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and the condition that this line touches the given curve
. be written in the form
(2)
(x!a)m +(y/b)"'=l
x'ja'+y'jb'=l
"':'+1 C08
( --
m )0 ,.~ I
=rt
",+1
Ex. 4. Prove that the reciprocal of the same curve 117. ,'. f. a circle
with centre at the pole is of the form in Ex. 3.
Theorem: If cp a,
"7, ~) =0 be the tangential equation of a
curve, the point equatt'on of its reciprocal polar with respect
to the imaginary circle :V I + y 2 + z· = 0 is
</>(:1', y, z)=0.
and consequently, </>(:v', y', z') =0, i.e., the locus of the point
(e', y' z') is the curve cp(.r, y, z)=O, which is the reciprocal
polar of the given curve.
Thus, if ?n be the degree of the tangential equation of a
curve, the degree of its reciprocal polar curve is also m. But
the degree of the tangen tial equation of a curve is equal to
:;. its class. *
II Salmon, Conics, § 321.
l8
l38 THEOll,Y OF PLANE CURVES
x'
aaf
:Il'
+y'
aaty' +z'
aajz' =nf(c'',,- y' z')-O (3)
and (2)
(3)
Ex. 1. Find the tangential equation of the cubic ,c' + y' + z" =0.
First Method :-
We have-
~: 'I : (=x' I : y" : z'!
and, also
~'"'+ 'Iy' + (z' = o.
.. ±H±'IH(~=O;
140 THEORY OJ!' PLANE CURVES
2 2 2. 2
Ex. 3. The tangential equation of x~ + y3 =a' z~ is found to be
({' + 1/')(' =a2~21/2.
•• 'C : y :z =~ t :g::~!,
Also,
where m is the degree of cp, since the line a', YJ', ")
touches the curve.
Z6(X3 +y3_zS)·=4ro3y'z".
x -y'z
3 =0.
For, eliminating (between the given eqnation and ~J) + '1 !I+ (z=O,
we obtain-
(iii) 27(t''12(+4(a~+O'=0.
Second proof:
At a cusp the moving point turns back along the tangent,
i.e., it chang-es its sense of motion in the direction of the
tangent. Therefore, in the reciprocal curve, the enveloping
line changes its direction of motion about its point of contact,
i.e., the line becomes stationary for a moment before the
sense of its motion is changed. Therefore it is an inflexional
tangent, and the point of contact corresponds to the cuspidal
tangent.
Thus we see that a cusp and an inflexional tangent are
stationary elements, while the node and the double tangent
are simply double elements. *
n(n-l)-!k
Combining this with the preceding' theorem, we obtain
the following :-
TI.,~ dl.'yn!1' <1' flu' reciprocal. polar of a curt» irrtl, 8 J1(1d(',~
128. ESYELOl'ES:
If the
equation of a curve involves a variable
pararneter, we obtain tL series of different curves by giving
different va-lues to the parameter. All these curves touch
a certain CUl'I'e, which is cn.lled the eucelope of the system,
19
"
1-1:(;
But .f , =i+ oJ
0 A OA+ etc.
.. I, =I= ~f .0A+etr,
/=0, and
(1)
l\' here a, b, c, ... are fn net.ions of ('/', ?/, c ), then the d-iscriminant,
of (1) e~uated to zero w ill gin the envelope.
If the curve f (./',y, z, >C) =0 passes through a tixed point
(x', y', z'), we have f (.v', y', z', >C) =0, and jf this equation is
solved for >C, there are found n values of >C, corresponding to
each of which there is a cur-ve of the system, and conse-
quently, 'Ib curves of the system pass through any point.
When, however, the point lies 011 the envelope, two of these
curves coincide.
E». 2, Tho equation uf the normul at allY point (ll cos 0, b sin 0) 011
the ellipse
,,~_...!!J...-=<t2_b2
is (1)
cos 8 sin 8
a,v see 0, tan 0 + by cosec O. cot 0=0, or, a,~ sin'O + by C083 0=0", (2)
whence
.
,
" ." t ...',' = .
.
-
(l)b)
-~
na"
af
aP- 1=0
af
tf!=
(fX i
I
I acp acpl
I aX ap-I
The envelope is obtained by eliminating A and iJ. between
the equations f=O, cp=O and tf!=0.
We may eliminate one of the parameters between the
given equations, and then obtain the envelope by the method
of the preceding article.
'.'" +--=1
Y
II. b
where a. + Ii = k, = COII~t(lIti.
Differentiating the above equations, we have
and 1+ a ~ =0.
aa '
Whence,
v'~, = + .,17,
((. - b
/1= lx.J;
--
,,/; +Y= ± ';;;y+ y.
and b + a' ab
aa = 0,
:. 4xy=ab=con.t.
The envelope il xY=const., i .e. a hyperbola.
i.e., when
AA' +2BA+C=O
l:
...
i.,:
Cayley,
B.enl'iehi,
Messenger
Proc, of the
Xl~, an d '.Im,", R. ,. Curves,
of Mathematics,
London
YolsLf
Math. Soe., Vol.
180 (").
and
Ir ,
XII. See
J. M. Hill,
ulso
tu«,
lil2 1'H~;On.Y Or-PT,AN~ CURVES
il.x'j+y2!b2=1
or, cleariug the radical, ,r' +u" tall' 8+2.1'1/ tau 8=0' + b' tan' 8
126. EVOLUTES:
.27ay' =4(x-2a)3
~-~=a'-b'
cos 8 sin 8
~o
154 THEORY or PLANg CURVES
((.
,V= (1+82)'
a(I+202)
293.1: + (1 + 392)y = --'---:9:---
Y • + 32
:3 ((.2 y- + 27'0,
512 3 ,?)= 0 •
0
(1)
(2)
~" +'YJ"=O.
Then
which give
n' b 2
~- + - 3 = (a'-b')'.
e 71
129. CAUSTICS:
DEFINITIO~ :
TN'+T'N=O
xsin6-ycos6=O (2)
The equation of the reflected ray is, therefore, by the
preceding' article,
( - 2 csm
. 8) + -acos6(l+2sint8)+1
X sin'6
-0
-y-
160 'l'HEORY OF PLANE CURVES
132. TANGENTIAL
EQUATION
OF THECAUSTIC:
acos20-cosO
'YJ=
sinO
(~-1)~-4a' = -4a2sin'0
1
~'+'YJ'= -.- (I-2a cas O+a')
sm'O
-a a
i.e., J= -- , :l;=2~1
20.+1
or, the Caustic meets the axis of.u in two points each of
which is a triple point.
1£, again, we put Xl +y' =0.', we obtain
{( 40."-1)0.' -20.,'1:-0.' P =0
which gives x=-a(I-2a')
and, therefore, y= f2a" .vI-al
y=+ .v4a'-:'i
- 20.
and the tangents perpendicular to the axis of x are
-20.
x=
-.
16~. THEORY OF Pf,ANE CURn;g
(4a:~+4y'_1)3 -27y' =0
which is a sextic.
We thus see that the Caustic by reflection of a circle is
a curve of order 6, has 4 nodes, 6 cusps (including the
circular points), etc. For detailed investigation-see
Prof. Cayley's paper on Caustics-CoH. Works, Vol. II,·
p.357. Also a Memoir by Rev. Hamnet Holditoh-c-Quarterly
Math. Journal, Vol. I (1857), pp. 93·111.
Ell). 1. If the incident rays are parallel, show that the caustic is an
epicycloid formed by the rolling of one circle upon another of twice its
radius.
E». 2. When the incident rays diverge from a point on the
circumference of the reH.ecting circle, show that the caustic curve is a
cantiQid, which is formed by the rolliug of ,t circle npon another of
equal radius.
EJJ. 3. Rays diverging from the focus of a parabola are reflected
from its evolute. Prove that the secondary caustic is a parabola.
E», 4. Rays parallel to the axis of yare reflected from the curve
y=e" show that the caustic is the curve
t.e., {3a'-I-~a.E)·-27a·(I-,v·)(I-a.·)' =0
The factor' (a.v- 1)' equated to zero shews that the caustic
touches the circle at the poiuts
1 1
..v=-,
Q
u=x- '/1_
'V a~
27a~-ISa'-1
.1:= Sa
Let the line be taken as the axis of y, and let the axis of
a; pass through the radiant po int P, so that P is the point
(-1,0).
Let cp and cp' be the angles of incidence and refraction
respectively.
Then, sin cp: sin CP'=p. (refractive index)
1
= Ie (say)
ksin.p
or, y- x-tall .p=0 (1)
-\1'1- k' sin·.p
where
From what has beeu said in § 129 we call easily form the
equation of the secondary caustic as follows ;-
The equation of the variable circle may be taken as
x"+(y-tan ¢)'-k'sec'¢=O
i.e.,
or,
=4r·p.·{(x-a)· + (y-f3)'}
If now the axis of ,v is taken to pass through the radiant
point, f3=0 and a=a (say), then the equation becomes-
respectively, and
Thus, the locus of (x, y), i.e., the secondary caustic is the
Oval of Descartes or the Cartesian," of which the two fixed
points are the foci. Therefore the Caustic by refraction of a
circle is the eoolute of a Cartesiun. Oval.
Em. 3. Rays diverging from the centre of a given circle are reo
fracted at a curve so that the refracted rays are all tangents to the
oircle. Find tbe equation to the refracting curve.
OYZ=ll'-OYY'=OTY'.
OZ OY'
(1)
OY - OT
a sin a 1
It
CDS
T---;J --~-
i.e., and
ill
Hence, e= x.----+ y .'
cp(X -,
ill' +y' x'
- y)
+yll
=0
,
(1)
n • •
(x<+y')-=> =(ax)n-=t + (by)';-::-; •
r= ±a sin 8cos 8.
Ex. 7. The negative pedal of an ellipse tv. ,'. t. a focus as pole is a
quartic having the circular lines as stationary tangents. (Balmon-
H. P. Curves, Ex. 3, p. 107.)
PQ=k=const.
:t: 0011
~+tI.il1 '=k+C! sin 8 COI ,.
rSOPTlC LOCI 173
In this case there are two different curves constituting the parallel
and these are not branches of the same curve.
E.,;. 2. In the case of a circle of radius /', the parallel becomes two
concentric circles, of radii I' ± k, and these are certainly different curves.
Ex. 3. To find the tangential equation of the parallel to
The tangential equation uf the ellipse is (I'e + b',,' =(', and con-
sequently, that of the parallel is-
constant. Show that their new f'nvelope i.q parallel to their old.
a
For all values of lit. the lin •• Y""I>'J· +-
174 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES
m2.v'-mv' +a=O.
and
(1)
(2)
If now 1I.=tan 8= -~/'l be the slope of the tangent drawn from any
point (w, V), we obtain from (2) the equation-
-2wy b'-Vl
'Ill, +tn.= as_x' m11n3= a:1-a:'
V4b'0I)' +4a'y'-4a'b'
.whence -tan "= w'+y'-u'-b'
,, .
! ;
ORTHOPTIC LOCI 17fi
Let P and P
be consecutive
points on th e
isoptic locus, and
PQ, PR aud P'Q'
P'R' be tangents
Q'
inclined at an
Q
angle a to each
other. Then, Q,P, R'
P', Rare eoncyclic,
since L QPR= L QP'R, and in the limit, the circle PQR
touches the locus of P.
It is clear then that if the tangents PQ and PR to a
curve are inclined at a constant angle and the normals at Q
and R meet at S, then PS is the normal to the isoptic locus.
* Dr. C. Taylor- U
Note of a Theory of Orthoptic and Isoptic
Locus," Proc, of the Royal Soc. London, Vol. 37 (1884), pp. 138·141.
..
CAI'Tb:~IAN BQliATIO:O;:
·n~lml +1=0,
The condition £01' this is that the eliminant of
a:=-.".
2
••• (2)
ORTHOPTIC LOCI 171
y'=4ax.
Now, the eliminant of (1) and (2) will give the required orthoptic
10CllS.
a sextic curve.
1
and
cf>(t')"
w-t'y+at" =0
-y-- 1
a(t" -1) t'
<f>'(t)=2at+2b
(3)
180 THEORY 0],' PLANE CURV.I!lS
E:e. 1. Find the orthoptic locus of the curve "" = u" cos m8.
The equation of the pedal is-
IH+l
)~
Q) cos a+y sin a=u { oos ~
m+ 1
8l
)
*