microphone which is rugged and can be
carried to outside broadcast/recording etc. It consists of a strong permanent
magnet whose pole extensions form a radial field within a round narrow gap. A
moving coil is supported within this gap and a dome shaped diaphragm usually
of aluminium foil is attached to the coil.

Ribbon/ Velocity Microphone :-
Corrugated aluminium foil about 0.1 mm thick forms a ribbon which is
suspended within two insulated supports. The ribbon is placed within the
extended poles of a strong horse shoe magnet. The ribbon moves due to the
difference in pressure (at right angles to its surface) i.e. from the front or rear of
the mike. There exists the maximum pressure difference between the front and
rear of ribbon because of maximum path difference. The sound does not
develop any pressure gradient when it comes from the sides of the microphones
because there is no path difference


14

VISION MIXING

Introduction
Vision mixing is a process of creating composite pictures from various sources.
Vision mixing involves basically three types of switching or transitions between
various sources. These are mixing, wiping and keying. These transitions can
also be accompanied by special effects in some of the vision mixers.

CUT:-
The cut is an instantaneous switch from one picture to another. It avoids the
frame roll & flash evident, on picture at the moment of cutting.

MIX:-
It uses additive mixing. The transitions here are less pronounced. As the faders
are operated, the established picture fades away, while the new picture
progressively.

Wipe :-
In this case the control for the two input sources is generated by the wipe
pattern generator (WPG), which can either be saw tooth or parabola at H, V or
both H & V rate. Unlike in MIX, during WIPE, one source is present in one side
of the wipe and the second source on other side of the wipe. A very simple to
very complex wipe patterns can be generated from the WPG.
Key :-
In the Key position between two sources i.e. foreground (FG) and background
(BG) the control derived from one of the source itself (overlay), or by the third
source (external key). This keying signal can be generated either by the
luminance, or chrominance of the source input.

15

MASTER SWITCHING ROOM


Master switching room (MSR) is used for transmission media. It is the
engineering co-ordination center of activity for selecting & routing the signal
from various sources to transmitter and earth station. It is a room where all
different sources from the outside studio comes first here and enroots
transmission to different destination like transmitter & earth station. This room
comprises of Routine switcher, Stab amplifier, Video/Audio distribution
amplifier etc.

It is the heart of the studio. Most of the switching electronics are kept here e.g.
camera base stations, switcher mainframe, SPG, Satellite receivers, MW link,
DDA & most of the patch panels. Signal is routed through MSR. Signal can be
monitored at various stages.


AUDIO CONSOLE:-
It has many input sources such as microphones, VCR/server, IRDs, tone
generators. Out of these i/p, any source can be taken on o/p Audio level of
Sources can be adjusted and audio effects can be added.









16

TV TRANSMITTER ANTENNA SYSTEM



Antenna System is that part of the Broadcasting Network which accepts RF
Energy from transmitter and launches electromagnetic waves in space. The
polarization of the radiation as adopted by Doordarshan is linear horizontal. The
system is installed on a supporting tower and consists of antenna panels, power
dividers, baluns, branch feeder cable, junction boxes and main feeder cables.
Dipole antenna elements, in one or the other form are common at VHF
frequencies where as slot antennae are mostly used at UHF frequencies. Omni
directional radiation pattern is obtained by arranging the dipoles in the form of
turnstile and exciting the same in quadrature phase.
Here the transmission of both audio as well as video signals is being made. The
transmission section does the function of modulation of signals, power
amplification of the signal & mixing of the audio & video signals.
17

TRANSMITTER:-

The most widely used narrow beam antennas are reflector antennas. The shape
is generally a paraboloid of revolution.
For full earth coverage from a geostationary satellite, a horn antenna is used.
Horns are also used as feeds for reflector antennas.
A small earth terminal, the feed horn is located at the focus or may be offset to
one side of the focus.
Large earth station antennas have a sub reflector at the focus. In the Cassegrain
design, the sub reflector is convex with an hyperboloid surface, while in the
Gregorian design it is concave with an ellipsoidal surface.These antennas are
used to transmit signal from earth station to satellite.

RECEIVER:-

The most widely used narrow beam antennas are reflector antennas. The shape
is generally a paraboloid of revolution.

1. For full earth coverage from a geostationary satellite, a horn antenna is used.
Horns are also used as feeds for reflector antennas.
2. They are basically used to receive signals from the satellite which were
transmitted by transmitter.
3. All the waves which fall on receiver are being focused on the feeder which is
placed at the center of receiver antenna.
4. This feeder collects all the waves and sends to master switching room through
cable sand wires.
5. After that again down conversion and decoding of signals takes place and in
this manner we receive our information.
18

EARTH STATION


Digital Earth Station:-
Earth station is the main part which communicates with satellite in which
uplinking and downlinking of the signal into and from the satellite takes place
for TV transmission. Earth station is a purely digitization version. The signal is
uplinked from the earth station and received by many downlink centers in
TV broadcasting. It is a very important part of satellite communication system
for broadcasting of signals. A ground-based receiving or transmitting/ receiving
station in a satellite communications system. The counterpart to the earth station
is the satellite in orbit, which is the "space station." Earth stations use dish-
shaped antennas, the diameters of which can be under two feet for satellite TV
to as large as fifty feet for satellite operators. Antennas for space exploration
have diameters reaching a hundred feet.

The earth station is supposed to convey the information from the user to
the satellite and from satellite back to the user.

The earth station can be located on land,ships,aircraft etc.


19

Earth Station classification:-

Analog Earth Station

Digital Earth Station

C-band or Ku-band


c-band 6Ghz (uplink) / 4Ghz (downlink)
Ku-band 14Ghz (uplink) / 12Ghz (downlink)
Ka-band 30Ghz (uplink) / 20Ghz (downlink)


Problems of Analog:-

One programme per channel/transponder.

Comparatively noisy.

Ghosts in Terrestrial Transmission.

Lower quality with respect to VCD, DVD digital medium.

Fixed reception.


Why Digital?

More programmes per channel/Transponder i.e. spectrum efficient.

Noise-Free Reception.

Ghost elimination.

CD quality sound & better than DVD quality picture.

Reduced transmission power.

Flexibility in service planning.

20

Process involved in transmission of signal:-

Up-Conversion.

High power amplification.

Transmission.


SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:-


Satellite Communication is the outcome of the desire of man to achieve the
concept of global village. Penetration of frequencies beyond 30 Mega Hertz
through ionosphere force people to think that if an object (Reflector) could be
placed in the space above ionosphere then it could be possible to use complete
spectrum for communication purpose. It is simply the communication of the
satellite in space with large number of earth stations on the ground.The function
of the satellite is to receive a high frequency signal (uplink) , processes it and
resend back to the earth station at a lower frequency signal (downlink).
Intelsat-I (nick named as Early Bird) was launched on 2 April 1965. This was
parked in geosynchronous orbit in Atlantic ocean and provided
telecommunication or television service between USA and Europe. It had
21

capacity for 240 one way telephone channels or one television channel.
Subsequently Intelsat-II generation satellites were launched and parked in
Atlantic ocean and Pacific Ocean.
ANIK : Canadian satellite system.
INSAT : Indian Satellites.
AUSSAT : Australian Satellites.
BRAZILSAT : Brazilian Satellites.
FRENCH TELECOM : French Satellites.
ITALSAT : Italian Satellites.
CHINASAT : Chinese Satellites.
STATSIONAR, GORIZONT, Russian Satellites.

Architecture of a Satellite Communication System:-


22

The Space Segment
The space segment contains the Satellite and all terrestrial facilities for the
control and monitoring of the Satellite. This includes the tracking, telemetry and
command stations (TT&C) together with the Satellite control centre where all
the operations associated with station-keeping and checking the vital functions
of the satellite are performed.The quality of a radio link is specified by its
carrier-to-noise ratio. The important factor is the quality of the total link, from
station to station, and this is determined by the quality of the uplink and that of
the down link .uplink frequency always greater than downlink frequency due to
the interference between transmittion and reception.
Uplink frequency :- The frequency at which the signal are transmitted from
earth station to satellite.
Downlink frequency :- The frequency at which the signal are send to satellite
back to earth station.
The Ground Segment:
The ground segment consists of all the earth stations ; these are most often
connected to the end-users equipment by a terrestrial network or, in the case of
small stations (Very Small Aperture Terminal, VSAT), directly connected to the
end-users equipment. The largest are equipped with antenna of 30 m diameter
(Standard A of the INTELSAT network). The smallest have 0.6 m
antenna(direct television receiving stations).
Space Geometry:
Types of Orbit:
The orbit is the trajectory followed by the satellite in equilibrium between two
opposing forces. These are the force of attraction, due to the earths gravitation,
directed towards the centre of the earth and the centrifugal force associated with
the curvature of the satellites trajectory. The trajectory is within a plane and
shaped as an ellipse with a maximum extension at the apogee and a minimum at
23

the perigee. The satellite moves more slowly in its trajectory as the distance
from the earth increases .
Most favourable Orbits:
Elliptical orbits:
Elliptical orbits inclined at an angle of 64o with respect to the equatorial plane.
This orbit enables the satellite to cover regions of high latitude for a large
fraction of the orbital period as it passes to the apogee.
Circular inclined orbits :
The altitude of the satellite is constant and equal to several hundreds of
kilometers. The period is of the order of one and a half hours. With near 90%
inclination this type of orbit guarantees that the satellite will pass over every
region of the earth.
Circular orbits:
Circular orbits with zero inclination (Equatorial orbits). The most popular is the
geo stationary satellite orbits ; the satellite orbits around the earth at an altitude
of 35786 km, and in the same direction as the earth. The period is equal to that
of the rotation of the earth and in the same direction.

Factors deciding the selection of Orbit:
The choice of orbit depends on the nature of the mission, the acceptable
interference and the performance of the launchers :
The extent and latitude of the area to be covered.

The elevation angle of earth stations

Transmission duration and delay.
24


Interference.

The performance of launchers.


Advantages of satellite communication:

Mobile/Wireless Communication, independent of location.

Wide area coverage:country,continent,or globe.

Wide bandwidth available throughout.

Independence from terrestrial infrastructure.

Rapid installation of ground network.

Low cost per added site.

Small Fading margin (3dB).


Disadvantages of satellite communication:

Launching satellites into orbit is costly.

Short life time maximum of 15 years.

Redundancy in component!

There is a larger propagation delay in satellite communication than in
terrestrial communication.

Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up.

25

TVRO SYSTEM


Presently Doordarshan is up linking its national, metro and regional services to
INSAT-2A (74o E) and INSAT-2B (93.5o E) and INSAT 2E (83o E). Down
link frequency bands being used are C-Band (3.7-4.2 GHz) and Ex-C Band
(4.5-4.8 GHz).


Satellite Earth Station Uplink / Downlink Chain



Transmission of base band to Satellite:

The base band signal consists of video (5 MHz), two audio subcarriers (5.5
MHz & 5.75 MHz) and energy dispersal signal (25 Hz). After modulation (70
MHz) and upconversion (6 GHz) the carrier is amplified and uplinked through
Solid Parabolic Dish Antenna (PDA). Down link signal can be received through
same PDA using Trans-Receive Filter (TRF) and Low Noise Amplifier (LNA).
After down conversion, it is demodulated(70 MHz) to get audio and video.

Satellite Transponder:

As shown in fig, the uplinked signal (6 GHz) at satellite is received, amplified
and down converted to 4 GHz band and sent back through filter and power
26

amplifier (TWT). The local oscillator frequency of down converter is 2225
MHz for C band and Ex-C band transponders.


Block diagram of Satellite Transponder

Receiving Satellite Signal:- For receiving a satellite signal we need following
equipment :
Satellite receiving antenna (PDA).

Feed with low noise block converter (LNBC).

Indoor unit consisting of satellite system unit and a Synthesised satellite
receiver.

Parallels of Latitudes Latitude as angular distance


27

Look Angle Of Satellite Communication :-
The coordinates to which the earth station antennas must be pointed to
communicate with the satellite is called Look angle.
There are two type of look angle:-
1) Azimuth Angle :- Measured eastward from geographic north local
horizontal plane at the earth station to the satellite path.

2) Elevation Angle:- Measured upward from local horizontal plane at the
earth station to the satellite path.
Both the azimuth and elevation of a dish can be affected by three factors for
geo-stationary satellites.They are:-
1. The longitude of the satellite.
2. The latitude of the place.
3. The longitude of the place.

Calculation of Angle of Elevation:

Where r = Radius of the earth (6367 kms) R = Radius of Synchronous orbit
(42,165 kms). = Latitude of the earth station D = difference in longitude of the
earth station and the satellite. ( r - s) 2 1 Cos.

Calculation of Azimuth:


28

Indoor Units:-
The indoor unit contains two units. They are :
System unit
Satellite Receiver Unit
System unit:
The system unit contains a passive power divider and power supply for the
LNBC. The power divider divides the IF into two equal parts to be applied to
the two receivers. The power supply is fed through same cable to the LNBC.
Satellite Receiver Unit:
The satellite receiver contains the down converter, video/audio demodulators
and processing circuits. Finally we get two video/audio output. is the
distribution of television signals from high powered geo-stationary satellites to a
small dish antenna and satellite receivers in homes across the country. The cost
of DTH receiving equipments is now gradually declining and can be afforded
by common man. Since DTH services are fully digital, it can offer value added
services, video-on-demand, Internet, e-mail and lot more in addition to
entertainment. DTH reception requires a small dish antenna (Dia 60 cm), easily
be mounted on the roof top, feed along with Low Noise Block Converter
(LNBC), Set-up Box (Integrated Receiver Decoder, IRD) with CAS
(Conditional Access System). A bouquet of 40 to 50 video programs can
simultaneously be received in DTH mode.

UPLINK CHAIN :
DTH broadcasting is basically satellite broadcasting in Ku-Band (14/12 GHz).
The main advantage of Ku-Band satellite broadcasting is that it requires
physically manageable smaller size of dish antenna compared to that of C-Band
satellite broadcasting.

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DOWN-LINK CHAIN :

Down-Link or receiving chain of DTH signal is depicted in Fig. below. There
are mainly three sizes of receiving antenna, 0.6m, 0.9m, and 1.2m. Any of the
sizes can easily be mounted on rooftop of a building or house. RF waves
(12.534GHz, 12.647GHz, 12.729 GHz) from satellite are picked up by a feed
converting it into electrical signal. The electrical signal is amplified and further
down converted to L-Band (950-1450) signal. Feed and LNBC are now
combined in single unit called LNBF. The L-Band signal goes to indoor unit,
consisting a set-top box and television through coaxial cable. The set-top box or
Integrated Receiver Decoder (IRD) down converts the L-Band first IF signal to
70 MHz second IF signal, perform digital demodulation, de-multiplexing,
decoding and finally gives audio/video output to TV for viewing.






30

OUTDOOR BROADCASTING VAN

O B Van (Outdoor Broadcasting van ):
OB van is used for live broadcasting like any match or any event. It consist all
the equipments that is present in the studio for telecasting. It also referring as
mini studio . A typical OB Van is usually divided into 5 parts:
The 1st and largest part is the production area where the director,
technical director, assistant director, character generator operator and
producers usually sit in front of a wall of monitors. This area is very
similar to a Production control room. The technical director sits in front
of the video switcher. The monitors show all the video feeds from various
sources, including computer graphics, cameras, video tapes, video servers
and slow motion replay machines.

The 2nd part of a van is for the audio engineer; it has a sound mixer. The
audio engineer can control which channels are added to the output and
will follow instructions from the director.

The 3rd part of van is video tape. The tape area has a collection of VTRs
and may also house additional power supplies or computer equipment.

The 4th part is the video control area where the cameras are controlled by
1 or 2 people to make sure that the iris is at the correct exposure and that
all the cameras look the same.

The 5th part is transmission where the signal is monitored by and
engineered for quality control purposes and is transmitted or sent to other
trucks.
31

Inner View of OB van


Inner View of OB van


32

FUTURE SCOPE

Doordarshan, the national television service of India, is devoted to public
service broadcasting. It is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the world.
Doordarshan is the first ISO certified channel in India. The largest viewer of
India ,watching Doordarshan. It has good future scope in communication world.
Because largest network covered by the doordarshan only.

As now a days there is a huge competition and everything is getting
digitized there is a wide scope for electronics and communication
engineers to show their skills and keep the technology up to date.

In Doordarshan, all the electronic devices used are to be operated by
skilled engineers.

It provides with good pay scales.

The selection for the posts is through UPSC examinations.








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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Satellite communication book by dennis roddy

Technologyinterface.nmsu.edu

www.cosmic.ucar.edu

www.slashdocs.com