Nationalism in Europe

Introduction: This chapter tries to explain the meaning of nationalism and how
nationalism evolved in mankinds history. Starting with French Revolution the
nationalism spread to other parts of Europe and later on paved the way for
development of modern democratic nations across the world.
Meaning of Nationalism: Nationalism is the idea of a sense of common identity
and a sense of elongingness to a particular geographical area. !part from this it
is also a sense of attachment to a particular culture. "t should e kept in mind that
culture encompasses a variety of factors# like language# cuisine# costumes#
folklores# etc.
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
The concept and practices of a modern state had een developing over a long
period of time in Europe. The state in which# a centralised power exercised
sovereign control over a clearly defined territory. $ut a nation%state was one in
which the ma&ority of its citi'ens# and not only its rulers# came to develop a sense
of common identity and shared history or descent. This commonness did not
exist from time immemorial. Rather it was forged through struggles# through the
actions of leaders and the common people. (uring the nineteenth century#
nationalism emerged as a force which rought aout sweeping changes in the
political and mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was the
emergence of the nation%state in place of the multi%national dynastic empires of
Europe.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in
)*+,. France was a full%fledged territorial state in )*+, under the rule of an
asolute monarch. The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake
of the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to
a ody of French citi'ens. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who
would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
From the very eginning# the French revolutionaries introduced various
measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst
the French people. The ideas of la patrie -the fatherland. and le citoyen -the
citi'en. emphasi'ed the notion of a united community en&oying e/ual rights under
a constitution. ! new French flag# the tricolour# was chosen to replace the former
royal standard. The Estates 0eneral was elected y the ody of active citi'ens
and renamed the National !ssemly. New hymns were composed# oaths taken
and martyrs commemorated# all in the name of the nation. ! centralised
administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all
citi'ens within its territory. "nternal customs duties and dues were aolished and
a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
Regional dialects were discouraged and French# as it was spoken and written in
1aris# ecame the common language of the nation. The revolutionaries further
declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to lierate
the peoples of Europe from despotism# in other words to help other peoples of
Europe to ecome nations.
Effects of French Revolution on Other Countries:
2hen the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe#
students and other memers of educated middle classes egan setting up
3acoin clus. Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French
armies which moved into 4olland# $elgium# Swit'erland and much of "taly in the
)*,5s. 2ith the outreak of the revolutionary wars# the French armies egan to
carry the idea of nationalism aroad.
Nepoleon
2ithin the wide range of territory that came under his control# Napoleon set aout
introducing many of the reforms that he had already introduced in France.
Through a return to monarchy Napoleon had# no dout# destroyed democracy in
France# ut in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary
principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. The 6ivil
6ode of )+57 8 usually known as the Napoleonic 6ode 8 did away with all
privileges ased on irth# estalished e/uality efore the law and secured the
right to property.
This 6ode was exported to the regions under French control. "n the (utch
Repulic# in Swit'erland# in "taly and 0ermany# Napoleon simplified
administrative divisions. Napoleon aolished the feudal system and freed
peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. "n the towns too# guild restrictions
were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved. 1easants#
artisans# workers and new usinessmen en&oyed a new%found freedom.
$usinessmen and small%scale producers
of goods# in particular# egan to realise that uniform laws# standardised weights
and measures# and a common national currency would facilitate the movement
and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
4owever# in the areas con/uered# the reactions of the local populations to French
rule were mixed. "nitially# in many places such as 4olland and Swit'erland# as
well as in certain cities like $russels# 9ain'# 9ilan and 2arsaw# the French
armies were welcomed as haringers of lierty. $ut the initial enthusiasm soon
turned to hostility# as it ecame clear that the new administrative arrangements
did not go hand in hand with political freedom. "ncreased taxation# censorship#
forced conscription into the French armies re/uired to con/uer the rest of
Europe# all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.
Situation Before Revolution
"n the mid%eighteenth%century Europe there were no :nation%states as we know
them today. 9odern day 0ermany# "taly and Swit'erland were divided into
kingdoms# duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
Eastern and 6entral Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the
territories of which lived diverse peoples. They did not see themselves as sharing
a collective identity or a common culture. ;ften# they even spoke different
languages and elonged to different ethnic groups. The 4asurg Empire that
ruled over !ustria%4ungary# for example# was a patchwork of many different
regions and peoples. "t included the !lpine regions 8 the Tyrol# !ustria and the
Sudetenland 8 as well as $ohemia# where the aristocracy was predominantly
0erman%speaking. "t also included the "talian%speaking provinces of <omardy
and =enetia. "n 4ungary# half of the population spoke 9agyar while the other half
spoke a variety of dialects. "n 0alicia# the aristocracy spoke 1olish. $esides
these three dominant groups# there also lived within the oundaries of the
empire# a mass of su&ect peasant peoples 8 $ohemians and Slovaks to the
north# Slovenes in 6arniola# 6roats to the south# and Roumans to the east in
Transylvania. Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity.
The only tie inding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to
the emperor.
Causes and rocess of Emergence of Nation States
The !ristocracy Socially and politically# a landed aristocracy was the dominant
class on the continent. The memers of this class were united y a common way
of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside
and also town%houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high
society. Their families were often connected y ties of marriage. This powerful
aristocracy was# however# numerically a small group. The ma&ority of the
population was made up of the peasantry. To the west# the ulk of the land was
farmed y tenants and small owners# while in Eastern and 6entral Europe the
pattern of landholding was characterised y vast estates which were cultivated
y serfs.
Ne! Middle Class
"n 2estern and parts of 6entral Europe the growth of industrial production and
trade meant the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes
whose existence was ased on production for the market. "ndustrialisation egan
in England in the second half of the eighteenth century# ut in France and parts
of the 0erman states it occurred only during the nineteenth century. "n its wake#
new social groups came into eing> a working%class population# and middle
classes made up of industrialists# usinessmen# professionals.
"n 6entral and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller in numer till late
nineteenth century. "t was among the educated# lieral middle classes that ideas
of national unity following the aolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.
Idea of "i#eral Nationalism
"deas of national unity in early%nineteenth%century Europe were closely allied to
the ideology of lieralism. The term :lieralism derives from the <atin root lier#
meaning free. For the new middle classes lieralism stood for freedom for the
individual and e/uality of all efore the law. 1olitically# it emphasised the concept
of government y consent. Since the French Revolution# lieralism had stood for
the end of autocracy and clerical privileges# a constitution and representative
government through parliament. Nineteenth%century lierals also stressed the
inviolaility of private property.
Right to $ote
?et# e/uality efore the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. ?ou
will recall that in revolutionary France# which marked the first political experiment
in lieral democracy# the right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively
to property%owning men. 9en without property and all women were excluded
from political rights. ;nly for a rief period under the 3acoins did all adult males
en&oy suffrage. 4owever# the Napoleonic 6ode went ack to limited suffrage and
reduced women to the status of a minor# su&ect to the authority of fathers and
husands. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and
non%propertied men organised opposition movements demanding e/ual political
rights.
Freedom of %ccess to Mar&ets
"n the economic sphere# lieralism stood for the freedom of markets and the
aolition of state%imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
(uring the nineteenth century this was a strong demand of the emerging middle
classes. <et us take the example of the 0erman%speaking regions in the first half
of the nineteenth century. Napoleons administrative measures had created out of
countless small principalities a confederation of @, states. Each of these
possessed its own currency# and weights and measures. ! merchant travelling in
)+@@ from 4amurg to Nuremerg to sell his goods would have had to pass
through )) customs arriers and pay a customs duty of aout A per cent at each
one of them. (uties were often levied according to the weight or measurement of
the goods. !s each region had its own system of weights and measures# this
involved time%consuming calculation. The measure of cloth# for example# was the
elle which in each region stood for a different length. !n elle of textile material
ought in Frankfurt would get you A7.* cm of cloth# in 9ain' AA.) cm# in
Nuremerg BA.B cm# in Freiurg A@.A cm.
Such conditions were viewed as ostacles to economic exchange and growth y
the new commercial classes# who argued for the creation of a unified economic
territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods# people and capital. "n
)+@7# a customs union or 'ollverein was formed at the initiative of 1russia and
&oined y most of the 0erman states. The union aolished tariff arriers and
reduced the numer of currencies from over thirty to two. The creation of a
network of railways further stimulated moility# harnessing economic interests to
national unification. ! wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider
nationalist sentiments growing at the time.
% Ne! Conservatism after '(')
Following the defeat of Napoleon in )+)A# European governments were driven y
a spirit of conservatism. 6onservatives elieved that estalished# traditional
institutions of state and society 8 like the monarchy# the 6hurch# social
hierarchies# property and the family 8 should e preserved. 9ost conservatives#
however# did not propose a return to the society of pre%revolutionary days.
Rather# they realised# from the changes initiated y Napoleon# that modernisation
could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy. "t could make
state power more effective and strong. ! modern army# an efficient ureaucracy#
a dynamic economy# the aolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the
autocratic monarchies of Europe.
The $ienna Congress
"n )+)A# representatives of the European powers 8 $ritain# Russia# 1russia and
!ustria 8 who had collectively defeated Napoleon# met at =ienna to draw up a
settlement for Europe. The 6ongress was hosted y the !ustrian 6hancellor
(uke 9etternich. The delegates drew up the Treaty of =ienna of )+)A with the
o&ect of undoing most of the changes that had come aout in Europe during the
Napoleonic wars. The $ouron dynasty# which had een deposed during the
French Revolution# was restored to power# and France lost the territories it had
annexed under Napoleon. ! series of states were set up on the oundaries of
France to prevent French expansion in future. Thus the kingdom of the
Netherlands# which included $elgium# was set up in the north and 0enoa was
added to 1iedmont in the south. 1russia was given important new territories on
its western frontiers# while !ustria was given control of northern "taly. $ut the
0erman confederation of @, states that had een set up y Napoleon was left
untouched. "n the east# Russia was given part of 1oland while 1russia was given
a portion of Saxony. The main intention was to restore the monarchies that had
een overthrown y Napoleon# and create a new conservative order in Europe.
6onservative regimes set up in )+)A were autocratic. They did not tolerate
criticism and dissent# and sought to cur activities that /uestioned the legitimacy
of autocratic governments. 9ost of them imposed censorship laws to control
what was said in newspapers# ooks# plays and songs and reflected the ideas of
lierty and freedom associated with the French Revolution.
The memory of the French Revolution nonetheless continued to inspire lierals.
;ne of the ma&or issues taken up y the lieral%nationalists# who criticised the
new conservative order# was freedom of the press.
The Revolutionaries
(uring the years following )+)A# the fear of repression drove many lieral%
nationalists underground. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to
train revolutionaries and spread their ideas. To e revolutionary at this time
meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had een estalished
after the =ienna 6ongress# and to fight for lierty and freedom. 9ost of these
revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation%states as a necessary part of this
struggle for freedom.
;ne such individual was the "talian revolutionary 0iuseppe 9a''ini. $orn in
0enoa in )+5*# he ecame a memer of the secret society of the 6aronari. !s a
young man of C7# he was sent into exile in )+@) for attempting a revolution in
<iguria. 4e suse/uently founded two more underground societies# first# ?oung
"taly in 9arseilles# and then# ?oung Europe in $erne# whose memers were like%
minded young men from 1oland# France# "taly and the 0erman states. 9a''ini
elieved that
0od had intended nations to e the natural units of mankind. So "taly could not
continue to e a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. "t had to e forged into
a single unified repulic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone
could e the asis of "talian lierty. Following his model# secret societies were set
up in 0ermany# France# Swit'erland and 1oland. 9a''inis relentless opposition
to monarchy and his vision of democratic repulics frightened the conservatives.
9etternich descried him as :the most dangerous enemy of our social order.
The %ge of Revolutions: '(*+,'(-(
!s conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power# lieralism and
nationalism came to e increasingly associated with revolution in many regions
of Europe such as the "talian and 0erman states# the provinces of the ;ttoman
Empire# "reland and 1oland. These revolutions were led y the lieral%nationalists
elonging to the educated middle%class elite# among whom were professors#
schoolteachers# clerks and memers of the commercial middle classes. The first
upheaval took place in France in 3uly )+@5. The $ouron kings who had een
restored to power during the conservative reaction after )+)A# were now
overthrown y lieral revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with
<ouis 1hilippe at its head.
.ree& /ar of Independence
!n event that moilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across
Europe was the 0reek war of independence. 0reece had een part of the
;ttoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary
nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the
0reeks which egan in )+C). Nationalists in 0reece got support from other
0reeks living in exile and also from many 2est Europeans who had sympathies
for ancient 0reek culture. 1oets and artists lauded 0reece as the cradle of
European civilisation and moilised pulic opinion to support its struggle against
a 9uslim empire. The English poet <ord $yron organised funds and later went to
fight in the war# where he died of fever in )+C7. Finally# the Treaty of
6onstantinople of )+@C recognised 0reece as an independent nation.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
6ulture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation> art and poetry#
stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Romantic
artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and
focused instead on emotions# intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to
create a sense of a shared collective heritage# a common cultural past# as the
asis of a nation.
;ther Romantics such as the 0erman philosopher 3ohann 0ottfried 4erder
-)*77%)+5@. claimed that true 0erman culture was to e discovered among the
common people 8 das volk. "t was through folk songs# folk poetry and folk dances
that the true spirit of the nation -volksgeist. was popularised. So collecting and
recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the pro&ect of nation%
uilding.
The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not
&ust to recover an ancient national spirit# ut also to carry the modern nationalist
message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate. This was especially so in
the case of 1oland# which had een partitioned at the end of the eighteenth
century y the 0reat 1owers 8 Russia# 1russia and !ustria. Even though 1oland
no longer existed as an independent territory# national feelings were kept alive
through music and language. Darol Durpinski# for example# celerated the
national struggle through his operas and music# turning folk dances like the
polonaise and ma'urka into nationalist symols.
Role of "anguage
<anguage too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. !fter
Russian occupation# the 1olish language was forced out of schools and the
Russian language was imposed everywhere. "n )+@)# an armed reellion against
Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed. Following this# many
memers of the clergy in 1oland egan to use language as a weapon of national
resistance. 1olish was used for 6hurch gatherings and all religious instruction. !s
a result# a large numer of priests and ishops were put in &ail or sent to Sieria
y the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian.
The use of 1olish came to e seen as a symol of the struggle against Russian
dominance.
opular Revolt Caused #0 1unger2 1ardship
The )+@5s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. The first half of the
nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe. "n
most countries there were more seekers of &os than employment. 1opulation
from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums. Small
producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap
machine%made goods from England# where industriali'ation was more advanced
than on the continent. This was especially so in textile production# which was
carried out mainly in homes or small workshops and was only partly mechanised.
"n those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still en&oyed power# peasants
struggled under the urden of feudal dues and oligations. The rise of food
prices or a year of ad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.
The year )+7+ was one such year. Food shortages and widespread
unemployment rought the population of 1aris out on the roads. $arricades were
erected and <ouis 1hilippe was forced to flee. ! National !ssemly proclaimed a
Repulic# granted suffrage to all adult males aove C)# and guaranteed the right
to work. National workshops to provide employment were set up. Earlier# in )+7A#
weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw
material and gave them orders for finished textiles ut drastically reduced their
payments.
The Revolution of the "i#erals
1arallel to the revolts of the poor a revolution led y the educated middle classes
was also under way. Events of Feruary )+7+ in France had rought aout the
adication of the monarch and a repulic ased on universal male suffrage had
een proclaimed. "n other parts of Europe where independent nation%states did
not yet exist 8 such as 0ermany# "taly# 1oland# the !ustro%4ungarian Empire 8
men and women of the lieral middle classes comined their demands for
constitutionalism with national unification. They took advantage of the growing
popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation%state on
parliamentary principles 8 a constitution# freedom of the press and freedom of
association.
"n the 0erman regions a large numer of political associations came together in
the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all%0erman National !ssemly.
These associations had memers from middle%class professionals# usinessmen
and prosperous artisans ;n )+ 9ay )+7+# +@) elected representatives marched
in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened
in the 6hurch of St 1aul. They drafted a constitution for a 0erman nation to e
headed y a monarchy su&ect to a parliament. 2hen the deputies offered the
crown on these terms to Friedrich 2ilhelm "=# Ding of 1russia# he re&ected it and
&oined other monarchs to oppose the elected assemly. 2hile the opposition of
the aristocracy and military ecame stronger# the social asis of parliament
eroded. The parliament was dominated y the middle classes who resisted the
demands of workers and artisans and conse/uently lost their support. "n the end
troops were called in and the assemly was forced to disand.
/omen3s Status
The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within
the lieral movement# in which large numers of women had participated actively
over
Final Outcome
Though conservative forces were ale to suppress lieral movements in )+7+#
they could not restore the old order. 9onarchs were eginning to realise that the
cycles of revolution and repression could only e ended y granting concessions
to the lieral%nationalist revolutionaries. 4ence# in the years after )+7+# the
autocratic monarchies of 6entral and Eastern Europe egan to introduce the
changes that had already taken place in 2estern Europe efore )+)A. Thus
serfdom and onded laour were aolished oth in the 4asurg dominions and
in Russia. The 4asurg rulers granted more autonomy to the 4ungarians in
)+B*.
The Ma&ing of .erman0 and Ital0
!fter )+7+# nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with
democracy and revolution. Nationalist sentiments were often moilised y
conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over
Europe. This can e oserved in the process y which 0ermany and "taly came
to e unified as nation%states. Nationalist feelings were widespread among
middle%class 0ermans# who in )+7+ tried to unite the different regions of the
0erman confederation into a nation%state governed y an elected parliament.
This lieral initiative to nation%uilding was# however# repressed y the comined
forces of the monarchy and the military# supported y the large landowners
-called 3unkers. of 1russia. From then on# 1russia took on the leadership of the
movement for national unification. "ts chief minister# ;tto von $ismarck# was the
architect of this process carried out with the help of the 1russian army and
ureaucracy. Three wars over seven years 8 with !ustria# (enmark and France 8
ended in 1russian victory and completed the process of unification.
"n 3anuary )+*)# the 1russian king# 2illiam "# was proclaimed 0erman Emperor
in a ceremony held at =ersailles. The nation%uilding process in 0ermany had
demonstrated the dominance of 1russian state power. The new state placed a
strong emphasis on modernising the currency# anking# legal and &udicial
systems in 0ermany. 1russian measures and practices often ecame a model
for the rest of 0ermany.
Ital0 4nified
<ike 0ermany# "taly too had a long history of political fragmentation. "talians were
scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi%national 4asurg
Empire. (uring the middle of the nineteenth century# "taly was divided into seven
states# of which only one# Sardinia%1iedmont# was ruled y an "talian princely
house.
The north was under !ustrian 4asurgs# the centre was ruled y the 1ope and
the southern regions were under the domination of the $ouron kings of Spain.
Even the "talian language had not ac/uired one common form and still had many
regional and local variations.
(uring the )+@5s# 0iuseppe 9a''ini had sought to put together a coherent
programme for a unitary "talian Repulic. 4e had also formed a secret society
called ?oung "taly for the dissemination of his goals. The failure of revolutionary
uprisings oth in )+@) and )+7+ meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia%
1iedmont under its ruler Ding =ictor Emmanuel "" to unify the "talian states
through war. "n the eyes of the ruling elites of this region# a unified "taly offered
them the possiility of economic development and political dominance.
6hief 9inister 6avour who led the movement to unify the regions of "taly was
neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. <ike many other wealthy and educated
memers of the "talian elite# he spoke French much etter than he did "talian.
Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered y 6avour#
Sardinia%1iedmont succeeded in defeating the !ustrian forces in )+A,. !part
from regular troops# a large numer of armed volunteers under the leadership of
0iuseppe 0arialdi &oined the fray. "n )+B5# they marched into South "taly and
the Dingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the
local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers. "n )+B) =ictor Emmanuel
"" was proclaimed king of united "taly. 4owever# much of the "talian population#
among whom rates of illiteracy were very high# remained lissfully unaware of
lieral nationalist ideology.
The Strange Case of Britain
"n $ritain the formation of the nation%state was not the result of a sudden
upheaval or revolution. "t was the result of a long%drawn%out process. There was
no $ritish nation prior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the
people who inhaited the $ritish "sles were ethnic ones 8 such as English#
2elsh# Scot or "rish. !ll of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political
traditions. $ut as the English nation steadily grew in wealth# importance and
power# it was ale to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands.
The English parliament# which had sei'ed power from the monarchy in )B++# was
the instrument through which a nation%state# with England at its centre# came to
e forged.
The !ct of Enion -)*5*. etween England and Scotland that resulted in the
formation of the :Enited Dingdom of 0reat $ritain meant# in effect# that England
was ale to impose its influence on Scotland. The $ritish parliament was
henceforth dominated y its English memers. The growth of a $ritish identity
meant that Scotlands distinctive culture and political institutions were
systematically suppressed. The 6atholic clans that inhaited the Scottish
4ighlands suffered terrile repression whenever they attempted to assert their
independence. The Scottish 4ighlanders were foridden to speak their 0aelic
language or wear their national dress# and large numers were forcily driven out
of their homeland.
"reland suffered a similar fate. "t was a country deeply divided etween 6atholics
and 1rotestants. The English helped the 1rotestants of "reland to estalish their
dominance over a largely 6atholic country. 6atholic revolts against $ritish
dominance were suppressed. !fter a failed revolt led y 2olfe Tone and his
Enited "rishmen -)*,+.# "reland was forcily incorporated into the Enited
Dingdom in )+5).
! new :$ritish nation was forged through the propagation of a dominant English
culture. The symols of the new $ritain 8 the $ritish flag -Enion 3ack.# the
national anthem -0od Save ;ur Nole Ding.# the English language 8 were
actively promoted and the older nations survived only as suordinate partners in
this union.
$isualising the Nation
!rtists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out y
personifying a nation. "n other words they represented a country as if it were a
person. Nations were then portrayed as female figures. The female form that was
chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real lifeF
rather it sought to give the astract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is#
the female figure ecame an allegory of the nation.
Negative Effects of Nationalism
$y the last /uarter of the nineteenth century nationalism no longer retained its
idealistic lieral%democratic sentiment of the first half of the century# ut ecame
a narrow creed with limited ends. (uring this period nationalist groups ecame
increasingly intolerant of each other and ever ready to go to war. The ma&or
European powers# in turn# manipulated the nationalist aspirations of the su&ect
peoples in Europe to further their own imperialist aims.
The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after )+*) was the area
called the $alkans. The $alkans was a region of geographical and ethnic
variation comprising modern%day Romania# $ulgaria# !lania# 0reece#
9acedonia# 6roatia# $osnia%4er'egovina# Slovenia# Seria and 9ontenegro
whose inhaitants were roadly known as the Slavs. ! large part of the $alkans
was under the control of the ;ttoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of
romantic nationalism in the $alkans together with the disintegration of the
;ttoman Empire made this region very explosive. !ll through the nineteenth
century the ;ttoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself through
modernisation and internal reforms ut with very little success. ;ne y one# its
European su&ect nationalities roke away from its control and declared
independence. The $alkan peoples ased their claims for independence or
political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once een
independent ut had suse/uently een su&ugated y foreign powers. 4ence
the reellious nationalities in the $alkans thought of their struggles as attempts to
win ack their long%lost independence.
!s the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and
independence# the $alkan area ecame an area of intense conflict. The $alkan
states were fiercely &ealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory
at the expense of the others. 9atters were further complicated ecause the
$alkans also ecame the scene of ig power rivalry. (uring this period# there
was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well
as naval and military might. These rivalries were very evident in the way the
$alkan prolem unfolded. Each power 8 Russia# 0ermany# England# !ustro%
4ungary 8 was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the $alkans#
and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the
region and finally the First 2orld 2ar.
Effect on Rest of the /orld
Nationalism# aligned with imperialism# led Europe to disaster in ),)7. $ut
meanwhile# many countries in the world which had een colonised y the
European powers in the nineteenth century egan to oppose imperial
domination. The anti%imperial movements that developed everywhere were
nationalist# in the sense that they all struggled to form independent nation%states#
and were inspired y a sense of collective national unity# forged in confrontation
with imperialism. European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated# for
people everywhere developed their own specific variety of nationalism. $ut the
idea that societies should e organised into :nation%states came to e accepted
as natural and universal.