V Vol. 22, No.

5 May 2000

CE Refereed Peer Review

Evaluating and
FOCAL POINT Stabilizing the
★Ferrets have a number of
diseases that require prompt
recognition; familiarity with
Critical Ferret:
specific diagnostic and
therapeutic techniques is
Basic Diagnostic and
necessary to ensure adequate
critical care.
Therapeutic Techniques*
University of California, Davis Indianapolis Zoo, Indianapolis, Indiana
KEY FACTS Keith G. Benson, DVM Jan C. Ramer, DVM
■ Ferret phlebotomy is most easily University of Wisconsin
achieved using the jugular vein Joanne Paul-Murphy, DVM
or cranial vena cava.

■ Thoracic radiography is a crucial
diagnostic tool for evaluating
ferrets that are weak, coughing,
lethargic, and/or dyspneic.
■ The urethral opening of male
ferrets is located on the ventral
aspect of the penis several
millimeters proximal to the
glans.
ABSTRACT: Understanding the differences and similarities between ferrets and other domestic
carnivores facilitates rapid acquisition of diagnostics as well as administration of life-saving
measures. Restraint, phlebotomy, and tracheal wash techniques vary from those traditionally
used in small animal medicine. Interpretation of radiographs and diagnostic ultrasonography
requires familiarity with normal ferret anatomy. Furthermore, intravenous and intraosseous
catheterization, urethral catheterization, fluid therapy, and nutritional support all have ferret-
specific caveats; appreciation of these differences can ensure that ferrets receive high-quality
care in a timely fashion.

D
omestic ferrets represent a healthy portion of small animal patient loads.
■ When placing intravenous
Therefore, veterinarians must not only provide ferret owners with pre-
catheters, prepuncturing the
ventive care for their pets but also be able to deliver quality emergency
skin is often recommended.
care. This article describes some common diagnostic and therapeutic techniques
used in emergency medicine, with focus on how the methodologies are adapted
■ Intraosseous catheters in the
to the specific requirements of domestic ferrets.
tibia or femur are useful in
ferrets, particularly small animals
RESTRAINT
where intravenous access may
Most ferrets are amenable to simple, gentle, manual restraint. However, ferrets
be difficult to achieve.
that are highly mobile or fractious or are in pain may require special handling to
successfully restrain them. One technique involves grasping the ferret’s skin on
the scruff of its neck and lifting all four limbs off the table; most ferrets immedi-
*A companion article entitled “Evaluating and Stabilizing the Critical Ferret: Initial As-
sessment, Differential Diagnosis, and Diagnostic Plan” appeared in the March 2000 issue
(Vol. 22, No. 3) of Compendium.
Compendium May 2000 Small Animal/Exotics

TABLE I
Chemical Restraint Agents for Domestic Ferrets
Protocol Dose and Route of Administration
29
Acepromazine 0.1–0.3 mg/kg IM
Isoflurane 2% to 3% in O2 1 L/min, 3% to 3.5% in O2 induction, 0.5% to 2.5% in O2
maintenance
Ketamine 10–20 mg /kg8 IM, short duration; 30–60 mg/kg8 IM
Xylazine 1 mg/kg8 SC, IM
Ketamine–diazepam 10–20 mg/kg ketamine,1–2 mg/kg diazepam7 IM; 25–35 mg/kg ketamine, 2–3 mg/kg
diazepam30 IM
Ketamine–midazolam 20–30 mg/kg ketamine, 0.2 mg/kg midazolam IM
Ketamine–acepromazine 10–30 mg/kg ketamine, 0.05–0.3 mg/kg acepromazine29 SC, IM
Ketamine–xylazine 25 mg/kg ketamine, 2 mg/kg xylazine31 IM; 30 mg/kg ketamine, 0.3 mg/kg
xylazine31 IM
Ketamine–medetomidine 5 mg/kg ketamine, 0.08 mg/kg medetomidine32 IM
Tiletamine–zolazepam 12–22 mg/kg each33 IM

Reversal Agents
Yohimbine 0.5 mg/kg8 IM
Atipamazole 0.4 mg/kg32 IM
Naloxone 0.04–0.1 mg/kg8 SC, IM, IC

IC = intracardiac; IM = intramuscularly; O2 = oxygen; SC = subcutaneously.

ately cease struggling when held in this position. An-
other approach is to place the ferret in dorsal recum-
bency, using one hand to hold the scruff of its neck and
the other hand to hold its pelvic limbs and pelvis and
then straightening the ferret’s body. In addition to
physically restraining fractious ferrets, offering them a
small amount of preferred pet food (Prescription Diet®
a/d; Hill’s Pet Nutrition, Topeka, KS), Nutrical® (Evsco
Pharmaceuticals, Buena Vista, NJ), or chicken baby
food on a tongue depressor (held rostral to the nose)
often distracts the animal during certain procedures,
such as jugular or cranial vena caval venipuncture.
Various chemical restraint protocols (Table I) can
also be used for domestic ferrets. Isoflurane and a ket-
amine–benzodiazepine combination are the most com-
mon anesthetics used. Advantages of using sedation
must be weighed against the potential complications
that can occur in compromised patients. The rapid in-
duction, recovery, and controlled depth of anesthesia
make isoflurane an excellent choice for many critically
ill ferrets. Inhalation anesthetics should be administered
to ferrets using a nonrebreathing system. Because
isoflurane reduces the number of circulating erythro-
cytes via splenic sequestration in ferrets, this agent
should be used with caution in severely anemic ani-
mals.1–3 Isoflurane administration to domestic ferrets is
associated with substantial decreases in arterial blood
pressure. At 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration, the
mean arterial pressure of ferrets is less than 60 mm Hg.
Thus the degree of hypotension is dose related.4
DIAGNOSTICS
Phlebotomy
Because ferrets have small superficial vessels and
tough skin, phlebotomy becomes more challenging
than it is in other companion animals. In ferrets, phle-
botomy sites include the cephalic vein, lateral saphe-
nous vein, femoral vein, jugular vein, cranial vena cava,
and ventral tail artery.5–7 Small (0.1- to 0.3-ml) samples
of blood can be withdrawn from the cephalic or lateral
saphenous vein similar to the same procedure used in
dogs and cats. Small needles (25 to 30 gauge) and sy-
ringes (0.5 to 1.0 ml) are recommended for these sites.
Because withdrawing samples from the cephalic vein
likely precludes subsequent catheterization of the vessel,
veterinarians should consider whether the cephalic vein
may be needed to administer fluids or medication.
Withdrawing blood from the jugular vein is more com-
mon for larger sample volumes. The jugular vein has a
narrow diameter and is superficial. This vein can be
easily traversed when inserting a needle; thus bending it
at an angle of 20˚ to 30˚ can facilitate venipuncture.
Blood can also be collected from the cranial vena
cava; fractious ferrets may require general anesthesia. A
1-inch, 22-gauge needle on a 3- or 5-ml syringe should
be used to collect blood from this vessel. The ferret

CHEMICAL RESTRAINT ■ ISOFLURANE ■ BLOOD COLLECTION

Small Animal/Exotics
Figure 1B
Figure 1—(A) Lateral and
(B) ventrodorsal radio-
graphs showing the normal
ferret thorax.
should be restrained in
dorsal recumbency with
its neck extended. The
notch between the man-
ubrium and first rib should
be palpated—this is the
site of entry for the nee-
Figure 1A dle. The needle should
be angled approximately
10˚ from the horizontal plane and directed toward the
contralateral coxofemoral joint. Slight negative pressure
should be applied to the syringe and the needle ad-
vanced slowly until blood begins to flow. After the sam-
ple has been withdrawn, some veterinarians opt to ap-
ply direct pressure at the notch of the manubrium and
first rib.
Tracheal Wash
Because ferrets have a small-diameter trachea, the
transglottal approach should be used for tracheal wash-
es. Ferrets should be anesthetized and intubated using a
sterile 2.5- to 4-mm diameter endotracheal tube.8 A
sterile 3.5-Fr red rubber or polypropylene catheter
should be advanced through the endotracheal tube to
the level of the third to sixth intercostal space. From 2
to 3 ml of sterile 0.9% sodium chloride or lactated
Ringer’s solution should be injected into the catheter
and the fluid immediately withdrawn while the thorax
is coupaged. The sample should be submitted for cyto-
logic and microbiologic evaluations. If practitioners
suspect systemic mycosis, fungal cultures should be
specifically requested.
Radiography
Thoracic radiography is a crucial diagnostic tool for
evaluating ferrets that are weak, coughing, lethargic,
and/or dyspneic. The presence of thoracic effusions,
TRANSGLOTTAL APPROACH ■ CONTRAST STUDIES ■ ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY
Compendium May 2000
pulmonary edema,
pulmonary infil-
trates, and soft tis-
sue masses can be
determined from
standard radiograph-
ic views of the tho-
rax. The status, size,
and shape of the
heart, however, can
be difficult to evalu-
ate. The cardiac silhouette of ferrets is naturally globoid
(Figure 1) and thus cannot be scrutinized with the
same criteria used to judge canine and feline hearts.9 A
contrast esophagram may be helpful to confirm a diag-
nosis of megaesophagus.10
Abdominal radiography can identify accumulations
of fluid, organomegaly, space-occupying masses, and
gastrointestinal foreign bodies. The intestine of normal
ferrets should not contain intraluminal gas. Spleno-
megaly is a common, nonspecific finding in older fer-
rets because the splenic size gradually increases with
age. The causes of splenomegaly include neoplasia, ane-
mia, sepsis, chronic illness, and extramedullary hemato-
poiesis.11 Whereas 5% of ferrets with splenomegaly
have splenic disease, most have extramedullary hemato-
poiesis and/or congestion.12 Plain radiography and con-
trast studies of the urinary tract can help veterinarians
evaluate markedly enlarged prostates, cystic and ure-
thral calculi, cystic kidneys, and bladder cysts.13
Ultrasonography
Cardiac
Ferrets in cardiac failure require minimal restraint for
echocardiography. However, ferrets that are not in car-
diac failure may be too fractious for thorough evalua-
tion without anesthesia; isoflurane administered in oxy-
gen via facemask is a safe and effective restraint method.
Two-dimensional echocardiography should be used to
measure chamber size, wall thickness, and shortening
fraction and assess valvular function. Pleural effusions
and masses in the cranial mediastinum are best evaluat-
ed using thoracic ultrasound imaging. Echocardio-
graphic values for ferrets have been reported.12
Abdominal
Ferrets are excellent subjects for abdominal ultrasonog-
raphy because they usually can be manually restrained
for the procedure. Linear-array probes are ideal, and a
frequency of 7.5 MHz is recommended. The abdominal
cavity can be evaluated for effusion, size, and architecture
of the liver, spleen, adrenal glands, intestinal tract, re-
gional lymph nodes, reproductive tract (prostate in male
Compendium May 2000 Small Animal/Exotics

ferrets; ovaries, ovarian remnants, obtained, they may be han-

uterus in intact jills), and pan- dled and analyzed as they are
creas. The normal adrenal size in dogs and cats.
in ferrets is 2 to 3 mm wide × Veterinarians are cautioned
8 to 10 mm long.13 Color flow to avoid overzealous flushing
Doppler technology can be of IV or IO catheters with
used to detect impingement of heparinized saline. Studies in
an enlarged adrenal gland on humans have demonstrated
the vena cava by measuring an little benefit in flushing cathe-
increased velocity of blood ters with heparinized saline,
flow at that point. The normal and the potential for heparin
mesenteric lymph node mea- overdose in ferrets is substan-
sures 10 to 15.2 mm × 5.6 to Figure 2—Illustration depicting the correct placement of tial.20 We prefer to reserve hep-
9.6 mm.15 Ultrasonography- an intraosseous catheter in the femur of a ferret. arinized saline flushes for in-
guided biopsy or fine-needle stances where catheters are being
aspiration of the lymph nodes maintained without material
can be performed with the flowing through them for 6
same techniques as those used hours or more. If heparinized
in dogs and cats. saline is required for a hep-
arin lock, only the volume
THERAPEUTICS needed to fill the catheter it-
Intravenous self should be used. To avoid
Catheterization injecting heparin into the ani-
Because the skin of ferrets mal, this material should be
is tough, prepuncturing it us- withdrawn before anything is
ing a 20-gauge needle before administered by catheter.
the catheter is placed can pre- © 2000 R. Peterson
vent the catheter from be- Urethral Catheterization
coming crimped along the Figure 3—Illustration depicting urethral catheterization of of Male Ferrets
a male ferret.
stylet. All rubber connections Catheterization of male fer-
and injection ports should be rets has been described in the
covered with bandage material to prevent ferrets from literature.21 The distal aspect of the os penis should be
chewing and ingesting any rubber. hooked with the flexure curving dorsally. Because the ure-
Cephalic and saphenous catheters are well tolerated thral opening is proximal to the hooked end and laying on
by ferrets. Jugular catheters are not well tolerated by the ventral surface of the glans, it can be difficult to visual-
alert ferrets but have been used with success in de- ize (Figure 3). The use of magnifying loupes can thus be
pressed patients.1,8,16 If intravenous (IV) catheterization helpful during the procedure. The small size of the ure-
is difficult or impractical (e.g., in ferrets with hypoten- thral opening makes catheterization challenging, and a
sion, small ferrets), intraosseous (IO) catheterization of well-lubricated 22- or 24-gauge IVcatheter may be needed
the femur is a rapid, effective alternative.17 At the head to initially flush the urethra. Some male ferrets are large
of the femur, an area measuring 2 × 2 inches should be enough to allow passage of a 3.5-Fr red rubber catheter.
clipped and aseptically prepared. We prefer using a lo- The use of an IV catheter guide wire or sterile guitar string
cal anesthetic at the site and within the periosteum to within the lumen of the catheter facilitates passage around
minimize discomfort; however, general anesthesia may the ischial arch.16 Because the urethra of male ferrets is
be required. A small incision should be made using a long and acutely curved at the ischial arch, tomcat
No. 15 blade or 20-gauge needle. A 1.5-inch, 22-gauge catheters are not appropriate because the stiffness of the
spinal needle should then be advanced medial to the material may lead to mucosal damage. A soft, 3.0-Fr uri-
greater trochanter, in the trochanteric fossa, through nary catheter designed specifically for use in ferrets is also
the cortex, and into the medullary space (Figure 2). available (Cook Veterinary Products, Bloomington, IA).
Care must be taken not to pass through the greater Male ferrets with severe dehydration or hyperkalemia
trochanter and into the periosteal space along the distal require minimal restraint; generally, most ferrets must be
femur. This technique can be used to obtain bone mar- sedated or anesthetized to safely manipulate genital tissue.
row samples for analysis.18,19 After samples have been With the ferret in dorsal recumbency, the penis should be

TYPES OF CATHETERS ■ HEPARINIZED SALINE ■ MAGNIFYING LOUPES

Small Animal/Exotics
TABLE II
Analgesic Drugs for Ferrets
Drug Dose and Route of Administration
Aspirin 0.5–22 mg/kg30 PO
Buprenorphine 0.01–0.03 mg/kg1 SC, IM, IV; 0.01 mg/kg8 SC, IM
Butorphanol 0.1–0.25 mg/kg34 SC, IM, IV; 0.05–0.1 mg/kg8 SC, IM 0.9% sodium chloride
Carprofen 2.2 mg/kg every 12 hours PO
Fentanyl citrate 0.2 ml/kg8 IM
Phenylbutazone 100 mg/kg8 PO
IM = intramuscularly; IV = intravenously; PO = orally; SC = subcutaneously.
gently exposed by pushing against the base of the os penis
while retracting the prepuce. In male ferrets with urinary
calculi or urethrospasm, open-ended catheters are often
easier to pass than are catheters with side ports. The open
end allows retrograde flushing and distention of the ure-
thra. Administration of IV diazepam or addition of dilute
lidocaine to the flush may help relax the urethra. The
catheter should be advanced into the bladder. At this
point, practitioners can (1) collect a urine sample, (2)
flush the bladder with sterile isotonic fluid (e.g., lactated
Ringer’s solution, 0.9% sodium chloride), or (3) instill a
radiopaque contrast medium as part of a diagnostic
study.21 The catheter can be affixed by adding “tape
wings” to the catheter and suturing these to the abdomi-
nal skin just cranial to the prepuce. Closed drainage sys-
tems are preferred, but ferrets can easily tangle lines.
Fluid Therapy
Subcutaneous
Subcutaneous fluid administration is commonly used
and quite helpful. An effective method that can be ac-
complished by one staff member is to scruff the skin be-
tween the shoulder blades and deposit fluid using a but-
terfly catheter. Subcutaneous fluids are not indicated in
ferrets with severe dehydration or in shock and should be
reserved for ferrets with mild dehydration or for mainte-
nance after the hydration status has been normalized.
Intravenous and Intraosseous
The rate of fluid administration in ferrets is higher
than that administered to larger companion animals;
precise rates for ferrets have not been determined, but
75 to 100 ml/kg/day is commonly administered.16 Flu-
id deficits should be corrected within 24 to 36 hours.
Serum electrolyte levels should be monitored in pa-
tients receiving large volumes of fluids throughout the
course of therapy. Postobstructive diuresis should be
anticipated in male ferrets being treated for urethral ob-
struction. Careful monitoring of body weight, skin tur-
gor, urine output, and serum electrolytes is imperative.
FLUID DEFICITS ■ COLLOID ADMINISTRATION ■ PERCUTANEOUS GASTROSTOMY
Compendium May 2000
Fluid Composition
Isotonic crystalloid so-
lutions are the most
common fluids adminis-
tered to ferrets. Lactated
Ringer’s solution and
are acceptable choices for
volume expansion. Fer-
rets with hypoalbumine-
mia (serum albumin less
than 2.0) may benefit
from administration of
colloid solutions (e.g., hetastarch, dextrans). There are no
published guidelines for administering colloids to ferrets;
we recommend following guidelines developed for colloid
administration in cats. Hypoglycemic ferrets can benefit
from the addition of dextrose to these solutions, and
potassium supplementation in ferrets with hypokalemia
can be administered according to feline protocols.22
Nutritional Support
Critically ill ferrets are frequently anorectic. In most
ferrets, forced alimentation is possible with simple sy-
ringe feedings. Pureed ferret food, poultry baby foods, or
Prescription Diet® a/d (50 ml/kg/day23) are acceptable
and palatable to ferrets. Prescription Diet® a/d is soft
enough to be administered through a syringe. Percuta-
neous gastrostomy tubes can be used in ferrets as in other
carnivores.24 Ferrets may resist abdominal wraps; we have
found that using minimal bandaging material can lower
the animal’s distress level. Ferrets have a particular affini-
ty for chewing rubber items, including pezzer-type
catheters; thus care must be taken to protect the tube at
all times. We use a small circumferential wrap that is ap-
proximately 3 inches wide and find this approach superi-
or to applying a stockinet jacket or full abdominal wrap.
Analgesia
Several analgesics, including butorphanol and bu-
prenorphine (Table II), are appropriate for use in fer-
rets. The degree of sedation is lower with buprenor-
phine than with butorphanol. As with other species,
veterinarians should be careful with NSAID adminis-
tration in dehydrated patients and patients with preex-
isting gastric mucosal disease (e.g., helicobacteriosis),
coagulation disorders, or renal disease.
Thoracocentesis
In addition to being a diagnostic tool, thoracocente-
sis can be a useful therapeutic procedure. By reducing
the volume of pleural effusion, patients can ventilate a
larger portion of their lungs and thus improve ventila-
Compendium May 2000 Small Animal/Exotics

tion–perfusion matching and oxygenation of

venous blood. Fluid removed during thoraco- Protocol for Collecting Blood from Ferret Donors
centesis should be submitted for cytologic and
chemical evaluation, and cultures should be ■ Assemble materials: clippers, cotton balls soaked in
submitted if there is evidence of sepsis. The povidone–iodine solution and cotton balls soaked in
caudal placement of the heart in ferrets (be- alcohol; 22-gauge, 6-inch butterfly catheter; 12- or 20-ml
tween the sixth and eighth rib) must be con- syringe with 1 ml of acid citrate dextrose for every 6 ml
sidered when attempting this procedure. Fer-
of blood to be harvested.
rets should be lightly sedated or anesthetized
with isoflurane. The lateral thorax should be ■ Examine, weigh, and obtain a rectal temperature of the
clipped and aseptically prepared; a 21-gauge, donor, recording values on the donor record sheet.
1-inch butterfly catheter and 20-ml syringe ■ Sedate the donor with either 2% to 3% isoflurane in oxygen
with a three-way stopcock should be used. or 20 to 35 mg/kg intramuscular ketamine combined with
The catheter should be passed approximately 0.2 mg/kg intramuscular midazolam.
one third up the lateral thoracic wall from the
■ With the onset of sedation or anesthesia, apply sterile
sternum between the fourth and fifth or ninth
and tenth ribs. The procedure requires two lubricant to the donor’s eyes.
veterinary staff: one to direct the needle while ■ Clip and aseptically prepare the area around the donor’s
another manipulates the syringe and stopcock. manubrium and the ventral cervical area.
■ Place the butterfly catheter into the jugular vein or cranial
Blood Transfusions vein cava and slowly draw 5 to 7 ml/kg body weight into
Blood transfusions in ferrets have been de-
the syringe containing the acid citrate dextrose.
scribed in the literature.25 Transfusion should
be considered when a patient’s hematocrit has ■ Remove the catheter, apply 2 minutes of direct pressure
dropped precipitously to 15% or gradually to onto the site, and observe the donor’s recovery from
12%.16 Veterinarians may choose to transfuse a sedation/anesthesia.
ferret before the hematocrit reaches these lev- ■ Do not harvest whole blood from healthy ferrets more
els, depending on the patient’s clinical signs. often than every 21 days.
Ferrets that are dyspneic or weak may benefit
from additional erythrocytes, particularly if
blood loss has been acute and there has been insuffi- the PCV of ferrets.3 Blood should be administered by
cient time to compensate for reduced oxygen-carrying very slow bolus or using a syringe pump shortly after
capacity. Ferrets with coagulation disorders, jills with the blood has been harvested from the donor. Whole
hyperestrogenemia and secondary aplastic anemia, and blood should be passed through a filter to avoid inad-
ferrets with substantial intraoperative hemorrhage are vertently delivering thrombi to the patient. Although
examples of candidates for whole blood transfusion. transfusion reactions have not been reported in ferrets,
Ferrets lack distinct blood groups, thereby simplifying they should be monitored for hypotension, fever, ur-
selection of blood donors.26 Ferrets can safely donate ticaria, hemolysis, and emesis.22
5% to 7% of their blood volume (equivalent of 5 to 7
ml/kg body weight).25 Although there is no standard Endotracheal Intubation
recommendation for the volume of whole blood to be The small oral cavity and caudal placement of the glot-
delivered to ferrets, most authors suggest using canine tis in ferrets (Figure 4) make endotracheal intubation
or feline parameters.25,27 We recommend the following challenging. It is important for veterinarians to use a
formula (PCV = packed cell volume)22: small-blade laryngoscope, such as a 2.5- to 4-mm endo-
tracheal tube with stylet. The tongue should be manually
Blood Volume Donor (ml) = Blood Volume Recipient (ml) retracted in a rostral direction and ventrally deflected, us-
ing the laryngoscope to reveal the glottis. Because the os-
× Post PCV – Pre PCV tium generally cannot be visualized, the epiglottis should
Donor PCV be depressed using the tube to allow airway visualization.
If this approach is not possible, practitioners can occa-
Efficiency is important when collecting blood from sionally deflect the tube off the caudal aspect of the soft
ferret donors (see Protocol for Collecting Blood from palate, thereby positioning the tube down into the airway.
Ferret Donors) because isoflurane anesthesia can reduce To minimize laryngospasm, topical anesthetic agents can

BLOOD COLLECTION PROTOCOL ■ DONOR SELECTION ■ TRANSFUSION REACTIONS

Small Animal/Exotics
Figure 4—The normal ferret glottis.
be applied by swabbing the area using a cotton-tipped ap-
plicator saturated with 1% lidocaine solution or using
sterile lidocaine gel.1 Application of benzocaine-contain-
ing sprays has been associated with methemoglobinemia
in ferrets and thus is not recommended.28
Bandaging
Ferrets have short, flexible limbs that decrease in diam-
eter distally and offer few bony projections on which to
anchor bandaging. The use of stirrups and Elastikon®
(Johnson & Johnson, Arlington, TX), a highly adhesive
material, can be helpful. Elastikon® can be gently warmed
in a microwave to improve adhesive properties, making it
more difficult for ferrets to remove. Because most ban-
dage materials are too wide to be effective on ferrets, they
must be cut into narrow (5 to 10 mm) strips. Occasion-
ally, it may become necessary to lightly sedate a ferret to
prevent it from chewing the bandage.
SUMMARY
Critically ill ferrets present veterinarians with some
unique challenges because of their small body size and
conformation. By devoting attention to some species-
specific recommendations and requirements, veterinari-
ans can effectively treat ferrets requiring emergency
medicine.
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About the Authors
Dr. Benson is a resident in Zoological Medicine, School of
Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Cali-
fornia. Dr. Ramer is a staff veterinarian at the Indianapolis
Zoo, Indianapolis, Indiana. Dr. Paul-Murphy is the chief of
service of the Special Species Health Service at the
School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wisconsin.