Vol.18, No.
9 September 1996
Continuing Education Article
FOCAL POINT
★ A program of behavior
modification requires from the
owner a considerable investment
of motivation, time, and
understanding.
KEY FACTS
■ Behavior modification can involve
avoidance and changing the
animal’s response to stimuli.
■ Acquisition of new behaviors
is facilitated by a continuous
reinforcement schedule.
■ Obedience classes teach
commands via a combination of
positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, and punishment
techniques.
■ Agility training teaches owners
how to apply learning principles
effectively by training dogs to
navigate obstacles.
Canine Behavior
Problems:
Behavior Modification,
Obedience, and Agility
Training*
Angell Memorial Animal Hospital Pet Behaviour Innovations
Boston, Massachusetts Toronto, Ontario
Amy Marder, VMD Pamela J. Reid, PhD
A
treatment program to correct canine behavior problems may include
components derived from three main areas: environmental manipula-
tion, physiologic intervention, and behavior modification.1 In general,
environmental manipulation is easily accomplished, even by inexperienced
owners. Physiologic intervention, by means of surgical procedures (e.g., castra-
tion) or drug therapy, also is easy to implement. Environmental manipulation
and physiologic intervention do not require much time, motivation, or under-
standing from the owner. In many cases, however, behavior modification is
necessary to realize long-term change in a dog’s behavior. Unlike environmen-
tal manipulation and physiologic intervention, a behavior modification pro-
gram does require considerable time, motivation, and understanding on the
part of the owner.
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Behavior modification involves the implementation of learning principles to
change a behavior. Most behavior modification programs rely heavily on posi-
tive reinforcement and on techniques that involve operant and classical condi-
tioning. Avoidance and actually changing the animal’s response to stimuli may
be involved. In treating a dominant-aggressive dog, for example, an owner
might be advised to first avoid provoking aggressive behavior. Avoidance pre-
vents the owner from being injured and averts aggressive encounters that might
*This article originally appeared in Voith VL, Borchelt PL: Readings in Companion Ani-
mal Behavior. Trenton, NJ, Veterinary Learning Systems, 1996, pp 56–61.
Small Animal
DO-IT-YOURSELF SIT–STAYa
by Amy Marder, VMD
This program is designed to teach dogs to sit and
stay and to make learning easy for owners and pets.
No punishment is used at the beginning—only
verbal praise and food.
First, a few basics are necessary. The best way to
teach a new behavior is by continuous reinforce-
ment. Every repetition should initially be rein-
forced with food. Because you cannot always have
food available, the food is paired with verbal
praise. This pairing of food with your voice makes
the latter a more powerful reinforcer. Eventually,
intermittent reinforcement is introduced and the
food treat is not offered every time. This ap-
proach makes the sit–stay behavior more perma-
nent.
You should select a food treat that your dog loves,
preferably something that is low in calories and can
be broken into little pieces. Beef jerky treats, boned
chicken, and cheese are reasonable choices. Some
dogs work for rice cakes.
The reward must be given immediately. Timing
is crucial. You should reinforce only desired behav-
ior. If reinforcement is delayed, the dog may bark;
at this point, the food rewards the bark rather than
the stay.
You must proceed in the exact order of the pro-
gram. The steps are designed to make learning very
easy. Dogs learn by being successful. If you proceed
too rapidly, your dog will make mistakes and both
of you will become frustrated. If the dog makes a
mistake (e.g., breaks the stay), you should sternly
say “no” or “uh-uh,” should not give the food re-
ward, and should reposition the pet in the sit mode
and repeat the task.
Sometimes your dog may become bored or refuse
to work regardless of what you do. On such days,
do not push yourself or your pet. Instead, end the
training session on a positive note with a few easy,
short stays (e.g., count 5) and try again tomorrow.
You should end each session by giving your dog
a release word. Most people just say “okay,” but
each owner can coin his or her own phrase. A food
The Sit–Stay Exercise
Owner Task Dog Completed
Count 1 ___________
Count 2 ___________
Count 3 ___________
Count 5 ___________
Count 7 ___________
The Compendium September 1996
reward should not be given when the dog is re-
leased, as doing so trains the pet to stand up.
Daily practice is important. It is best if every per-
son in the household practices with the dog. Each
session need only last 10 minutes.
You should teach the sit–stay command first in
the house and then outside, in a fenced yard. If the
yard is not fenced, the dog can be tied to a long
lead for outside practice.
When rewarding the dog, offer only verbal praise
and food. It may be hard for you to resist petting
the animal, but petting can be very distracting and
should be avoided at first.
Teaching the “sit” command involves prompting
and fading techniques and positive primary and
secondary reinforcement. Place the food in one
closed fist and pass your hand over the end of the
dog’s nose, over its head, and toward its rear as
you say the word “sit.” Usually, when the dog’s
head goes up, the rear end goes down. When the
dog’s rear hits the ground, praise the dog
immediately and give the food reward. Repeat this
exercise 20 times, and then omit passing your
hand over the dog’s head. Instead, now use the
“sit” hand signal (an open hand held horizontally
and raised). Repeat this exercise 20 times, giving a
food reward each time. After your dog
understands the “sit” command, you can start
teaching the pet to stay.
Teaching the “sit–stay” command involves
prompting. Begin with your dog in the sit position.
Hide a handful of food tidbits in one hand (do
not dangle the food in front of the dog; keep it
hidden). With your other hand, give the stay signal
(an open hand with the palm toward the dog)
while saying “stay.” Praise the dog as soon as it
completes the task successfully (e.g., after count
one or after taking one step); you can say “good
dog,” “good boy,” “good girl,” or whatever words
of praise you prefer. Then, with the hand you used
for signaling, offer the pet a food reward. Keep
your dog in the sitting position.
Number of Times Performed
___________
___________
___________
___________
___________
The Compendium September 1996 Small Animal

DO-IT-YOURSELF SIT–STAY (continued)

Owner Task Dog Completed Number of Times Performed
Count 10 ___________ ___________
Count 15 ___________ ___________
Count 20 ___________ ___________

Now you are ready to do some dancing!

One step left and return ___________ ___________
One step right and return ___________ ___________
One step back and return ___________ ___________
Two steps left and return ___________ ___________
Two steps right and return ___________ ___________
Two steps back and return ___________ ___________
Three steps left and return ___________ ___________
Three steps right and return ___________ ___________
Three steps back and return ___________ ___________
Count 10 ___________ ___________
Two steps right, count 10 ___________ ___________
Two steps left, count 10 ___________ ___________
Two steps back, count 10 ___________ ___________
Five steps right and return ___________ ___________
Five steps left and return ___________ ___________
Five steps back and return ___________ ___________
One step back, about-face, return ___________ ___________
Two steps back, about-face, return ___________ ___________
Three steps back, about-face, return ___________ ___________
Count 20 ___________ ___________
Ten steps right and return ___________ ___________
Ten steps left and return ___________ ___________
Ten steps back and return ___________ ___________
Count 10 ___________ ___________

a
Modified version of Do-It-Yourself Sit–Stay Program, developed by Victoria Voith, DVM, PhD. Copyright ©
1977 by Victoria Voith.

cause the dog to assert a dominant position over the
owner.2 Physical punishment is usually avoided in these
cases because it might cause a dog to become more ag-
gressive and potentially dangerous.
The behavior modification program for a dominant-
aggressive dog also might include conditioning it to as-
sume positive reactions and nonaggressive behavior in
specific situations that could otherwise elicit aggressive
responses. If the dog displays aggressive behavior dur-
ing grooming, for example, the owner can first teach
the dog to sit or stand and stay for food treats. Groom-
ing implements then can be introduced gradually (de-
sensitization). The dog receives treats for tolerating first
the sight and then the use of the implements (counter-
conditioning). A soft brush might be used initially; af-
ter the dog tolerates being groomed with this brush,
firmer brushes can be introduced. The dog should re-
ceive a treat during each stroke of grooming and as a
reward after the stroke.
Although behavior modification may be the most
important part of a treatment program, it is often the
most difficult for owners to implement. Most programs
are time-consuming and require an owner to under-
stand some simple learning principles. Many owners
abandon the behavior modification program early; oth-
ers fail to initiate a program. Wanting a quick fix, own-
ers may change the environment, give a drug, or avoid
confronting problem behaviors but actually do little to

DOMINANT POSITION ■ NONAGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR ■ GROOMING IMPLEMENTS

Small Animal The Compendium September 1996

change the pet’s responses to sponse is rewarded. Acquisi-

stimuli that elicit the prob- tion is promoted when the
lem. Owners thus fail to un- interval between the re-
derstand the cause of the be- sponse and the reward is
havior problem and why the short (approximately 0.5
problem is continuing or be- seconds for most behaviors).
coming worse. By contrast, maintaining a
A dog that exhibits terri- behavior is best achieved via
torial aggression when hu- an intermittent reinforce-
mans enter the house can ment schedule; the response
be handled by avoiding the is reinforced irregularly. In-
problem or modifying the termittent reinforcement
behavior. An owner may schedules can involve inter-
avoid the problem by con- vals or ratios. In a ratio
fining the dog to the back- Figure 1—A dog practicing the sit–stay command. schedule, reinforcement fol-
yard every time a person vis- lows a certain number of
its. This method does not responses. In an interval
change the dog’s response at schedule, reinforcement fol-
the door; if the dog is subse- lows the first response that
quently allowed in the house occurs after a specific inter-
when humans enter, the ag- val has elapsed since the an-
gressive behavior is likely to imal was reinforced.
recur. It may even be more Schedules can be fixed
severe because territorial or variable. A fixed-ratio
aggression often becomes (FR) schedule provides rein-
worse with time. Long-term forcement after a specified
change will only result from number of responses has oc-
a program that modifies the curred (e.g., an FR 5 sched-
dog’s behavior toward hu- ule means reinforcement
mans who enter the house. occurs after every fifth re-
sponse). A fixed-interval
LEARNING PRINCIPLES Figure 2—Teaching a dog to go over a seesaw during agility (FI) schedule provides rein-
Professionals and owners training. forcement for the first re-
must understand some ele- sponse after a specified in-
mentary learning principles terval (in an FI 5 schedule,
to design or implement an effective behavior modifi- reinforcement occurs after a 5-second interval has
cation program. The following is a brief introduction elapsed since the previous reinforcement).
to frequently used behavior modification techniques. A variable-ratio (VR) schedule provides reinforce-
More detailed information and definitions of terms as- ment after a variable number of responses (in a VR 5
sociated with behavior modification are available in the schedule, on average, every fifth response is reinforced;
literature on learning theory.3,4 the actual number of responses before reinforcement
Positive reinforcement refers to application of a stimu- may vary). A variable-interval (VI) schedule provides
lus or event (a positive reinforcer) that follows an ani- reinforcement for the first response after a variable in-
mal’s response and increases the probability that the terval (in a VI 5 schedule, reinforcement occurs after
response will recur. Negative reinforcement refers to re- the first response following a variable interval; on aver-
moval of an unpleasant stimulus (a negative reinforcer) age, the interval is 5 seconds).
after an animal’s response; such reinforcement also in- All types of intermittent reinforcement schedules
creases the likelihood that the response will recur. Rein- produce stronger responses than do continuous rein-
forcers can be used to modify behaviors that already ex- forcement schedules. Likewise, variable schedules (VR
ist in an animal’s repertoire or to establish new and VI) produce higher rates of response than do fixed
behaviors. schedules (FR and FI). Behavioral histories usually
Acquisition of a new behavior is facilitated by a con- demonstrate that dogs with problem behaviors are on
tinuous reinforcement schedule in which every re- intermittent reinforcement schedules. For example, a

TERRITORIAL AGGRESSION ■ POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT ■ INTERVAL SCHEDULE

Small Animal The Compendium September 1996

dog that barks to be fed at begins to decrease in fre-

the table is probably operat- quency and eventually dis-
ing on a mixed variable- appears. After a behavior
interval and variable-ratio has been eliminated via ex-
schedule. The dog barks a tinction, it may reappear if
variable number of times the pet is not periodically
and for variable periods be- exposed to the stimulus.
fore the owner periodically This reappearance is re-
gives in and feeds it. ferred to as spontaneous
Intermittent reinforce- recovery.
ment schedules can be ef- Shaping is a procedure
fectively incorporated into that is commonly used to
behavior modification pro- establish new behaviors by
grams to change problem reinforcing successively
behaviors. Using food re- Figure 3—A border collie descending an A-frame. closer approximations to
wards, a continuous rein- the desired response. With
forcement schedule can be each successful increment,
implemented to teach a dog previous levels of the behav-
new, appropriate behavior ior are no longer reinforced.
(e.g., sitting when humans Prompting and fading
enter the home). Once the techniques also are useful
behavior has been estab- for teaching new behaviors.
lished, the dog can be A prompt is a stimulus that
switched to an intermittent manipulates the animal to
reinforcement schedule of perform the desired re-
rewards that maintain the sponse so that it can be re-
good behavior. inforced. The strength of
Extinction occurs when the prompt is gradually re-
reinforcement for behavior duced in intensity (faded)
is withdrawn and, as a con- until the animal performs
sequence, the animal stops Figure 4—A border collie weaving through poles. the behavior without being
the behavior. Many owners prompted. For example, a
are quick to use punishment dog can be taught not to
to eliminate undesirable take objects by using the
behavior; however, serious prompt of a sudden move-
drawbacks may be associated ment toward the dog’s face
with punishment. Extinc- with the hand that holds
tion can be used as an alter- the object. The command
native. “leave it” is given simultane-
Although extinction has ously. The dog is rewarded
some inherent problems, the with a treat when it moves
technique is generally well away from the training ob-
accepted if the owner is ject. The threatening move-
warned of what to expect. ment to the face is faded
Typically, when reinforce- over time, and the dog is
ment for a behavior is with- taught to stay away from
drawn, the frequency of the Figure 5—Teaching a dog to down–stay on a table during the training object (or
behavior increases dramati- agility training. “leave it”) and subsequent-
cally (an extinction burst). ly to stay away from other
The burst may be accompa- objects.
nied by the temporary appearance of displacement ac- Secondary reinforcers (second-order or conditioned
tivities and other behaviors. If the reinforcement con- reinforcers) are stimuli that have been associated with
tinues to be withheld, however, the unwanted behavior primary, or biologic, reinforcers and have assumed rein-

VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE ■ PROMPTING AND FADING TECHNIQUES

Small Animal
forcing properties as a result of this association. The
most common secondary reinforcer is verbal praise
(“good dog!”) because it is often paired with food treats
and petting. If it is impossible to deliver a primary rein-
forcer immediately after the pet’s response, a secondary
reinforcer can be used to reinforce the correct response
and signal the forthcoming delivery of a primary rein-
forcer. Periodic pairing of secondary and primary rein-
forcers is necessary to maintain the reinforcement prop-
erties of the secondary reinforcer.
Chaining is a procedure that relies on conditioned re-
inforcers to maintain a series of responses. Backward
chaining involves conditioning the final response in a
series first, conditioning the response that immediately
precedes it next, and so on. This process is continued
for the entire response series. The final response is al-
ways reinforced with a highly motivating primary rein-
forcer. Backward chaining can be used to teach a dog to
sit and stay when humans enter the house. First, the
dog is rewarded for sitting while being greeted by a visi-
tor; then the approach of the person is introduced, fol-
lowed by the person walking through the door. At each
stage, only the final response of sitting while being pet-
ted is reinforced with a powerful primary reinforcer.
Forward chaining involves working in the reverse or-
der: the first response is initially established, then the
second response, and so on. The last response in the
chain is reinforced with the primary reinforcer.
A behavior modification program will be easier, more
enjoyable, and more likely to be implemented if the
owner understands learning principles and if the pro-
gram design allows frequent rewards with small success-
es. The owner is also likely to view the dog more favor-
ably after working with it in pleasurable ways and
seeing frequent (even though small), positive changes.
The owner thus may be less likely to abandon the pro-
gram and the pet.
Dr. Victoria Voith has developed a do-it-yourself
sit–stay program (Figure 1) (see the box for a shortened
version). This autotutorial teaches an owner how to use
positive reinforcement and shaping techniques. The
program is easy and fosters immediate success for the
owner and the dog. After completing each step, the dog
is rewarded with a tidbit of food to maintain interest
and motivation. The program is repetitious to enable
the owner and dog to proceed with few or no mistakes.
As owners progress through the program, they feel
immediately successful and are usually eager to go fur-
ther. After they have finished the program, owners may
incorporate desensitization and counterconditioning
procedures. The stimuli that provoke problem behav-
iors (e.g., the doorbell ringing, the door being opened,
a person entering the house, and the person approach-
CHAINING ■ SIT–STAY PROGRAM ■ OBEDIENCE CLASSES
The Compendium September 1996
ing the dog) are gradually introduced. In each case, the
dog continues to sit or down–stay and receives food
treats (Figure 1). While the dog is in a nonaggressive
mood, it is exposed to stimuli that previously elicited an
aggressive response. The same program can be adapted
using stimuli that evoke fear or anxiety. A continuous
reinforcement schedule is applied first, followed by in-
termittent reinforcement to maintain behavior.
OBEDIENCE CLASSES
Before clinical animal behavior became a recognized
specialty, obedience classes were routinely recommend-
ed for dogs with behavior problems. Obedience classes,
especially puppy classes, probably help to prevent the
development of some behavior problems and help own-
ers to gain some control. Once a serious problem has
developed, however, routine obedience classes may do
little to change the behavior.5 Most classes use combi-
nations of positive reinforcement, negative reinforce-
ment, and punishment techniques to teach commands.
Many instructors continue to rely extensively on pun-
ishment and have minimal knowledge of the proper ap-
plication of positive reinforcement or learning princi-
ples. Classes thus may become unenjoyable for owners
and pets.6
The most common commands taught in obedience
classes are sit, down, stay, heel, and come. These com-
mands are rarely applied, however, in situations in
which behavior problems occur. For example, com-
manding a dog to down–stay for a long period may pre-
vent a dog from being destructive when an owner is
present but does not stop destruction when the owner
is absent (separation anxiety).
Similarly, obedience training is often recommended
(to prevent dogs from engaging in behaviors) without
addressing the underlying motivation for the behaviors.
For example, teaching a dog to stay might prevent a
fearful dog from biting visitors as they enter the house
(just as a gate would) but does nothing to reduce the
dog’s fear. By contrast, a good behavior modification
program teaches an owner how to control a dog via
commands and uses counterconditioning to change the
dog’s response to specific stimuli related to the prob-
lem.
AGILITY TRAINING
Agility training is a sport in which dogs are taught by
their owners to navigate obstacles. It teaches an owner
how to apply learning principles effectively and may
maintain an owner’s interest in the behavior modifica-
tion program. Typically, positive reinforcement, in the
form of food and play, is used in the training process.
Because dogs must be taught to negotiate the obstacles
The Compendium September 1996
gradually, owners can implement and then understand
the learning principles involved in most behavior modi-
fication programs.
Shaping, chaining, prompting, and fading are com-
monly used in agility training. For example, teaching
the seesaw (one of the most difficult obstacles) requires
the implementation of several principles. Because most
dogs are afraid to walk on narrow, unsteady surfaces,
this behavior must be shaped gradually. The dog is first
taught to walk on a narrow plank via positive reinforce-
ment. Next, the dog is introduced to a narrow inclined
plank, again with positive reinforcement. After it suc-
cessfully walks the inclined plank, the dog is taught to
walk up the plank until it tips and then to tip the plank
unassisted. Finally, by means of the forward chaining
technique, the dog is rewarded for walking up the see-
saw, tipping it, and walking off the seesaw after it
touches the ground (Figure 2).
Agility training also involves teaching a dog to run
through a tunnel, burrow through a fabric tunnel, walk
on a narrow elevated plank, climb and descend a 6-
foot-high A-frame (Figure 3), jump over and through
various obstacles, weave through poles in slalom fash-
ion (Figure 4), and down–stay briefly on a table (Figure
5). After the dog learns to maneuver each obstacle,
owner and dog walk or run through a course that com-
prises numerous obstacles. At this point, backward
chaining can be used. The dog is first rewarded for
completing one obstacle, then for completing two ob-
stacles, then for completing a series of three, and so on
until the dog can successfully complete approximately
20 obstacles between reinforcements. Most dogs and
owners enjoy running the course. The dog receives de-
liberate positive reinforcement from the owner as well
as self-reinforcement.
Agility training is a useful method of countercondi-
tioning various problems. The method can be helpful
in dogs that are aggressive toward other dogs, dogs that
are afraid of humans, and dominant-aggressive dogs
that resist being handled and manipulated. Agility
training also teaches dogs to pay attention to their own-
ers. Many owners cannot make their dogs pay attention
during obedience classes or when implementing a be-
Small Animal
havior modification program. During agility training,
dogs receive reinforcement only for following owner di-
rections on the course; paying attention thus becomes
easier.
CONCLUSION
Several owner–clients have attended obedience class-
es, implemented a behavior modification program, and
enrolled in agility training. In one case, the owner of a
dominant-aggressive wire-haired fox terrier (which had
bitten its owner twice, was aggressive toward dogs, and
was afraid of humans) implemented all three. The own-
er reported that the obedience classes and behavior
modification program helped resolve the dominance
aggression and that the agility training ameliorated the
aggression toward other dogs and the fear aggression
toward humans. The owner believed that the agility
tasks changed his relationship with his dog. Although
the pet continued to growl at the owner occasionally,
the owner no longer viewed the pet as a major behavior
problem but instead as a companion to enjoy.
About the Authors
Dr. Marder is affiliated with Angell Memorial Animal Hos-
pital in Boston, Massachusetts, and Dr. Reid is with Pet
Behaviour Innovations in Toronto, Ontario.
REFERENCES
1. Voith VL: Clinical animal behavior. California Vet 33(3):
21–25, 1979.
2. Voith VL: Aggressive behavior and dominance. Canine Pract
4:8–15, 1977.
3. Domjan M: The Principles of Learning and Behavior, ed 3.
Pacific Grove, CA, Brooks/Cole Publishing Co, 1993.
4. Schwartz B, Robbins SJ: The Psychology of Learning and Be-
havior, ed 4. New York, WW Norton & Co, 1995.
5. Voith VL, Wright JC, Danneman PJ: Is there a relationship
between canine behavior problems and spoiling activities, an-
thropomorphism, and obedience training? Appl Anim Behav
Sci 34:263–272, 1992.
6. Myles S: Trainers and chokers: How dog trainers affect be-
havior problems in dogs. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim
Pract 21:239–246, 1991.